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Added explanation for k - t variation in Hawaiian phonology as a footnote to the table. Removed citation needed from the k -> ʔ per WP:BLUESKY, as the k -> ʔ change is one of the more noted features of Hawaiian and several related languages and can be found in the word "Hawaiʻi" *c.f. Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki. This sound change will inevitable be cited in the sources for this article, as well. →Consonants
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m →Monophthongs: Fix
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{{short description|Endangered Polynesian language of Hawaiʻi}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Hawaiian
| nativename = {{native name|haw|ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi|paren=omit}}
| state = [[Hawaiian Islands]]
| region = [[Hawaii
| ethnicity = [[Native Hawaiians]]
| speakers = Native: 2,000
2nd: 22,000–24,000<ref>https://www.hawaiistar.com/how-many-people-speak-hawaiian/</ref><ref>https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/2009-2013-lang-tables.html/</ref>
Used at Home: 18,000<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326511235_Digital_Realities_of_Indigenous_Language_Revitalization_A_Look_at_Hawaiian_Language_Technology_in_the_Modern_World</ref>
| date = 2007
| ref = e25
Line 15 ⟶ 17:
| fam5 = [[Eastern Polynesian languages|Eastern Polynesian]]
| fam6 = [[Marquesic languages|Marquesic]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]]
| ancestor2 = [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language|Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]]
| ancestor3 = [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]]
Line 33 ⟶ 35:
| glottorefname = Hawaiian
| dia1 = Standard Hawaiian
| dia2 = [[Niihau dialect|Niʻihau dialect]]
| dia3 = Other dialects
}}
'''Hawaiian''' (''{{lang|haw|{{okina}}Ōlelo Hawai{{okina}}i}}'', {{IPA-haw|ʔoːˈlɛlo həˈvɐjʔi|pron}})<ref>{{Hawaiian Dictionaries|{{Okina}}ōlelo|id=D15294}}</ref> is a [[Polynesian language]] and critically endangered language of the [[Austronesian language family]] that takes its name from [[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i]], the largest island in the tropical North Pacific [[archipelago]] where it developed. Hawaiian, along with [[English language|English]], is an official language of the [[Hawaii|US state of Hawaii]].<ref name="Article XV, Section 4">{{cite web |title=Article XV, Section 4 |url=https://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/hrscurrent/Vol01_Ch0001-0042F/05-Const/CONST_0015-0004.htm |website=Constitution of the State of Hawaiʻi |publisher=Hawaiʻi State Legislature |access-date=24 September 2018 |language=en |date=1978}}</ref> [[Kamehameha III|King Kamehameha III]] established the first Hawaiian-language [[constitution]] in 1839 and 1840.
In 1896, the [[Republic of Hawaii]] established English as the official language in schools.<ref name="Gutierrez 2022">{{cite web |last=Gutierrez |first=Ben |title=Lawmakers adopt resolution apologizing for ban on Hawaiian language in schools |website=www.hawaiinewsnow.com |date=2022-04-28 |url=https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2022/04/28/lawmakers-adopt-resolution-apologizing-ban-hawaiian-language-schools/ |access-date=2023-01-21}}</ref> The number of [[first language|native speakers]] of Hawaiian gradually decreased during the period from the 1830s to the 1950s. English essentially displaced Hawaiian on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to less than 0.1% of the statewide population. Linguists were unsure if Hawaiian and other [[endangered language]]s would survive.<ref>see e.g. {{Harvcol|Hinton|Hale|2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The 1897 Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii |date=15 August 2016 |url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hawaii-petition/ |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=January 2020|reason=Source does not mention linguists or Hawaiian language}}
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Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been a gradual increase in attention to and promotion of the language. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called [[Pūnana Leo]] were established in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after that. The first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. However, the language is still classified as critically endangered by UNESCO.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/index.php|title=UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger|website=unesco.org|language=en|access-date=2017-11-20}}</ref>
A [[creole language]], [[Hawaiian Pidgin]] (or Hawaii Creole English, HCE), is more commonly spoken in Hawai{{okina}}i than Hawaiian.<ref>{{cite news |title=Languages Spoken in Hawaii |url=https://exclusivehawaiirehab.com/blog/languages-spoken-in-hawaii/ |access-date=16 January 2022 |work=Exclusive Hawaii Rehab |date=3 December 2021}}</ref> Some linguists, as well as many locals, argue that Hawaiian Pidgin is a [[dialect]] of American English.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fishman|first=Joshua A.|date=1977|title="Standard" versus "Dialect" in Bilingual Education: An Old Problem in a New Context|journal=The Modern Language Journal|volume=61|issue=7|pages=315–325|doi=10.1111/j.1540-4781.1977.tb05146.x|issn=0026-7902}}</ref> Born from the increase of immigrants from Japan, China, Puerto Rico, Korea, Portugal, Spain and the Philippines, the pidgin creole language was a necessity in the plantations. Hawaiian and immigrant laborers as well as the
The [[Hawaiian alphabet]] has 13 letters: five vowels: a e i o u (each with a long pronunciation and a short one) and eight consonants: he ke la mu nu pi we [[ʻOkina|{{okina}}okina]] (a [[glottal stop]]).
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'''French''': Carte de l'OCÉAN PACIFIQUE au Nord de l'équateur, et des côtes qui le bornent des deux cotes: d'après les dernières découvertes faites par les Espagnols, les Russes et les Anglais jusqu'en 1780.<br/>'''German''': Charte des STILLEN WELTMEERS nördlichen des Äequators und der Küsten, die es auf beiden Seiten einschränken: Nach den neuesten, von der Spanier, Russen und Engländer bis 1780.<br/>'''English''' (translation): Chart of the PACIFIC OCEAN north of the Equator and the Coasts that bound it on both sides: according to the latest discoveries made by the Spaniards, Russians and English up to 1780.</ref> Explorers Mortimer (1791) and [[Otto von Kotzebue]] (1821) used that spelling.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=44, 459}}</ref>
The initial "O" in the name "Oh-Why-hee" is a reflection of the fact that Hawaiian predicates unique identity by using a [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] form, ''{{okina}}o'', immediately before a proper noun.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Carter|1996|pp=144, 174}}</ref> Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying ''{{lang|haw|{{okina}}O Hawai{{'okina}}i}}'', which means "[This] is Hawai{{okina}}i."<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Carter|1996|pp=187–188}}</ref> The Cook expedition also wrote "Otaheite" rather than "Tahiti
The spelling "why" in the name reflects the
Putting the parts together, ''O-why-(h)ee'' reflects {{IPA|[o-hwai-i]}}, a reasonable approximation of the native pronunciation, {{IPA|[ʔo həwɐiʔi]}}.
American missionaries bound for Hawai{{okina}}i used the phrases "Owhihe Language" and "Owhyhee language" in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and during their five-month voyage to Hawai{{okina}}i.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=304, 475}}</ref> They still used such phrases as late as March 1822.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=108–109}}</ref> However, by July 1823, they had begun using the phrase "Hawaiian Language
In Hawaiian, the language is called ''{{lang|haw|{{okina}}Ōlelo Hawai{{okina}}i}}'', since adjectives follow nouns.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Carter|1996|pp=3 ''Figure 1''}}</ref>
Line 64 ⟶ 66:
Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lyovin|1997|pp=257–258}}</ref> It is closely related to other [[Polynesian languages]], such as [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[Marquesan language|Marquesan]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], [[Māori language|Māori]], [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]] (the language of [[Easter Island]]) and [[Tongan language|Tongan]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Polynesian languages|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Polynesian-languages|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-06-02}}</ref>
According to Schütz (1994), the [[Culture of the Marquesas Islands|Marquesans]] colonized the archipelago in roughly 300
=== Mutual intelligibility ===
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[[File:Ka Lama Hawaii.gif|thumb|Headline from May 16, 1834, issue of newspaper published by [[Lorrin Andrews]] and students at [[Lahainaluna]] School]]
In 1834, the first Hawaiian-language newspapers were published by missionaries working with locals. The missionaries also played a significant role in publishing a vocabulary (1836)<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Andrews|1836}}</ref> grammar (1854)<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Elbert|1954}}</ref> and dictionary (1865)<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Andrews|1865}}</ref> of Hawaiian. The Hawaiian Bible was fully completed in 1839; by then, the Mission had such a wide-reaching school network that, when in 1840 it handed it over to the Hawaiian government, the Hawaiian Legislature mandated compulsory state-funded education for all children under 14 years of age, including girls, twelve years before any similar [[Compulsory education#United States|compulsory education]] law was enacted for the first time in any of the United States.<ref>Fernández Asensio (2019:
Literacy in Hawaiian was so widespread that in 1842 a law mandated that people born after 1819 had to be literate to be allowed to marry. In his ''Report to the Legislature'' for the year 1853 [[Richard Armstrong (Hawaii missionary)|Richard Armstrong]], the minister of Public Instruction, bragged that 75% of the adult population could read.<ref>Fernández Asensio (2019:15)</ref> Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881. Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that the language was "soon destined to extinction."<ref>quoted in {{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=269–270}}</ref>
When Hawaiian King [[Kalākaua|David Kalākaua]] took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him. When his wife, [[Queen Kapiolani|Queen Kapi{{okina}}olani]], and his sister, Princess (later Queen) [[Liliuokalani|Lili{{okina}}uokalani]], took a trip across North America and on to the British Islands, in 1887, Lili{{okina}}uokalani's composition
===Suppression of Hawaiian===
The decline of the Hawaiian language
{{blockquote|text=The English Language shall be the medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools, provided that where it is desired that another language shall be taught in addition to the English language, such instruction may be authorized by the Department, either by its rules, the curriculum of the school, or by direct order in any particular instance. Any schools that shall not conform to the provisions of this section shall not be recognized by the Department.|source=The Laws of Hawaii, Chapter 10, Section 123<ref name="Congress 1898 p. 1-PA23">{{cite book | last=Congress | first=United States. | title=Congressional Edition | publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office | issue=v. 3727 | year=1898 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSxHAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA23 | access-date=2017-07-20 | page=1–PA23}}</ref>}}
This law established English as the medium of instruction for the government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law did not make Hawaiian illegal (it was still commonly spoken at the time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home.<ref>{{Cite book|last=United States. Native Hawaiians Study Commission.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/10865978|title=Native Hawaiians Study Commission : report on the culture, needs, and concerns of native Hawaiians.|publisher=[U.S. Dept. of the Interior]|year=1983|pages=196/213|oclc=10865978}}</ref> Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language
[[File:Student nationality Hawaii 1890-1920.svg|thumb|National origin of students in the schools of Hawaii (
However, informal coercion to drop Hawaiian would not have worked by itself. Just as important was the fact that, in the same period, native Hawaiians were becoming a minority in their own land on account of the growing influx of foreign labourers and their children. Whereas in 1890 pure Hawaiian students made 56% of school enrollment, in 1900 their numbers were down to 32% and, in 1910, to 16.9%.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Reinecke, John E.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17917779|title=Language and dialect in Hawaii : a sociolinguistic history to 1935|year=1988 |orig-year= 1969|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|others=Tsuzaki, Stanley M.|isbn=0-8248-1209-3|location=Honolulu|pages=74–76|oclc=17917779}}</ref> At the same time, Hawaiians were very prone to intermarriage: the number of "Part-Hawaiian" students (i.e., children of mixed White-Hawaiian marriages) grew from 1573 in 1890 to 3718 in 1910.<ref name=":4" /> In such mixed households, the low prestige of Hawaiian led to the adoption of English as the family language. Moreover, Hawaiians lived mostly in the cities or scattered across the countryside, in direct contact with other ethnic groups and without any stronghold (with the exception of Niʻihau). Thus, even pure Hawaiian children would converse daily with their schoolmates of diverse mother tongues in English, which was now not just the teachers' language but also the common language needed for everyday communication among friends and neighbours out of school as well. In only a generation English (or rather Pidgin) would become the primary and dominant language of all children, despite the efforts of Hawaiian and immigrant parents to maintain their ancestral languages within the family.
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| date = 2004-05-30
| url = http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/05/30/hawaiian-language-preschools-garner-international-recognition-155079
}}</ref> The local [[National Public Radio]]
Today, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian, which was under 0.1% of the statewide population in 1997, has risen to 2,000, out of 24,000 total who are fluent in the language, according to the US 2011 census. On six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian has been largely displaced by English, but on [[Niʻihau|Ni{{okina}}ihau]], native speakers of Hawaiian have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively.<ref name="Lyovin 1997 258">{{Harvcoltxt|Lyovin|1997|pp=258}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=Meet the last native speakers of Hawaiian|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-07-28/last-native-speakers-hawaiian|access-date=10 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hawaiiindependent.net/story/niihau-family-makes-rare-public-address|title=Niʻihau family makes rare public address|last1=Ramones|first1=Ikaika|website=Hawaii Independent|access-date=10 May 2017}}</ref>
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The Hawaiian medium education system is a combination of charter, public, and private schools. K–6 schools operate under coordinated governance of the Department of Education and the charter school, while the pre-K–12 laboratory system is governed by the Department of Education, the [[ʻAha Pūnana Leo]], and the charter school. Over 80% of graduates from these laboratory schools attend college, some of which include Ivy-League schools.<ref>Kimura, L., Wilson, W. H., & Kamanä, K. (2003). Hawaiian: back from brink: ''Honolulu Advertiser''</ref> Hawaiian is now an authorized course in the Department of Education language curriculum, though not all schools offer the language.<ref name=":7" />
There are two kinds of Hawaiian-immersion medium schools: K–12 total Hawaiian-immersion schools, and grades 7–12 partial Hawaiian immersion schools, the later having some classes are taught in English and others are taught in Hawaiian.<ref>Wilson, W. H., & Kamanä, K. (2001). Mai loko mai o ka 'i'ini: Proceeding from a dream: The Aha Pûnana Leo connection in Hawaiian language revitalization. In L. Hinton & K. Hale (Eds.), ''The green book of language revitalization in practice'' (p. 147-177). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
=== Higher education ===
The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani [[College of Hawaiian Language]] is a college at the [[University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo|University of Hawaii at Hilo]] dedicated to providing courses and programs entirely in Hawaiian. It educates and provides training for teachers and school administrators of Hawaiian medium schools. It is the only college in the United States of America that offers a master's and doctorate's degree in an Indigenous language. Programs offered at The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani
Since 1921, the University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa and all of the University of Hawaiʻi Community Colleges also offer Hawaiian language courses to students for credit. The university now also offers free online courses not for credit, along with a few other websites and apps such as [[Duolingo]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kawaihuelani Center for Hawaiian Language {{!}}
==Orthography ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Hawaii]] -->
{{main|Hawaiian alphabet}}
Hawaiians had no written language prior to Western contact, except for [[petroglyph]] symbols.
The modern Hawaiian alphabet, ''ka pī{{okina}}āpā Hawai{{okina}}i'', is based on the [[Latin script]]. Hawaiian words end ''only''<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wight|2005|pp=x}}</ref> in vowels, and every consonant must be followed by a vowel. The Hawaiian alphabetical order has all of the vowels before the consonants,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=217, 223}}</ref> as in the following chart.
{| class="wikitable"
Line 216 ⟶ 218:
|-
![[Fricative]]
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA link|w}} ~ {{IPA link|v}}
|
|
Line 222 ⟶ 224:
|-
![[Sonorant]]
| {{IPA link|l}} ~ {{IPA link|ɾ}}
|
Line 265 ⟶ 266:
|}
Hawaiian has five pure vowels. The short vowels are {{IPA|/u, i, o, e, a/}}, and the long vowels, if they are considered separate phonemes rather than simply sequences of like vowels, are {{IPA|/uː, iː, oː, eː, aː/}}. When stressed, short {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/a/}} have been described as becoming {{IPAblink|ɛ}} and {{IPAblink|ɐ}}, while when unstressed they are {{IPAblink|e}} and {{IPAblink|ə}}
====Diphthongs====
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Short [[diphthong]]s
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |
!
|-
!
! {{IPA|/o/}}
! {{IPA|/e/}}
|-
! rowspan=4 {{vert header|Starting with...}}
|
|
|
|-
!
|
|
|-
! {{IPA|/e/}}
| {{IPA|eu}}
| {{IPA|ei}}
|
|
|-
!
|}
Line 306 ⟶ 310:
{|class="wikitable"
|+Long diphthongs
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |
!
|-
!
! {{IPA|/o/}}
! {{IPA|/e/}}
|-
! rowspan=3 {{vert header|Starting with...}}
! {{IPA|/o/}}
|
|
|
|-
!
|
|
|
|-
! {{IPA|/a/}}
| {{IPA|aːu}}
| {{IPA|aːi}}
| {{IPA|aːo}}
| {{IPA|aːe}}
|}
Line 340 ⟶ 347:
==Grammar==
{{Main|Hawaiian grammar}}
Hawaiian is an [[analytic language]] with [[verb–subject–object]] word order. While there is no use of [[inflection]] for verbs, in Hawaiian, like other [[Austronesian personal pronouns]],
Some examples of verb phrase patterns:<ref name=":0" />
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== Varieties and debates ==
There is a marked difference between varieties of the Hawaiian language spoken by most native Hawaiian elders and the Hawaiian Language taught in education, sometimes regarded as "University Hawaiian" or "College Hawaiian". "University Hawaiian" is often so different from the language spoken by elders that Native Hawaiian children may feel scared or ashamed to speak Hawaiian at home, limiting the language's domains to academia.<ref name=":5" /> Language varieties spoken by elders often includes [[Pidgin Hawaiian]], [[Hawaiian Pidgin]], Hawaiian-infused English, or another variety of Hawaiian that is much different from the "University Hawaiian" that was standardized and documented by colonists in the 19th century.<ref name=":6">Wong, L. (1999). Authenticity and the Revitalization of Hawaiian. ''Anthropology & Education Quarterly,'' ''30''(1),
The divide between "University Hawaiian" and varieties spoken by elders has created debate over which variety of Hawaiian should be considered "real" or "authentic", as neither "University Hawaiian" nor other varieties spoken by elders are free from foreign interference. Hawaiian cultural beliefs of divine intervention as the driving force of language formation expedites distrust in what might be seen as the mechanical nature of colonial linguistic paradigms of language and its role in the standardized variety of "University Hawaiian".<ref name=":6" /> Hawaiian's authenticity debate could have major implications for revitalization efforts as language attitudes and trends in existing language domains are both UNESCO factors in assessing a language's level of endangerment.<ref>Grenoble, Lenore A. (2012). Austin, Peter (ed.). "The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages". Cambridge University Press. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1017/cbo9780511975981.002. Retrieved 2020-12-08.</ref>
== Language learning resources ==
Hawaiian can be learnt on the online platforms of Duolingo and [[Memrise]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Croissant|first=Morgane |date=4 March 2022 |title=5 Languages on the Brink of Extinction That You Can Learn Online |url=https://matadornetwork.com/read/endangered-languages-learn-online/ |url-status=live |agency=Matador Network |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130170446/https://matadornetwork.com/read/endangered-languages-learn-online/ |archive-date=30 November 2023 |access-date=25 March 2024 |quote=Those who want to learn the endangered Hawaiian language have been able to do so for free on the Duolingo app since October 2018. As of March 2022, it is the language of choice for 586,000 Duolingo users. Hawaiian classes are also available on Memrise.}}</ref>
==See also==
Line 383 ⟶ 393:
{{Reflist}}
===Sources===
* {{Cite book
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFUsAAAAYAAJ
Line 398 ⟶ 409:
| publisher=University of Hawaiʻi|degree=Ph.D.
}}
* {{Cite journal
| journal=Hawaiian Historical Society Annual Reports |year=1954
Line 417 ⟶ 419:
| first2=Mary Kawena | last2=Pukui | author2-link=Mary Kawena Pukui
| title=Hawaiian Grammar|place=Honolulu|publisher=The University Press of Hawaii|year=1979 |isbn=0-8248-0494-5}}
* {{Cite book
| last1=Hinton | first1=Leanne | last2=Hale | first2=Kenneth
| year=2001
| title=The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice
| publisher=Academic Press}}
* {{Cite book <!--- This should be "Cite report" I think, but that doesn't support wikilinks. -->
| last=Kimura | first=Larry | first2=Pila | last2=Wilson
| year=1983 | chapter=Native Hawaiian Culture
| title=Native Hawaiian Study Commission Minority Report
| pages=173–203 |location=Washington
| publisher=[[United States Department of Interior]]
}}
* {{cite journal
| last=Kinney | first=Ruby Kawena | year=1956
| title=A Non-purist View of Morphomorphemic Variations in Hawaiian Speech
| journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society
| volume=65 | issue=3 | pages=282–286
| jstor=20703564
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Lyovin | first=Anatole V.
| title=An Introduction to the Languages of the World
| place=New York | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], Inc.
| year=1997 | isbn=0-19-508116-1}}
* {{cite thesis
| last=Newbrand | first=Helene L. | year=1951
|title=A Phonemic Analysis of Hawaiian|publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi]]|degree=M.A.}}
* {{cite book
| last1=Pukui | first1=Mary Kawena | author-link=Mary Kawena Pukui
| first2=Samuel H. | last2=Elbert
| title=Hawaiian Dictionary | place=Honolulu
| publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]]
| year=1986 |isbn=0-8248-0703-0}}
* {{cite book
| last=Schütz | first=Albert J.
| title=The Voices of Eden: A History of Hawaiian Language Studies
| place=Honolulu | publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press
| year=1994 | isbn=0-8248-1637-4 }}
* {{cite thesis|last=Warner|first=Sam L.|title=I Ola ka ʻŌlelo i nā Keiki: Ka ʻApo ʻia ʻana o ka ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi e nā Keiki ma ke Kula Kaiapuni. [That the Language Live through the Children: The Acquisition of the Hawaiian Language by the Children in the Immersion School.]|degree=Ph.D.|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi|year=1996|oclc=38455191}}
* {{cite book|title=Learn Hawaiian at Home|last=Wight|first=Kahikāhealani|publisher=[[Bess Press]]|year=2005|isbn=1-57306-245-6|oclc=76789116}}
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book
| last=Churchward | first=C. Maxwell | year=1959
| title=Tongan Dictionary|place=Tonga|publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|Government Printing Office]]
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TjVJtwAACAAJ
| ref=none}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Dyen | first=Isidore | author-link=Isidore Dyen
| year=1975 | chapter=A Lexicostatistical Classification of the Austronesian Languages |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/linguisticsubgro0000dyen/page/90/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration |title=Linguistic Subgrouping and Lexicostatistics
| publisher=Mouton |publication-place=The Hague |isbn=9789027930545 |oclc=569538071 |via=Internet Archive |series=Janua Linguarum
| ref=none
}} Reprinted: {{ISBN|9783110880830}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Fernández Asensio
| first = Rubèn
| year = 2014
| title = Language policies in the Kingdom of
| journal = Language Problems & Language Planning
| volume = 38
Line 431 ⟶ 486:
| url = https://benjamins.com/catalog/lplp.38.2.02fer
| language = en
| ref=none
}}
* {{cite journal
Line 445 ⟶ 501:
| url = https://www.linguapax.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/linguapax19-1-1.pdf
| language = en
| ref=none
}}
* {{cite journal | last=Li | first=Paul Jen-kuei | title=The Dispersal of the Formosan Aborigines in Taiwan | journal=Language and Linguistics | volume=2 | issue=1 | year=2001 | pages=271–278 | url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/publish/LL2.1-15-Li-supplement.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012031659/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/publish/LL2.1-15-Li-supplement.pdf | archive-date=2006-10-12 | ref=none}}
* {{cite book
| last=Li | first=Paul Jen-kuei
| title=Numerals in Formosan Languages
| publisher=Academia Sinica | place=Taipei
| year=2004}}* {{cite book
| last = Parker Jones
| first = ʻŌiwi
Line 499 ⟶ 528:
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 2010-02-09
| ref=none
}}
* {{cite journal
Line 513 ⟶ 543:
| url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/hawaiian/9F2B300BCF6EE97EA7E4437C5FCECB57
| language = en
| ref=none
}}
* {{cite book | last=Ramos | first=Teresita V. | title=Tagalog Dictionary | place=Honolulu | publisher=The University Press of Hawaii | year=1971 | isbn=0-87022-676-2 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/tagalogdictionar0000ramo }}* {{cite web |author=U.S. Census | url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/other/detailed-lang-tables.xls
| title=Table 1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006–2008
|date=April 2010
| work= American Community Survey Data on Language Use
| publisher=[[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]]
| location=Washington, DC, US |access-date=May 7, 2012 |format=MS-Excel Spreadsheet
| ref=none}}
* {{cite thesis|last=Wilson|first=William H.|title=The '''O''' and '''A''' Possessive Markers in Hawaiian|degree=M.A.|publisher= University of Hawaiʻi|year=1976|oclc=16326934 |ref=none}}
==External links==
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{{wikivoyage|Hawaiian phrasebook}}
{{Wikibooks|Hawaiian}}
* [
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061203064044/http://ulukau.org/english.php Ulukau – the Hawaiian electronic library], includes English to/from Hawaiian dictionary
* [
* [
* [http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/dual/orgs/keelikolani/ Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani, College of Hawaiian Language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516201741/http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/dual/orgs/keelikolani/ |date=2008-05-16 }}
* [http://ksdl.ksbe.edu/kulaiwi/ Kulaiwi] – learn Hawaiian through distance learning courses
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160124232335/http://www.traditionalhawaiian.com/ Traditional and Neo Hawaiian: The Emergence of a New Form of Hawaiian Language as a Result of Hawaiian Language Regeneration]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100531191931/http://www.mauimagazine.net/Maui-Magazine/May-June-2008/Hale-Pai/ "Hale Pa'i"] Article about Hawaiian language newspapers printed at [[Lahainaluna]] on [[Maui]]. ''[[Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine]]'' Vol.12 No.3 (May 2008).
* [
* [
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111228042423/http://www.language-archives.org/language/haw OLAC Resources in and about the Hawaiian language]
* [http://www.honolulumagazine.com/Honolulu-Magazine/March-2012/Best-of-Honolulu-2012/Best-of-Honolulu-2012-Services/"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522182149/http://www.honolulumagazine.com/Honolulu-Magazine/March-2012/Best-of-Honolulu-2012/Best-of-Honolulu-2012-Services/ |date=2016-05-22 }} Article about Hawaiian Dictionary resource on iPhone in Honolulu Magazine. (May 2012).
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