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[[File:Impacts of tourism.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Impacts of tourism]]
Tourism impacts tourist destinations in both positive and negative ways, encompassing economic, political, socio-cultural, environmental, and psychological dimensions.
'''Economic effects''': Increased tax revenue, personal income growth, enhanced The impacts of tourism , and the creation of additional employment opportunities.
'''Sociocultural impacts''': Interactions between people with differing cultural backgrounds, attitudes and behaviors, and relationships to material goods. Tourism can also have significant political impacts by influencing government policies and promoting diplomatic relations between countries.
'''Environmental impacts''':
*direct effects, including environmental damage, wildlife destruction, deforestation, water pollution;
*indirect effects, such as increased harvesting of natural resources to supply food, indirect air and water pollution (including from flights, transport and the manufacture of food and souvenirs for tourists).
'''Health effects''': Tourism also has positive and negative health outcomes for local people.<ref name=":6" /> The short-term negative impacts of tourism on residents' health are related to the density of tourist arrivals, the risk of disease transmission, road accidents, higher crime levels, as well as traffic congestion, crowding, and other stressful factors.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal|last1=Gursoy|first1=Dogan|last2=Ouyang|first2=Zhe|last3=Nunkoo|first3=Robin|last4=Wei|first4=Wei|date=2018-09-17|title=Residents' impact perceptions of and attitudes towards tourism development: a meta-analysis|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2018.1516589|journal=Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management|volume=28|issue=3|pages=306–333|doi=10.1080/19368623.2018.1516589|s2cid=149483878|issn=1936-8623}}</ref> In addition, residents can experience anxiety and depression related to their risk perceptions about mortality rates, food insecurity, contact with infected tourists, etc.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Yingfei|last2=Ma|first2=Zheng Feei|date=2020-08-20|title=Psychological responses and lifestyle changes among pregnant women with respect to the early stages of COVID-19 pandemic|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|volume=67|issue=4|pages=344–350|doi=10.1177/0020764020952116|pmid=32815434|pmc=8191160|issn=0020-7640|doi-access=free}}</ref> At the same time, there are positive long-term impacts of tourism on residents' health and well-being outcomes through improving healthcare access, positive emotions, novelty, and social interactions.
== Economic impacts ==
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In contrast, indirect economic impacts of tourism can be found in investment spending surrounding a tourism offering from private and governmental interests. This investment may not explicitly be related to tourism, but benefits the tourist and local [[Project stakeholder|stakeholders]] all the same.<ref name="Turner 2015" /> Indirect impacts of tourism are exemplified by the purchase and sale of intermediary items, like additional supplies for restaurants during the high tourism season, or widened sidewalks in busy downtown centres.<ref name="Muchapondwa 2013" /> Indirect economic impacts (the supply chain, investment, and government collective) account for 50.7 percent of the total GDP contribution from travel and tourism in 2014.<ref name="Turner 2015" />
Induced spending, which is the re-circulation of a tourist dollar within a community, is another way that tourism indirectly has an impact on a community.<ref name="Rollins et al">Rollins, R., Dearden, P. and Fennell, D. (2016). "Tourism, ecotourism and protected areas". In P. Dearden, R. Rollins and M. Needham (eds.), ''Parks and protected areas in Canada: Planning and management'' (4th ed) (pp. 391 – 425). Toronto: Oxford University Press</ref> For example, a foreign tourist injects money into the local economy when he spends a dollar on a souvenir made by a local at the tourism destination. That individual goes on to spend that dollar on lunch from a local vendor, and that vendor goes on to spend it locally.<ref name="Mason">{{cite book |last1=Mason |first1=Peter |url=http://www.mu.edu.et/iphc/images/liblary/Heritage/Heritage_Culture_and_Tourism/Tourism_Impacts_Planing__devet.pdf |title=Tourism Impacts, Planning and Management |date=2003 |publisher=Butter worth-Mannheim (Elsevier) |isbn=0-7506-5970X |location=Burlington MA |access-date=22 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="Wagner 1997">Wagner, J. E. (1997). "Estimating the economic impacts of tourism". ''Annals of Tourism Research'', 24(3), 592–608.</ref>
=== Positive and negative economic impacts of tourism ===
[[File:Mar-del-plata-playa.JPG|thumb|Crowded beach in [[Mar del Plata]] during summer]]
Tourism can economically impact the local people positively or negatively.<ref name="Rollins et al" /><ref name="Wagner 1997" />
;Positive impacts on residents and destination, as well as tourists themselves
* More jobs available
* Higher quality of life
*Increased income and wealth<ref name="Rollins et al" />
*Rebuilding and restoring historic sites and encouraging the revitalization of cultures.<ref name="Wyllie">Robert W. Wyllie. 2000. ''Tourism and Society; A guide to problems and issues''. Venture Publishing. State College, Pennsylvania. Chapters 01-03</ref>
*[[Heritage tourism]] focuses on local history or historical events that occurred in the area, and tends to promote education.<ref>Pigram, J. J. (1993). "Planning for Tourism in Rural Areas: Bridging the Policy Implementation Gap". ''Tourism Research: Critiques and Challenges. Routledge, London, 156–174.''</ref>
*The local economy is stimulated and diversified, goods are manufactured more locally, and new markets open for local business owners to expand to.<ref name="Rollins et al" />
;Negative impacts
Negative impacts are the effects, that are caused in most cases, at the tourist destination site with detrimental impacts to the social and cultural area, as well as the natural environment. As the population increases so do the impacts, [[resources]] become unsustainable and exhausted, the carrying capacity for tourists in a destination site may become depleted.<ref name="Nelson">J.G Nelson, R. Butler, G. Wall. (1999). "Tourism and Sustainable Development; A Civic Approach". ''Heritage Resource Centre Joint Publication'', Number 2. ''University of Waterloo and Department of Geography Publication Series'', Number 52. University of Waterloo</ref> Often, when negative impacts occur, it is too late to impose restrictions and [[regulations]]. Tourist destinations seem to discover that many of the negative impacts are found in the development stage of the tourism area life cycle (TALC).<ref name="Nelson" />▼
*The benefits are not universal nor guaranteed. While more employment may be available, tourism-related jobs are often seasonal and low-paying.<ref name="Rollins et al" /> Prices can fluctuate throughout the year. They rise in the high tourist season to take advantage of more tourist dollars, but have the side effect of pricing goods above the economic reach of local residents, effectively starving them out their homes.<ref name="Muchapondwa 2013" /><ref name="Rollins et al" />
*Damage to social and cultural area, as well as the natural environment.
Additionally, the economics of tourism have been shown to push out local tourism business owners in favour of strangers to the region.<ref name="Rollins et al" /><ref name="Mason" /><ref name="Wagner 1997" /> Foreign ownership creates leakage (revenues leaving the host community for another nation or multinational business) which strips away the opportunity for locals to make meaningful profits.<ref name="Rollins et al" /><ref name="Tyrrell">Tyrrell, T. J., & Johnston, R. J. (2006). "The Economic Impacts of Tourism: A Special Issue". ''Journal of Travel Research'', 45(1), 3–7.</ref> Foreign companies are also known to hire non-resident seasonal workers because they can pay those individuals lower wages, which further contributes to economic leakage. Tourism can raise property values near the tourism area, effectively pushing out locals and encouraging businesses to migrate inwards to encourage and take advantage of more tourist spending.<ref name="Rollins et al" />▼
▲
*Often, when negative impacts occur, it is too late to impose restrictions and [[regulations]]. Tourist destinations seem to discover that many of the negative impacts are found in the development stage of the tourism area life cycle (TALC).<ref name="Nelson" />
▲
=== Employment ===
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The [[World Travel and Tourism Council]] (WTTC) tourism satellite account (TSA) is a system of measurement recognized by the United Nations to define the extent of an economic sector that is not so easily defined as industries like [[forest industry|forestry]] or [[oil and gas industry|oil and gas]]<ref name="Tyrrell" /> Tourism does not fit neatly into a statistical model; because it is not so much dependent on the physical movement of products and services, as it is on the position of the consumer.<ref name="Tyrrell" /><ref name="Buhalis">Buhalis, D., & Costa, C. (2006). ''Tourism Management Dynamics: Trends, Management, and Tools''. Routledge.</ref> Therefore, TSAs were designed to standardize these many offerings for an international scale to facilitate better understanding of current tourism circumstances locally and abroad.<ref name="Tyrrell" /> The standardization includes concepts, classifications, and definitions, and is meant to enable researchers, industry professionals, and the average tourism business owner to view international comparisons.<ref name="Tyrrell" />
Before TSAs were widely implemented, a gap existed in the available knowledge about tourism as an economic driver for GDP, employment, investment, and industry consumption; indicators were primarily approximations and therefore lacking in scientific and analytical viewpoints.<ref name="Goeldner and Ritchie 2007" /><ref name="Tyrrell" /><ref name="Buhalis" /> This gap meant missed opportunities for development, as tourism stakeholders were unable to understand where they might be able to better establish themselves in the tourism economy. For example, a TSA can measure tax revenues related to tourism, which is a key contributor to the level of enthusiasm any level of government might have towards potential tourism investment.<ref name="Tyrrell" /> In 2006 Tyrrell and Johnston published ''The Economic Impacts of Tourism: A Special Issue'' and claimed that stakeholders in tourism benefit from the TSA because it
* provides credible data on the impact of tourism and the associated employment
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== Sociocultural impacts ==
=== Commodification of culture ===
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On the other hand, some researchers argue that contact with the secular West leads to the destruction of pre-tourist cultures.<ref name=":0" /> In addition, the "development cure", the idea that increasing tourism will spur economic change while strengthening local culture, is claimed to lead to various social problems, such as [[drug abuse]], crime, pollution, prostitution, social instability, and growth of [[capitalist]] values and a [[consumer culture]].<ref name=":0" />
=== Demonstration effect ===
The [[demonstration effect]] was introduced to tourism when the researchers were looking into the effects of social influences from tourism on local communities. The demonstration effect argues that local inhabitants copy the behavioral patterns of tourists.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last=Fisher |first=David |year=2004 |title=The Demonstration Effect Revisited |journal=Annals of Tourism Research |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=428–446 |doi=10.1016/j.annals.2004.01.001}}</ref> There are a number of social, economic and [[behavior]]al reasons as to why the demonstration effect comes into play. One economic and social reason is that locals copy the consumption patterns of those higher up the social scale in order to improve their [[social status]].<ref name=":1" />
There are many criticisms of the demonstration effect in tourism. First, tourism is seen as only one aspect of change in society. Local people also see examples of foreign lifestyles and consumption in [[
▲There are many criticisms of the demonstration effect in tourism. First, tourism is seen as only one aspect of change in society. Local people also see examples of foreign lifestyles and consumption in [[Advertising|advertisements]], magazines, television, and films, and therefore tourism is not the only influence on local culture.<ref name=":1" /> In addition, the demonstration effect implies that a culture is "weak" and needs to be protected by outside influences. In many cases, the demonstrative effect is seen as a negative consequence, but it is argued that "all cultures are in a continual process of change", therefore tourism should not be considered destructive.<ref name=":1" />
=== Community participation ===
[[Public participation|Community participation]] refers to the collaboration between community members for the purposes of achieving common goals, improving their local community and pursuing individual benefits.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Jaafar |first1=Mastura |last2=Rasoolimanesh |first2=S Mostafa |last3=Ismail |first3=Safura |year=2017 |title=Perceived sociocultural impacts of tourism and community participation: A case study of Langkawi Island |journal=Tourism and Hospitality Research |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=123–134 |doi=10.1177/1467358415610373 |s2cid=157784805}}</ref> Local community members are actively involved in tourism, rather than passively benefiting from it. Community participation strengthens communities and help to create a sense of belonging, trust and credibility among members.<ref name=":2" /> By involving local community members, tourism can become more authentic. The community and the tourists both benefit from community participation, as it boosts their respect for the traditional lifestyle and values of the destination community. Most destination community members are also the ones most impacted by tourism, therefore there is an importance in their involvement in tourism planning. Some researchers will argue that some of the negative impacts of tourism might be avoided and the positive impacts maximized through community participation in the planning process.<ref name=":2" />
===Acculturation===
[[Acculturation]] is the process of modifying an existing culture through borrowing from the more dominant
Acculturation is often seen by tourists as a method of modernizing a community. One argument against modernization is that it contributes to the "homogenization of cultural differences and the decline of traditional societies".<ref name=":3" />
=== Positive socio-cultural impacts===▼
There are number of benefits for the host community as a result of tourism. This includes economic benefits such as opportunities for local businesses which allows for increased trade among the increased number of visitors and then develops a variety of local businesses. In addition, tourism also brings employment opportunities, enhances the economy of the region, and creates revenue for the local government. Tourists also use [[public service]]s, creating funding for public services, such as health, the police and the fire department, as well as increasing the demand for public transport. Other public facilities, such as parks and benches are also well kept by the community for the tourists, improving the overall [[aesthetics]] of the host community. On a more social level, tourism leads to intercultural interaction. Tourists often engage and learn from the locals. Tourism can also increase pride in locals. They want to show off their community that tourists have chosen to visit. The increase in people also leads to creating more social venues and experiences where locals and tourists can interact in. Entertainment and [[recreation]]al facilities will allow for more opportunity to socialize and engage with each other.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last1=Deery|first1=Margaret|last2=Jago|first2=Leo|last3=Fredline|first3=Liz|year=2012|title=Rethinking social impacts of tourism research: A new research agenda|journal=Tourism Management|volume=33|issue=1|pages=64–73|doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2011.01.026}}</ref> Tourism can be beneficial for the host community as it provides the financial means and the incentive to preserve cultural histories, [[local heritage]] sites, and customs. It stimulates interest in local crafts, traditional activities, songs, dance, and [[oral histories]]. It also opens up the community to the wider world, new ideas, new experiences, and new ways of thinking.<ref name="Ryan">Ryan, C. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OifwDs6PcM4C&pg=PR7 Recreational tourism: Demand and impacts] (Vol. 11). Channel View Publications.</ref>▼
▲=== Positive socio-cultural impacts ===
[[File:Siena Palazzo Pubblico 20030813-349.jpg|thumb|Façade of the Palazzo Pubblico in [[Siena]] during the [[Palio di Siena|Palio]] days]]
▲There are number of benefits for the host community as a result of tourism. This includes economic benefits such as opportunities for local businesses which allows for increased trade among the increased number of visitors and then develops a variety of local businesses. In addition, tourism also brings employment opportunities, enhances the economy of the region, and creates revenue for the local government. Tourists also use [[public service]]s, creating funding for public services, such as health, the police and the fire department, as well as increasing the demand for public transport. Other public facilities, such as parks and benches are also well kept by the community for the tourists, improving the overall [[aesthetics]] of the host community. On a more social level, tourism leads to intercultural interaction. Tourists often engage and learn from the locals. Tourism can also increase pride in locals. They want to show off their community that tourists have chosen to visit. The increase in people also leads to creating more social venues and experiences where locals and tourists can interact in. Entertainment and [[recreation]]al facilities will allow for more opportunity to socialize and engage with each other.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Deery |first1=Margaret |last2=Jago |first2=Leo |last3=Fredline |first3=Liz |year=2012 |title=Rethinking social impacts of tourism research: A new research agenda |journal=Tourism Management |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=64–73 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2011.01.026}}
Tourism can be beneficial for the host community as it provides the financial means and the incentive to preserve cultural histories, [[local heritage]] sites, and customs. It stimulates interest in local crafts, traditional activities, songs, dance, and [[oral histories]]. It also opens up the community to the wider world, new ideas, new experiences, and new ways of thinking.<ref name="Ryan">Ryan, C. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OifwDs6PcM4C&pg=PR7 Recreational tourism: Demand and impacts] (Vol. 11) Channel View Publications</ref>
=== Negative socio-cultural impacts ===
Cultural interactions can have negative effects.<ref>Long, V. H. (1999). "Techniques for socially [[sustainable tourism]] development: lessons from Mexico". ''Department of Geography Publication Series'', University of Waterloo, 52, 193–212.</ref> In terms of economic disadvantages, local communities need to be able to fund the tourist demands, which leads to an increase of taxes. The overall price of living increases in tourist destinations in terms of rent and rates, as well as property values going up. This can be problematic for locals looking to buy property or others on a fixed income.<ref name=":4" />
Other negative sociocultural impacts are differences in social and moral values among the local host community and the visiting tourist. Outside of affecting the relationship between tourist and local, it can also cause friction between groups of the local population. In addition, it can cause drifts in the dynamics between the old and new generations. Tourism has also correlated to the rise of delinquent behaviors in local host communities. [[Crime rate]]s have been seen to rise with the increase of tourists. Crimes are typically those of rowdy behavior, alcohol and illegal [[Substance abuse|drug use]], and loud noise. In addition, [[gambling]] and [[prostitution]] may increase due to tourists looking for a "good time".<ref name=":4" /> Tourism has also caused more disruption in host communities. Crowding of locals and tourists may create a vibrant ambiance, it also causes frustration and leads to the withdrawal of local residents in many places. Increased tourists also results in increased traffic which can hinder daily life of the local residents.<ref name=":4" /> [[Culture shock]] may impact both tourists and their hosts.<ref>
{{cite book |last1=Pearce |first1=Philip L.
====
{{Main|Contraband}}
Tourism is
==== Tourism fatigue and anti-tourism sentiment ====
[[File:Trevi fountain with crowds.jpg|thumb|right|[[Overtourism]] at the [[Trevi Fountain]] in Rome]]
Excessive hordes of visitors (or of the wrong sort of visitors) can provoke backlashes from otherwise friendly hosts in popular destinations.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-BtAAAAMAAJ |title=CAF Seminar on Africa and Global Tourism Prospects to the Year 2020: Challenges and Opportunities |date=1998 |publisher=Organización Mundial del Turismo |isbn=978-92-844-0279-3 |series=World Tourism Organization seminar proceedings |page=124 |quote=Mauritius has not been affected by Tourism Fatigue, that is workers tired of smiling or serious environmental degradation. |access-date=20 December 2018}}</ref>▼
▲Excessive hordes of visitors (or of the wrong sort of visitors) can provoke backlashes from otherwise friendly hosts in popular destinations.<ref>{{cite book
The year 2017 seems to be a landmark for anti-tourism sentiment as "a new Spanish social movement against an economic development model based on mass tourism gained following high-profile attacks targeting foreign tourists and local business interests."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hughes |first=Neil |year=2018 |title='Tourists go home': anti-tourism industry protest in Barcelona |journal=Social Movement Studies |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=474 |doi=10.1080/14742837.2018.1468244 |s2cid=150033933}}</ref> Anti-tourism sentiment also seems to be linked to a clash of identity and people's individualism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCabe |first=Scott |year=2005 |title=Who is a tourist? |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240691277 |journal=Tourist Studies |volume=5 |pages=85–106 |doi=10.1177/1468797605062716 |s2cid=146597143}}</ref>
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=== Tourist activities ===
[[File:Turtle riding, Great Barrier Reef (7687773596).jpg|right|thumb|Turtle riding was a popular tourist activity in the 1920s and 1930s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://anmm.wordpress.com/2013/08/10/the-sport-of-turtle-riding-and-the-greatest-liar-on-earth/ |title=The sport of turtle riding 'the Greatest Liar on Earth' |
There are a range of impacts from hiking, trekking, and [[camping]] that directly affect the activity area. The most obvious is the erosion and compaction of [[trail]]s through daily use. With the presence of obstacles such as fallen trees or puddles, trails becomes widened or informal trails are created to bypass the obstacle.<ref>Marion, J.L. (1998). "Recreation Ecology Research Findings: Implications for Wilderness and Park Managers"
As many hikers and trekkers take multi-day trips, a large number will camp overnight either in formal or random [[campsite]]s. There are similar impacts on campsites, such as soil compaction, erosion and composition, loss of vegetation and foliage, and the additional issues regarding [[campfires]]. Informal trails are created around the campsite in order to collect firewood and water, and trees and saplings can be trampled, damaged, or cut-down for fuel. The heat of campfires may damage tree-root systems.<ref>{{cite journal |
Certain [[invasive species]], such as the [[zebra mussel]], are spread through tourist activities, which can have a negative impact on local ecosystems. There are ways to decrease the spread of non-native species, such as taking care in removing seeds from shoes and pants after hiking or biking, thoroughly cleaning boats when moving between bodies of water, and creating designated pathway management plans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schaeffer |first1=S. M. |last2=Ziegler |first2=S. E. |last3=Belnap |first3=J. |last4=Evans |first4=R. D. |title=Effects of Bromus tectorum invasion on microbial carbon and nitrogen cycling in two adjacent undisturbed arid grassland communities
[[Wildlife viewing]], such as [[safari]]s in the savannas of [[East Africa]], can lead to changes in animal behavior. The presence of humans tends to increase the [[stress hormone]]s of wild animals.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2193/2006-015 |title=Stress Response of Working African Elephants to Transportation and Safari Adventures |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=1257–1260 |year=2007 |last1=Millspaugh |first1=Joshua J. |last2=Burke |first2=Tarryne |last3=Van Dyk |first3=GUS |last4=Slotow |first4=ROB |last5=Washburn |first5=Brian E. |last6=Woods |first6=Rami J. |s2cid=86562019 |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1721&context=icwdm_usdanwrc }}</ref> Additionally, [[baboons]] and [[hyenas]] have learnt to track tourist safari vehicles to lead them to [[cheetah]] kills, which they then steal.<ref>Roe, D., Leader-Williams, N., & Dalal-Clayton, D. B. (1997). "Take only photographs, leave only footprints: the environmental impacts of wildlife tourism", (No. 10). Iied.</ref>
There is a small but significant number of tourists who pay considerable sums of money in order to [[Trophy hunting|trophy hunt]] lions, [[rhino]], [[leopard]]s, and even [[giraffes]]. It has been argued that there is a positive and negative, direct and indirect, environmental impact caused by [[trophy hunting]]. There is a continued discussion at national and international government level as to the ethics of funding conservation efforts through hunting activities.<ref>Ripple, W. J., Newsome, T. M., & Kerley, G. I. (2016). "Does Trophy Hunting Support Biodiversity? A Response to Di Minin, et al.". ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution''
Another tourism destination activity is [[scuba diving]]. There are many negative direct environmental impacts caused by [[recreational diving]]. The most apparent is the damage caused by poorly skilled divers standing on the reef itself or by accidentally hitting the fragile coral with their fins. Studies have shown that naïve divers who engage in [[underwater photography]] are considerably more likely to accidentally damage the reef.<ref>Sorice, M. G., Oh, C. O., & Ditton, R. B. (2007). "Managing scuba divers to meet ecological goals for coral reef conservation". ''AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment'', 36(4), 316–322.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lloret |first1=Javier |last2=Marín |first2=Arnaldo |last3=Marín-Guirao |first3=Lázaro |last4=Francisca Carreño |first4=M. |title=An alternative approach for managing scuba diving in small marine protected areas |journal=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems |year=2006 |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=579–591 |doi=10.1002/aqc.734 |issn=1052-7613}}</ref> As the cost of underwater photography equipment has declined and its availability increased, it is inevitable that there will be an increase of direct damage to [[reefs]] by divers. Other direct impacts include over-fishing for "marine curios", sedimentation, and in-fill.<ref>Hawkins, J. P., & Roberts, C. M. (1994)
==== Mount Everest ====
{{
[[File:Everest_Base_Camp_on_a_Stormy_Day.jpg|thumb|[[Everest Base Camp]]]]
[[Mount Everest]] attracts many tourist climbers wanting to summit the peak of the highest mountain in the world each year. Everest is a [[UNESCO World Heritage]] site. Over the years, carelessness and excessive consumption of resources by mountaineers, as well as [[overgrazing]] by livestock, have damaged the habitats of [[snow leopard]]s, [[lesser panda]]s, [[Tibetan bear]]s, and scores of bird species. To counteract past abuses, various [[reforestation]] programs have been carried out by local communities and the Nepalese government.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web |title=Mount Everest - Geology, Height, Exploration, & Mountaineering |url=https://www.britannica.com/
Expeditions have removed supplies and equipment left by climbers on Everest's slopes, including hundreds of oxygen containers. A large quantity of the [[litter]] of past
=== Effects from transportation ===
{{
Since 2009, there has been a steady yearly increase in the number of tourist arrivals worldwide of approximately 4.4 percent. In 2015, there were 1.186 billion tourist arrivals worldwide, of which 54 percent arrivedby [[air travel
=== Cruise ships ===
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=== Small Island tourism ===
{{
[[File:Central Bank of Samoa (2009).jpg|thumb|right|[[Central Bank of Samoa]]]]
Small Islands often depend on tourism, as this industry makes up anywhere from 40
Mass tourism, including the cruise industry, tends to put a strain on fragile island ecosystems and the natural resources it provides. Studies have shown that early practices of tourism were unsustainable and took a toll on environmental factors, hurting the natural landscapes that originally drew in the tourists.<ref name="Querioz2014" /><ref name="Butler2002">{{cite journal |last1=Twinning-Ward |first1=Luoise |last2=Butler |first2=Richard |date=2002 |title=Implementing STD on a Small Island: Development and Use of Sustainable Tourism Development Indicators in Samoa |journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=363–387 |doi=10.1080/09669580208667174 |s2cid=154442062}}</ref> For example, in Barbados, beaches are the main attraction and have been eroded and destroyed over the years. This is due to inefficient political decisions and policies along with irresponsible tourist activity, such as reckless driving and waste disposal, damaging coastal and marine environments. Such practices also altered physical features of the landscape and caused a loss in [[biodiversity]], leading to the disruption of ecosystems.<ref name="Mycoo2014" /> Many other islands faced environmental damage such as
However, visitors are attracted to the less industrial scene of these islands,<ref name="Querioz2014" /> and according to a survey, over 80
== Health impacts ==
Tourism brings both positive and negative effects on the health of local people.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |date=2020-09-01 |title=Health outcomes of tourism development: A longitudinal study of the impact of tourism arrivals on residents' health|journal=Journal of Destination Marketing & Management
The positive long-term health outcomes of tourism arrivals can be explained by the influence of positive experiences and social interactions with visitors on physical health and longevity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chida |first1=Yoichi |last2=Steptoe |first2=Andrew |date=September 2008 |title=Positive Psychological Well-Being and Mortality: A Quantitative Review of Prospective Observational Studies|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/psy.0b013e31818105ba|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine |volume=70 |issue=7 |pages=741–756 |doi=10.1097/psy.0b013e31818105ba |pmid=18725425|s2cid=1784174 |issn=0033-3174}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yarnal |first1=Careen Mackay |last2=Kerstetter |first2=Deborah |date=May 2005 |title=Casting Off |journal=Journal of Travel Research |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=368–379 |doi=10.1177/0047287505274650|s2cid=213845 |issn=0047-2875 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The literature suggests that diverse social relationships lead to lower risks for morbidity and premature mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rogers |first=Richard G. |date=1996 |title=The Effects of Family Composition, Health, and Social Support Linkages on Mortality |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2137260 |journal=Journal of Health and Social Behavior |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=326–338 |doi=10.2307/2137260 |jstor=2137260 |pmid=8997888 |issn=0022-1465}}</ref> Since diverse interactions of local people with tourists provide positive experiences that could affect physical health, tourism development might positively influence the health of the local people in the long run through positive emotions and social interactions.<ref name=":6" />
[[Sexually transmitted infection]]s are also often transferred between visitors and residents.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bauer |first=Irmgard |date=September 2007 |title=Understanding sexual relationships between tourists and locals in Cuzco/Peru |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2007.06.004|journal=Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.1016/j.tmaid.2007.06.004 |pmid=17870633 |issn=1477-8939}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cabada |first1=Miguel M. |last2=Maldonado |first2=Fernando |last3=Bauer |first3=Irmgard |last4=Verdonck |first4=Kristien |last5=Seas |first5=Carlos |last6=Gotuzzo |first6=Eduardo |date=2007-05-01 |title=Sexual Behavior, Knowledge of STI Prevention, and Prevalence of Serum Markers for STI Among Tour Guides in Cuzco/Peru|journal=Journal of Travel Medicine |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=151–157 |doi=10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00110.x |pmid=17437470 |issn=1195-1982 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
== See also ==
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== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Human impact on the environment}}
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