Editing Microorganism

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Latin: A a Á á À à Â â Ä ä Ǎ ǎ Ă ă Ā ā Ã ã Å å Ą ą Æ æ Ǣ ǣ B b C c Ć ć Ċ ċ Ĉ ĉ Č č Ç ç D d Ď ď Đ đ Ḍ ḍ Ð ð E e É é È è Ė ė Ê ê Ë ë Ě ě Ĕ ĕ Ē ē Ẽ ẽ Ę ę Ẹ ẹ Ɛ ɛ Ǝ ǝ Ə ə F f G g Ġ ġ Ĝ ĝ Ğ ğ Ģ ģ H h Ĥ ĥ Ħ ħ Ḥ ḥ I i İ ı Í í Ì ì Î î Ï ï Ǐ ǐ Ĭ ĭ Ī ī Ĩ ĩ Į į Ị ị J j Ĵ ĵ K k Ķ ķ L l Ĺ ĺ Ŀ ŀ Ľ ľ Ļ ļ Ł ł Ḷ ḷ Ḹ ḹ M m Ṃ ṃ N n Ń ń Ň ň Ñ ñ Ņ ņ Ṇ ṇ Ŋ ŋ O o Ó ó Ò ò Ô ô Ö ö Ǒ ǒ Ŏ ŏ Ō ō Õ õ Ǫ ǫ Ọ ọ Ő ő Ø ø Œ œ Ɔ ɔ P p Q q R r Ŕ ŕ Ř ř Ŗ ŗ Ṛ ṛ Ṝ ṝ S s Ś ś Ŝ ŝ Š š Ş ş Ș ș Ṣ ṣ ß T t Ť ť Ţ ţ Ț ț Ṭ ṭ Þ þ U u Ú ú Ù ù Û û Ü ü Ǔ ǔ Ŭ ŭ Ū ū Ũ ũ Ů ů Ų ų Ụ ụ Ű ű Ǘ ǘ Ǜ ǜ Ǚ ǚ Ǖ ǖ V v W w Ŵ ŵ X x Y y Ý ý Ŷ ŷ Ÿ ÿ Ỹ ỹ Ȳ ȳ Z z Ź ź Ż ż Ž ž ß Ð ð Þ þ Ŋ ŋ Ə ə
Greek: Ά ά Έ έ Ή ή Ί ί Ό ό Ύ ύ Ώ ώ Α α Β β Γ γ Δ δ Ε ε Ζ ζ Η η Θ θ Ι ι Κ κ Λ λ Μ μ Ν ν Ξ ξ Ο ο Π π Ρ ρ Σ σ ς Τ τ Υ υ Φ φ Χ χ Ψ ψ Ω ω {{Polytonic|}}
Cyrillic: А а Б б В в Г г Ґ ґ Ѓ ѓ Д д Ђ ђ Е е Ё ё Є є Ж ж З з Ѕ ѕ И и І і Ї ї Й й Ј ј К к Ќ ќ Л л Љ љ М м Н н Њ њ О о П п Р р С с Т т Ћ ћ У у Ў ў Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Џ џ Ш ш Щ щ Ъ ъ Ы ы Ь ь Э э Ю ю Я я ́
IPA: t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ ɟ ɡ ɢ ʡ ʔ ɸ β θ ð ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ ʜ ʢ ɦ ɱ ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ ʋ ɹ ɻ ɰ ʙ ⱱ ʀ ɾ ɽ ɫ ɬ ɮ ɺ ɭ ʎ ʟ ɥ ʍ ɧ ʼ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ ʘ ǀ ǃ ǂ ǁ ɨ ʉ ɯ ɪ ʏ ʊ ø ɘ ɵ ɤ ə ɚ ɛ œ ɜ ɝ ɞ ʌ ɔ æ ɐ ɶ ɑ ɒ ʰ ʱ ʷ ʲ ˠ ˤ ⁿ ˡ ˈ ˌ ː ˑ ̪ {{IPA|}}

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 {{further|Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|Earliest known life forms}}
 {{PhylomapB||caption=[[Carl Woese]]'s 1990 [[phylogenetic tree]] based on [[rRNA]] data shows the domains of [[Bacteria]], [[Archaea]], and [[Eukaryota]]. All are microorganisms except some eukaryote groups.|size=325px}}
-Single-celled microorganisms were the [[Origin of life|first forms of life]] to develop on Earth, approximately 3.5 [[gigaannum|billion years]] ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Schopf, J. |title=Fossil evidence of Archaean life |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=869–885 |year=2006 |pmid=16754604 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1834 |pmc=1578735}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Altermann, W. |author2=Kazmierczak, J. |title=Archean microfossils: a reappraisal of early life on Earth |journal=Res Microbiol |volume=154 |issue=9 |pages=611–7 |year=2003 |pmid=14596897 | doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2003.08.006|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Cavalier-Smith, T. |author-link=Thomas Cavalier-Smith |title=Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and revolution  |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=969–1006 |year=2006 |pmid=16754610 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1842 |pmc=1578732}}</ref> Further evolution was slow,<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Schopf, J. | title=Disparate rates, differing fates: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to the Phanerozoic | pmc=44277| journal=PNAS | volume=91 | issue=15 | pages=6735–6742 | year=1994 | pmid=8041691 | doi=10.1073/pnas.91.15.6735 | bibcode=1994PNAS...91.6735S| doi-access=free }}</ref> and for about 3&nbsp;billion years in the [[Precambrian]] [[Eon (geology)|eon]], (much of the history of [[life|life on Earth]]), all [[organism]]s were microorganisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Stanley, S. |title=An Ecological Theory for the Sudden Origin of Multicellular Life in the Late Precambrian |journal=PNAS |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=1486–1489 |date=May 1973 |pmid=16592084 |pmc=433525 | doi=10.1073/pnas.70.5.1486 |bibcode=1973PNAS...70.1486S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author1=DeLong, E. |author2=Pace, N. | title=Environmental diversity of bacteria and archaea | journal=Syst Biol | volume=50 | issue=4 | pages=470–8 | year=2001 |pmid=12116647 | doi=10.1080/106351501750435040|citeseerx=10.1.1.321.8828 }}</ref> Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in [[amber]] that is 220&nbsp;million years old, which shows that the [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] of microorganisms has changed little since at least the [[Triassic]] period.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Schmidt, A. |author2=Ragazzi, E. |author3=Coppellotti, O. |author4=Roghi, G. | title=A microworld in Triassic amber | journal=Nature | volume=444 | issue=7121 | page=835 | year=2006 | pmid=17167469 | doi=10.1038/444835a |bibcode=2006Natur.444..835S |s2cid=4401723 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The newly discovered [[Nickel#Biological role|biological role played by nickel]], however – especially that brought about by [[Types of volcanic eruption|volcanic eruptions]] from the [[Siberian Traps]] – may have accelerated the evolution of [[methanogen]]s towards the end of the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.space.com/26654-microbe-innovation-started-largest-earth-extinction.html |title= Microbe's Innovation May Have Started Largest Extinction Event on Earth |last= Schirber |first=Michael |date= 27 July 2014 |publisher=Astrobiology Magazine |website= Space.com |quote=That spike in nickel allowed methanogens to take off.}}</ref>
+Single-celled microorganisms were the [[Origin of life|first forms of life]] to develop on Earth, approximately 3.5 [[gigaannum|billion years]] ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Schopf, J. |title=Fossil evidence of Archaean life |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=869–885 |year=2006 |pmid=16754604 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1834 |pmc=1578735}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Altermann, W. |author2=Kazmierczak, J. |title=Archean microfossils: a reappraisal of early life on Earth |journal=Res Microbiol |volume=154 |issue=9 |pages=611–7 |year=2003 |pmid=14596897 | doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2003.08.006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Cavalier-Smith, T. |author-link=Thomas Cavalier-Smith |title=Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and revolution  |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=969–1006 |year=2006 |pmid=16754610 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1842 |pmc=1578732}}</ref> Further evolution was slow,<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Schopf, J. | title=Disparate rates, differing fates: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to the Phanerozoic | pmc=44277| journal=PNAS | volume=91 | issue=15 | pages=6735–6742 | year=1994 | pmid=8041691 | doi=10.1073/pnas.91.15.6735 | bibcode=1994PNAS...91.6735S| doi-access=free }}</ref> and for about 3&nbsp;billion years in the [[Precambrian]] [[Eon (geology)|eon]], (much of the history of [[life|life on Earth]]), all [[organism]]s were microorganisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Stanley, S. |title=An Ecological Theory for the Sudden Origin of Multicellular Life in the Late Precambrian |journal=PNAS |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=1486–1489 |date=May 1973 |pmid=16592084 |pmc=433525 | doi=10.1073/pnas.70.5.1486 |bibcode=1973PNAS...70.1486S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author1=DeLong, E. |author2=Pace, N. | title=Environmental diversity of bacteria and archaea | journal=Syst Biol | volume=50 | issue=4 | pages=470–8 | year=2001 |pmid=12116647 | doi=10.1080/106351501750435040|citeseerx=10.1.1.321.8828 }}</ref> Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in [[amber]] that is 220&nbsp;million years old, which shows that the [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] of microorganisms has changed little since at least the [[Triassic]] period.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Schmidt, A. |author2=Ragazzi, E. |author3=Coppellotti, O. |author4=Roghi, G. | title=A microworld in Triassic amber | journal=Nature | volume=444 | issue=7121 | page=835 | year=2006 | pmid=17167469 | doi=10.1038/444835a |bibcode=2006Natur.444..835S |s2cid=4401723 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The newly discovered [[Nickel#Biological role|biological role played by nickel]], however – especially that brought about by [[Types of volcanic eruption|volcanic eruptions]] from the [[Siberian Traps]] – may have accelerated the evolution of [[methanogen]]s towards the end of the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.space.com/26654-microbe-innovation-started-largest-earth-extinction.html |title= Microbe's Innovation May Have Started Largest Extinction Event on Earth |last= Schirber |first=Michael |date= 27 July 2014 |publisher=Astrobiology Magazine |website= Space.com |quote=That spike in nickel allowed methanogens to take off.}}</ref>
 Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes through [[Bacterial conjugation|conjugation]], [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]] and [[Transduction (genetics)|transduction]], even between widely divergent species.<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Wolska, K. | title=Horizontal DNA transfer between bacteria in the environment | journal=Acta Microbiol Pol | volume=52 | issue=3 | pages=233–243 | year=2003 |pmid=14743976}}</ref> This [[horizontal gene transfer]], coupled with a high [[mutation]] rate and other means of transformation, allows microorganisms to swiftly [[biological evolution|evolve]] (via [[natural selection]]) to survive in new environments and respond to [[stressors|environmental stresses]]. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of [[multidrug resistance|multidrug resistant]] [[pathogenic bacteria]], ''superbugs'', that are [[antimicrobial resistance|resistant to antibiotics]].<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Enright, M. |author2=Robinson, D. |author3=Randle, G. |author4=Feil, E. |author5=Grundmann, H. |author6=Spratt, B. | title=The evolutionary history of methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA) | journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume=99 | issue=11 | pages=7687–7692 |date=May 2002 | pmid=12032344 |pmc=124322 | doi=10.1073/pnas.122108599|bibcode=2002PNAS...99.7687E |doi-access=free }}</ref>
@@ Line 83: / Line 83: @@
 Like archaea, bacteria are prokaryotic – unicellular, and having no cell nucleus or other membrane-bound organelle. Bacteria are microscopic, with a few extremely rare exceptions, such as ''[[Thiomargarita namibiensis]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Schulz, H. |author2=Jorgensen, B. | title=Big bacteria | journal=Annu Rev Microbiol | volume=55 | pages=105–37 | year =2001 |pmid=11544351 | doi=10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.105}}</ref> Bacteria function and reproduce as individual cells, but they can often aggregate in multicellular [[Colony (biology)#Microbial colony|colonies]].<ref>{{Cite journal |author-link=James A. Shapiro |author=Shapiro, J.A. |title=Thinking about bacterial populations as multicellular organisms |journal=Annu. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=52 |pages=81–104 |year=1998 |pmid=9891794 |doi=10.1146/annurev.micro.52.1.81 |url=http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/newton/math501/Sp05/Shapiro.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717183759/http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/newton/math501/Sp05/Shapiro.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2011 }}</ref> Some species such as [[myxobacteria]] can aggregate into complex [[swarm]]ing structures, operating as multicellular groups as part of their [[Biological life cycle|life cycle]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=Myxobacteria: Moving, Killing, Feeding, and Surviving Together | journal=Frontiers in Microbiology| volume=7| pages=781| pmid=27303375| pmc=4880591| year=2016| last1=Muñoz-Dorado| first1=J. | last2=Marcos-Torres| first2=F. J. | last3=García-Bravo | first3=E. | last4=Moraleda-Muñoz| first4=A. | last5=Pérez| first5=J. | doi=10.3389/fmicb.2016.00781| doi-access=free}}</ref> or form clusters in [[colony (biology)|bacterial colonies]] such as ''[[E.coli]]''.
-Their [[genome]] is usually a [[circular bacterial chromosome]] – a single loop of [[DNA]], although they can also harbor small pieces of DNA called [[plasmid]]s. These plasmids can be transferred between cells through [[bacterial conjugation]]. Bacteria have an enclosing [[Bacterial cell structure#Cell wall|cell wall]], which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by [[binary fission]] or sometimes by [[budding]], but do not undergo [[Meiosis|meiotic]] [[sexual reproduction]]. However, many bacterial species can transfer DNA between individual cells by a [[horizontal gene transfer]] process referred to as natural [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Johnsbor, O. |author2=Eldholm, V. |author3=Håvarstein, L.S. |title=Natural genetic transformation: prevalence, mechanisms and function |journal=Res. Microbiol. |volume=158 |issue=10 |pages=767–78 |date=December 2007 |pmid=17997281 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2007.09.004 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some species form extraordinarily resilient [[endospore|spores]], but for bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly and their numbers can double as quickly as every 20 minutes.<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Eagon, R. | title=Pseudomonas Natriegens, a Marine Bacterium With a Generation Time of Less Than 10 Minutes | journal=J Bacteriol | volume=83 | issue=4| pages=736–7 | year =1962 | pmid=13888946 | pmc=279347| doi=10.1128/JB.83.4.736-737.1962 }}</ref>
+Their [[genome]] is usually a [[circular bacterial chromosome]] – a single loop of [[DNA]], although they can also harbor small pieces of DNA called [[plasmid]]s. These plasmids can be transferred between cells through [[bacterial conjugation]]. Bacteria have an enclosing [[Bacterial cell structure#Cell wall|cell wall]], which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by [[binary fission]] or sometimes by [[budding]], but do not undergo [[Meiosis|meiotic]] [[sexual reproduction]]. However, many bacterial species can transfer DNA between individual cells by a [[horizontal gene transfer]] process referred to as natural [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Johnsbor, O. |author2=Eldholm, V. |author3=Håvarstein, L.S. |title=Natural genetic transformation: prevalence, mechanisms and function |journal=Res. Microbiol. |volume=158 |issue=10 |pages=767–78 |date=December 2007 |pmid=17997281 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2007.09.004 }}</ref> Some species form extraordinarily resilient [[endospore|spores]], but for bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly and their numbers can double as quickly as every 20 minutes.<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Eagon, R. | title=Pseudomonas Natriegens, a Marine Bacterium With a Generation Time of Less Than 10 Minutes | journal=J Bacteriol | volume=83 | issue=4| pages=736–7 | year =1962 | pmid=13888946 | pmc=279347| doi=10.1128/JB.83.4.736-737.1962 }}</ref>
 ===Eukaryotes===

Editing Microorganism

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