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A '''meat alternative''' or '''meat substitute''' (also called '''plant-based meat''', '''mock meat''', or '''fake meat''' sometimes pejoratively), is a food product made from [[vegetarian]] or [[vegan]] ingredients, eaten as a replacement for meat. Meat alternatives typically approximate qualities of specific types of meat, such as [[mouthfeel]], flavor, appearance, or chemical characteristics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Weele |first1=Cor |last2=Feindt |first2=Peter |last3=Jan van der Goot |first3=Atze |last4=van Mierlo |first4=Barbara |last5=van Boekel |first5=Martinus |title=Meat alternatives: an integrative comparison |journal=[[Trends in Food Science and Technology]] |date=2019 |volume=88 |pages=505–512 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2019.04.018 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nezlek |first1=John B |last2=Forestell |first2=Catherine A |title=Meat substitutes: current status, potential benefits, and remaining challenges |journal=[[Current Opinion In Food Science]] |date=2022 |volume=47 |pages=100890 |doi=10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100890 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Takefuji |first1=Yoshiyasu |title=Sustainable protein alternatives |journal=[[Trends in Food Science and Technology]] |date=2021 |volume=107 |pages=429–431 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2020.11.012 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Plant- and fungus-based substitutes are frequently made with [[soy]] (e.g. [[tofu]], [[tempeh]], and [[textured vegetable protein]]), but may also be made from [[gluten#Imitation meats|wheat gluten]] as in [[seitan]], [[pea protein]] as in the [[Beyond Burger]], or [[mycoprotein]] as in [[Quorn]].<ref name="Holmes"/> Alternative protein foods can also be made by [[precision fermentation]], where single cell organisms such as yeast produce specific proteins using a carbon source; as well as cultivated or laboratory grown, based on [[tissue engineering]] techniques.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/06/all-sizzle-no-steak-how-singapore-became-the-centre-of-the-plant-based-meat-industry |title=All sizzle, no steak: how Singapore became the centre of the plant-based meat industry |work=The Guardian |date=5 November 2022}}</ref>
Meatless tissue engineering involves the cultivation of stem cells on natural or synthetic scaffolds to create meat-like products.
Meat alternatives are typically consumed as a source of [[dietary protein]] by vegetarians, vegans, and people following religious and cultural [[dietary laws]]. However, global demand for [[sustainable diet]]s has also increased their popularity among non-vegetarians and [[flexitarian]]s seeking to reduce the [[environmental impact of meat production]].
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== Production and composition ==
[[File:Tender employee demonstrating texture of plant-based pulled pork (04528).jpg|thumb|A plant-based [[pulled pork]] vendor demonstrating its texture]]
To produce meat alternatives with a meat-like texture, two approaches can be followed: bottom-up and top-down.<ref name="Structuring processes for meat analogues">{{cite journal |last1=Dekkers |first1=Brigit |title=Structuring processes for meat analogues |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=November 2018 |volume=81 |pages=25–36 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2018.08.011 |doi-access=free}}</ref> With bottom-up structuring, individual fibers are made separately and then assembled into larger products. An example of a meat alternative made using a bottom-up strategy is [[cultured meat]]. The top-down approach, on the other hand, induces a fibrous structure by deforming the material, resulting in fibrousness on a larger length scale. An example of a top-down technique is [[food extrusion]].
Both bottom-up and top-down processing can be used alone or in combination to offer various benefits. As discussed later, different meat alternative products have varying nutritional values.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Vliet |first1=Stephan |last2=Bain |first2=James R. |last3=Muehlbauer |first3=Michael J. |last4=Provenza |first4=Frederick D. |last5=Kronberg |first5=Scott L. |last6=Pieper |first6=Carl F. |last7=Huffman |first7=Kim M. |date=2021-07-05 |title=A metabolomics comparison of plant-based meat and grass-fed meat indicates large nutritional differences despite comparable Nutrition Facts panels |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=13828 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-93100-3 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8257669 |pmid=34226581|bibcode=2021NatSR..1113828V }}</ref> A notable advantage of the bottom-up approach is its ability to provide precise control over the composition and characteristics of the end product, allowing for optimized [[
The types of ingredients that can be used to create meat substitutes is expanding, from companies like Plentify, which are using high-protein bacteria found in the human microbiome,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Watson|first=Elaine|date=20 June 2020|title='Plentify' novel single cell protein 'ludicrously efficient' to produce vs animal protein, claims startup|url=https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2020/06/20/Plentify-novel-single-cell-protein-ludicrously-efficient-to-produce-vs-animal-protein-claims-startup|access-date=2020-06-26|language=en-GB}}</ref> to companies like Meati Foods, that are cultivating the mycelium of fungi—in this case, [[Neurospora crassa]]—to form steaks, chicken breasts, or fish.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Peters|first=Adele|date=29 October 2019|title=If it looks like a steak and tastes like a steak, in this case, it's a mushroom|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90421889/if-it-looks-like-a-steak-and-tastes-like-a-steak-in-this-case-its-a-mushroom|access-date=2020-06-26|work=Fast Company|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=What is the most technical and scientific way to understand what Meati is made from and how we are branding it?|url=https://meati.com/mushroom-root?card=what-is-the-most|access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
[[Soy protein|Soy protein isolates]] or soybean flour and gluten are usually used as foundation for most meat substitutes that are available on the market. Soy protein isolate is a highly pure form of soy protein with a minimum protein content of 90%. The process of extracting the protein from the soybeans starts with the dehulling, or decortication, of the seeds. The seeds are then treated with solvents such as hexane to extract the oil from them. The oil-free soybean meal is then suspended in water and treated with alkali to dissolve the protein while leaving behind the carbohydrates. The alkaline solution is then treated with acidic substances to precipitate the protein, before being washed and dried. The removal of fats and carbohydrates results in a product that has a relatively neutral flavor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodandnutrition.org/July-August-2013/Meat-Analogs/|title=Meat Analogs|last=Sedgwick|first=Tali|date=28 June 2013|website=Food and Nutrition|publisher=Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics|access-date=10 December 2016}}</ref> Soy protein is also considered a "complete protein" as it contains all of the essential amino acids that are crucial for proper human growth and development.<ref name=":1">[https://
After the textured base material is obtained, a number of [[flavoring]]s can be used to give a meaty flavor to the product. The recipe for a basic vegan chicken flavor is known since 1972, exploiting the [[Maillard reaction]] to produce aromas from simple chemicals.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Perret |first1=Marcel Andre |title=Chicken flavor and process for preparing the same |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3689289A/en |date=5 September 1972}}</ref> Later understanding of the source of aroma in cooked meat also found [[lipid oxidation]] and [[thiamine]] breakdown to be important processes. By using more complex starting materials such as [[yeast extract]] (considered a natural flavoring in the EU), [[hydrolyzed vegetable protein]], various [[fermented]] foods, and spices, these reactions are also replicated during cooking to produce richer and more convincing meat flavors.<ref name=vegmeat>{{cite journal |last1=Kale |first1=Prajyoti |last2=Mishra |first2=Anusha |last3=Annapure |first3=Uday S. |title=Development of vegan meat flavour: A review on sources and techniques |journal=Future Foods |date=June 2022 |volume=5 |pages=100149 |doi=10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100149|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xuejie |last2=Li |first2=Jian |title=The Flavor of Plant-Based Meat Analogues |journal=Cereal Foods World |date=2020 |volume=65 |issue=4 |doi=10.1094/CFW-65-4-0040}}</ref>
==Commerce==
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===Health===
Meat alternatives have lower amounts of [[saturated fat]], vitamin B12 and zinc than meat products but higher amounts of carbohydrates, [[dietary fibre]], sodium, iron and calcium.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lindberg, Leona; McCann, Rachel Reid; Smyth, Beatrice; Woodside, Jayne V; Nugent, Anne P.|year=2024|title=The environmental impact, ingredient composition, nutritional and health impact of meat alternatives: a systematic review|journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology|volume=149|issue=|pages=104483|doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104483|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In 2021, the [[American Heart Association]] stated that there is "limited evidence on the short- and long-term health effects" of plant-based meat alternatives.<ref name=aha>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Vadiveloo M, Hu FB, Kris-Etherton PM, Rebholz CM, Sacks FM, Thorndike AN, Van Horn L, Wylie-Rosett J |title=2021 Dietary Guidance to Improve Cardiovascular Health: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation | volume=144 |issue=23 |pages=e472–e487 |date=December 2021 |pmid=34724806 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000001031 |s2cid=240422142 |type=Review|display-authors=5|doi-access=free }}</ref> The same year, the [[World Health Organization]] stated that there are "significant knowledge gaps in the nutritional composition" of meat alternatives and more research is needed to investigate their health impacts.<ref>[https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/349086/WHO-EURO-2021-4007-43766-61591-eng.pdf "Plant-based diets and their impact on health, sustainability and the environment: A review of the evidence"]. WHO European Office for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases.</ref>
A 2024 review found that plant-based meat alternatives have the potential to be healthier than [[animal-based foods]] and have smaller environmental footprints.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nájera Espinosa S, Hadida G, Jelmar Sietsma A, Alae-Carew C, Turner G, Green R, Pastorino S, Picetti R, Scheelbeek P.|year=2024|title=Mapping the evidence of novel plant-based foods: a systematic review of nutritional, health, and environmental impacts in high-income countries|journal=Nutrition Reviews|url=https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/advance-article/doi/10.1093/nutrit/nuae031/7656938|volume=|issue=|pages=nuae031|doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuae031|pmid=38657969|doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Criticism ==
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