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{{Short description|A form of intimate partner violence}}
{{Violence against women}}
'''[
== Causes and triggers ==
Domestic abuse can be triggered by pregnancy for a number of reasons. Pregnancy itself can be used a form of coercion and the phenomenon of preventing
Domestic violence can increase a woman's chances of becoming pregnant and the number of children she has, both because the woman may be coerced into sex and because she may be prevented from using birth control.<ref name=Krug2002>{{cite book
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|author2=World Health Organization
|title=World Report on Violence and Health
|url=
|
|year=2002
|publisher=World Health Organization
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==Birth control sabotage==
{{Main|Birth control sabotage|Forced pregnancy}}
[[Birth control sabotage]], or reproductive coercion, is a form of coercion where someone manipulates another person's use of birth control - weakening efforts to prevent an [[unwanted pregnancy]]. Replacing [[birth control pill]]s with fakes, puncturing [[condom]]s, and threats and violence are examples of prevention of an individual's attempt to avoid pregnancy. Pregnancy-promoting behavior of abusive male partners is one method of domestic violence and is associated with unwanted pregnancy, particularly in adolescents.<ref name="ReferenceA">Miller, Elizabeth, Decker, Michelle, Reed, Elizabeth, Male Partner Pregnancy-Promoting Behaviors and Adolescent Partner Violence: Findings from a Qualitative Study with Adolescent Females.</ref> Reproductive coercion itself is a form of domestic violence because it results from unwanted sexual activity and hinders a
Unintended pregnancies are
El-Zanaty F et al. Egypt demographic and health survey 1995. Calverton, MD, Macro International, 1996</ref> and one of the most common reasons given as a just cause for beatings is refusing a man sex.<ref>El-Zanaty F et al. Egypt demographic and health survey 1995. Calverton, MD, Macro International, 1996.</ref><ref>David F, Chin F. Economic and psychosocial influences of family planning on the lives of women in Western Visayas. Iloilo City, Central Philippines University and Family Health International, 1998.</ref> This affects the ability of women to protect themselves from unwanted sexual contact and the consequences of sexual intercourse, such as pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.<ref name="Violence by Intimate Partners">[
A study conducted by the Center for Impact Research on young mothers classified birth control sabotage into two categories: verbal and behavioral. Verbal sabotage is verbal or emotional pressure not to use birth control, or pressure to become pregnant. Behavioral sabotage is the use of force to prevent the use of birth control, or to have unprotected sexual intercourse.<ref name="impactresearch.org"/>
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==Effects==
There are many dangerous effects that violence during pregnancy can cause for both the mother and child. A violent pregnancy is considered high risk because verbal, emotional, and physical abuse all lead to adverse health consequences for both the mother and fetus.<ref>Johnson, J.K., F. Haider, K. Ellis, D.M. Hay, S.W. Lindow. "The prevalence of domestic violence in pregnant women." BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 110.3 (2003): 272-75. Web. 22 Mar 2011.</ref> Violence during pregnancy has been associated with [[miscarriage]], late [[prenatal care]], [[stillbirth]], [[preterm birth]], fetal injury (including bruising, broken and fractured bones, stab wounds<ref>Mezey, Gillian C., and Bewley Susan. "Domestic violence and pregnancy." BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 104.5 (1997): 528-531. Print.</ref> and low birth weight.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Violence during pregnancy also leads to additional risks for the mother such as increased [[psychiatric disorders of childbirth|mental health problems]], suicide attempts, worsening of chronic illness, injury, [[substance abuse]], anxiety, stress, chronic pain, and gynecological problems.<ref>[http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/ 0014/71240/MPS_GEM_ MDA_ new.pdf]{{dead link|date=December 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} WHO Europe. “Making Pregnancy Safer & Gender Maisntreaming: Response to domestic violence in pregnancy”</ref> Women battered during pregnancy were more frequently and severely beaten throughout the course of their relationship compared to women who were not abused during pregnancy.<ref name="Campbell, JC 1993"/> IPV also accounts for a large portion of maternal mortality. [[Homicide]] is the second leading cause of injury related deaths in pregnant and post-partum women in the United States<ref>American Journal of Public Health, March 2005</ref> and a study conducted in hospital in India found that 16% of all deaths during pregnancy were a result of partner violence.<ref>Too far, too little, too late: a community-based case–control study of maternal mortality in rural west Maharashtra, India. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 1998</ref> Studies have also found a correlation between domestic violence and increased use of [[abortion]].<ref>Amaro et al. “Violence during pregnancy and substance abuse.” Am J Public Health. May 1990. 575-9</ref> Pregnant abused women are less likely to report abuse or leave their abuser because of added financial and housing security concerns.<ref>[http://www.hawc.org/atf/cf/{CE32CB3730BB42828F80EDC059FE3ED6}/DV%20and%20Pregnancy%20Snapshot.pdf]{{dead link|date=December 2016|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} Houston Area Women’s Center. “Dangers of Domestic Violence during Pregnancy.</ref>
==Risk factors==
Certain women are more likely to be abused during pregnancy than others. Women who have been abused before getting pregnant are at higher risk of violence during pregnancy.<ref name="Bacchus, Loraine 2004">Bacchus, Loraine, Gill Mezey, Susan Bewley, and Alison Haworth. "Prevalence of domestic violence when midwives routinely enquire in pregnancy." BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 111.5 (2004): 441-45. Web. 22 Mar 2011</ref> Abuse is not restricted to a specific socio-economic or demographic group of women or to a specific period in a
In general, the rate of physical violence during pregnancy decreases as household income increases. Women whose total household income was less than $16,000 were much more likely to experience physical or sexual violence during pregnancy than women with a total household income over $16,000.<ref>N.C. Department of Health and Human Services. “Physical Violence: Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring system [www.schs.state.nc.us/SCHS/data/prams.cfm]</ref>
Partner violence in a relationship increases the chances of unintended pregnancy. A Canadian study that outlined causes of physical abuse identified “social instability” (e.g. low age, unmarried, lower level of education, and unemployment) as a trigger for violence and used unplanned pregnancies as an example. This suggests that partner violence can lead to increased unintended pregnancies which, in turn, increases physical abuse.<ref>Stewart DE, Ceccutti A. Physical abuse in pregnancy. Can Med Assoc J 1993;149: 1257–1263</ref> Younger women are statistically more susceptible to reproductive coercion and this may be
==Epidemiology==
A study done on reporting rates of domestic violence concluded that a
*United Kingdom prevalence: 3.4% <ref name="Bacchus, Loraine 2004"/>
*United States prevalence: 3.
* Ireland prevalence: 12.5%<ref>{{cite journal |
*Population studies from Canada, Chile, Egypt and Nicaragua:
Incidence rates are higher for teenagers.<ref>Parker B, McFarlane J, Soeken K, Torres S, Campbell D (1993). "Physical and emotional abuse in pregnancy: a comparison of adult and teenage women". Nurs Res 42 (3): 173–8</ref> The incidence rate for low-income
==See also==
{{columns-list|
*[[Abuse during childbirth]]
*[[Contraceptive security]]
*[[Effects of domestic violence on children]]
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==References==
{{
{{Domestic violence}}
{{Women's health}}
{{abuse}}
{{reproductive health}}
{{Pregnancy}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Domestic Violence}}
[[Category:
[[Category:Domestic violence| ]]▼
[[Category:Crimes against women]]
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