Nelumbo nucifera: Difference between revisions

| image_caption = Lotus flower

The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to {{convert|200|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth,.<ref name="Kew">{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:605422-1 |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> The [[peltate]] leaf blade or lamina can have a horizontal spread of {{convert|1|m|ftin|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera – Gaertn. |url=https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Nelumbo+nucifera |publisher=[[Plants for a Future]] |access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref><ref>Cook, Water Plants of the World (see below) loc. cit.</ref> The leaves may be as large as {{convert|80|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name="RHS"/>

The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to {{convert|3035|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter,.<ref name="RHS">{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera {{!}} sacred lotus |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/11438/Nelumbo-nucifera/Details |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=11 June 2019 |date=1999}}</ref> but fourteen inches (35 centimeters) has been frequently reported.<ref name=":20">{{cite journal |last=<not recorded> |date=January 13, 1934 |title=<not recorded> |journal=Gardener's Chronicle |volume=95 (third series) |issue=<not recorded> |pages=28–29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cook |first=Christopher D. K. |date=1974 |title=Water Plants of the World |location=The Hague, Netherlands |publisher=W. Junk Publisher |page=332 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hurley |first=Captain Frank |date=1924 |title=Pearls and Savages |location=New York |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |page=385 plus photo and caption p. 368 }}</ref>

Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to [[Thermogenic plants|regulate]] the [[temperature]] of its [[flower]]s within a narrow range, just as humans and other [[warm-blooded]] animals do.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Yoon, Carol Kaesuk |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E4D7113CF932A35753C1A960958260 |title=Heat of Lotus Attracts Insects And Scientists |date=1996-10-01 |access-date=2012-11-14 |newspaper=The New York Times }}</ref> Roger S. Seymour and Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at the [[University of Adelaide]] in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the [[Adelaide Botanic Garden]]s maintained a temperature of {{convert|30|–|35|°C|°F}}, even when the air temperature dropped to {{convert|10|°C|°F}}. They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract [[Ectotherm|cold-blooded]] [[insect]] [[pollinator]]s. Studies published in the journals ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' and ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences]]'' in 1996 and 1998 were important contributions in the field of [[thermoregulation]] in plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include ''[[Symplocarpus foetidus]]''<ref name="thorington">{{cite journal |last1=Thorington |first1=Katherine K. |title=Pollination and Fruiting Success in the Eastern Skunk Cabbage |journal=The Journal of Biospheric Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=April 1999 |url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mmcmenam/journal.html |access-date=2022-02-02 |archive-date=2016-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224021947/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mmcmenam/journal.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''[[PhilodendronThaumatophyllum selloumbipinnatifidum]]''.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}. The red tiger lotus is native to West Africa, including Nigeria and Cameroon, and thrives in slow-moving water.

A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ong |first=H.C. |editor-last1=Flach |editor-first1=M. |editor-last2=Rumawas |editor-first2=F. |year=1996 |chapter=Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner |title=Plant Resources of South-East Asia |location=Leiden, Netherlands |publisher=Backhuys Publishers |pages=131–133 |isbn=90-73348-51-X}}</ref>{{rp|132}} Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully [[germinated]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2445863 |author=Shen-Miller |year=1995 |last2=Mudgett |first2=M. B. |last3=William Schopf |first3=J. |last4=Clarke |first4=S. |last5=Berger |first5=R. |title=Exceptional seed longevity and robust growth: Ancient sacred lotus from China |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |issue=11 |volume=82 |pages=1367–1380 |jstor=2445863 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Shen-Miller, J. |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=236–247 |title=Long-living lotus: germination and soil gamma-irradiation of centuries-old fruits, and cultivation, growth, and phenotypic abnormalities of offspring |doi=10.3732/ajb.89.2.236 |quote=Sacred lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'') has been cultivated as a crop in Asia for thousands of years. A ≈1300-year-old lotus fruit, recovered from an originally cultivated but now dry lakebed in northeastern China, is the oldest germinated and directly 14C-dated fruit known. In 1996, we traveled to the dry lake at Xipaozi Village, China, the source of the old viable fruits. |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |year=2002 |pmid=21669732}}</ref>

The [[genome]] of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ming |first1=Ray |last2=VanBuren |first2=Robert |last3=Liu |first3=Yanling |last4=Yang |first4=Mei |last5=Han |first5=Yuepeng |display-authors=etal |year=2013 |title=Genome of the long-living sacred lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn.) |journal=Genome Biology |volume=14 |issue=5 |page=R41 |doi=10.1186/gb-2013-14-5-r41 |pmid=23663246 |pmc=4053705 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sacred Lotus Genome Sequence Enlightens Scientists |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130510180252.htm |newspaper=Science Daily |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists sequence genome of 'sacred lotus,' which likely holds anti-aging secrets |author=Wolpert, Stuart |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/scientists-sequence-genome-of-245577.aspx |newspaper=UCLA Newsroom |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013}}</ref> A dedicated genome database lists additional genome assemblies sequenced since then.

[[File: A budding lotus flower.jpg|200px|thumb| Lotus bud in advanced stage of bloom]]

One example of a flower lotus is [[Wanlian]]. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars of ''N. nucifera'' sized between {{convert|5 and 8|cm|in|frac=}}. Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers of [[petal]]s, and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with the [[rhizome]], their [[seed]]s are often too small or too hard to be eatable.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihuhua.com/huahui/wanlian.html |access-date=2021-09-07 |title=碗莲_碗莲的养殖方法 |language=zh}}</ref>

The sacred lotus may be crossed with the [[yellow lotus]] to produce [[interspecific hybrid]]s. A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.21273/HORTSCI15757-21 |title = 'Jiang Luopao': A Nelumbo Cultivar with Deep Purple-red and Bowl-shaped Flowers |year = 2021 |last1 =Du Du|first1 =Fengfeng Fengfeng|last2 =Liu Liu|first2 =Xiaojing Xiaojing|last3 =Chang Chang|first3 =Yajun Yajun|last4 =Li Li|first4 = Naiwei |last5 =Ding Ding|first5 =Yuesheng Yuesheng|last6 = Yao |first6 =Dongrui Dongrui|journal =HortScience HortScience|volume =56 56|issue = 7 |pages =847–848 847–848|s2cid =236278282 236278282|doi-access = free}}</ref>

[[File:Lotus root.jpg|thumb|Lotus [[rhizomesrhizome]]s]]

The [[rhizome]]s of lotus ({{Lang-zh|t=|c=蓮藕|p=lián-ǒu}}, {{Lang-ja|蓮根|translit=renkon}}, {{Lang-ko|연군or蓮根|translit=yeongun}}, {{Lang-hi|कमल ककड़ी|translit=kamalkamala kakdikakaṛī}}, [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] Beeh, {{Lang-te|అల్లిదుంప|translit=alli'dumpa}})<ref>[https://andhrabharati.com/dictionary/index.php?w=%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF], Andhra Bharati Dictionary; Lotus-root - అల్లిదుంప; అల్లికాయ.</ref> are consumed as a vegetable in Asian countries, extensively in China, Japan, and India, Pakistan ([[Sindh]]), sold whole or in cut pieces, fresh, frozen, or canned. They are fried or cooked mostly in soups, soaked in syrup or [[Pickling|pickled]] in vinegar (with sugar, chili and garlic).<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |last1=YU |first1=Xin |display-authors=etal |year=2002 |title=Progress in the Research on Post-harvest Physiology and Storage Techniques of Nelumbo nucifera gaertn [J]. |journal=Guangzhou Food Science and Technology |volume=3 |page=019 }}</ref><ref name=":19">Tian, N., et al. "Isolation and preparation of flavonoids from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn by preparative reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography."&nbsp;''Se pu= Chinese journal of chromatography''&nbsp;25.1 (2007): 88–92.</ref> Lotus rhizomes have a crunchy texture and are a classic dish at many banquets, where they are deep-fried, stir-fried, or stuffed with meats or preserved fruits.<ref name=":18" /> Salads with [[prawn]]s, [[sesame oil]] or [[coriander]] leaves are also popular. Fresh lotus root slices are limited by a fast [[food browning|browning]] rate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Su |first1=X. |last2=Jiang |first2=Y. |last3=Li |first3=Y. |last4=Lin |first4=W. |year=2003 |title=Effects of 4-hexylresorcinol (4-HR) on browning and quality of fresh-cut lotus |journal=Food Science |volume=24 |pages=142–145 }}</ref><ref>M.A.&nbsp;Rojas-Graüa,&nbsp;M.S.&nbsp;Tapiab,&nbsp;O.&nbsp;Martín-Bellosoa. Using polysaccharide-based edible coatings to maintain the quality of fresh-cut&nbsp;Fuji apples. LWT Food Science and Technology,&nbsp;41&nbsp;(2008), pp.&nbsp;139–147</ref> [[Lotus root tea]] is consumed in Korea.

Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as ''kamalkamala kakdikakaṛī'' in [[Hindi]]) is cooked as a dry curry or [[Curry|sabziSabzî]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 December 2020 |title=9 Nutritious Lotus Root Recipes To Try |url=https://www.honestfoodtalks.com/lotus-root-recipes-renkon/ |website=Honest Food Talks}}</ref>

Lotus seeds can be processed into [[Mooncake|moon cake]], lotus seed noodles and food in the forms of [[Lotus seed paste|paste]], fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn (''phool makhana''), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional EasternChinese medicine claims that fresh lotus seed wine has thirst-quenching, spleen-healing, and anti-diarrheal advantages after drinking, attributed to unspecified bioactive compounds.<ref name="auto">Wu C, Xia Y, Tang X (2013) Optimization of the fermentation process for lotus rice-wine production by response surface methodology. Mod Food Sci Technol 29:1675–1679</ref><ref name=":16" /> [[Lotus seed tea]] is consumed in Korea, and [[lotus embryo tea]] is consumed in China and Vietnam.<ref name=":16" />

Young lotus [[Plant stem|stems]] are used as a salad ingredient in [[Vietnamese cuisine]] and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as ''keang som sai bua'' ({{lang-th|แกงส้มสายบัว}}, lotus stem sour soup) and ''keang kati sai bua'' ({{lang|th|แกงกะทิสายบัว}}, lotus stem in coconut milk curry).

In[[North India|northern]] and [[East India|eastern]] regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup, ''kamalkamala gattegaṭṭē kikī sabjisabzī'' ({{Lang-hi|कमल गट्टे की सब्जी)सब्ज़ी|translit=}}) and an appetizetappetizer, ''kamalkamala kakdikakaṛī pakodepakauṛē'' ([[Hindi]]: {{Lang-hi|कमल ककडीककड़ी पकौडेपकौड़े}}). In South Indian states, the lotus stem is sliced, marinated with salt to dry, and the dried slices are fried and used as a side dish. In Kerala ([[MalayalamKerala]]: "({{Lang-ml|താമര"}}) and [[Tamil Nadu]], this end product is called ''thamara vathal''.

In China and Korea, [[Lotus tea#lotus leaf tea|lotus leaf tea]] ({{Lang-ko|연잎차|translit=yeon'ip-cha}}) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steaming [[rice]] and [[sticky rice]] and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as ''[[lo mai gai]]'' in Chinese cuisine or ''[[kao hor bai bua]]'' (Thai: {{Lang-th|ข้าวห่อใบบัว}}), fried rice wrapped in lotus leaf in Thai cuisine.

In Korea, [[lotus flower tea]] ({{Lang-ko|연꽃차 ''|translit=yeon'kkot-cha''}}) is made from the dried petals of the white lotus.

The [[stamen]]s can be dried and made into a fragrant [[herbal tea]] ({{zh|t=[[wikt:蓮花|蓮花]] [[wikt:茶|茶]]|p=liánhuā cha|cy=lìhnfāa chah}}), or used to impart a scent to [[tea]] leaves (particularly in Vietnam). This [[Vietnamese lotus tea]] is called ''trà sen'', ''chè sen'', or ''chè ướp sen''.

''Nelumbo nucifera'' shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |author1=Thongchai Kanabkaew |author2=Udomphon Puetpaiboon |date=2004 |title=Aquatic plants for domestic wastewater Treatment: Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) and Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) systems |url=http://www.thaiscience.info/journals/Article/SONG/10462464.pdf |journal=Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol |volume=26 }}</ref> and heavy metals.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |author1=H.M. Anawar |author2=A. Garcia-Sanchez |author3=M. Tari Kul Alam |author4=M. Majibur Rahman |date=2008 |title=Phytofiltration of water polluted with arsenic and heavy metals |url=http://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJEP.2008.0194 |journal=International Journal of Environment and Pollution |volume=33 |doi=10.1504/IJEP.2008.0194 |doi-broken-date=131 AugustJanuary 20232024}}</ref><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Gallego |first1=S. M. |author2=M. P. Benavides |author3=M. L. Tomaro |date=1996 |title=Effect of heavy metal ion excess on sunflower leaves: evidence for involvement of oxidative stress |journal=Plant Science |volume=121 |issue=2 |pages=151–159 |doi=10.1016/s0168-9452(96)04528-1 }}</ref> It is able to grow in variable water conditions<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iwgs.org/lotus-care-sheet/ |title=Lotus care sheet |date=16 December 2011 }}</ref> and in low light intensity.<ref name=":0" /> Various studies show the successful use of ''N. nucifera'' to counteract water [[eutrophication]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286218077 |title=Ecological restoration using Trapa bispinosa and Nelumbo nucifera on eutrophic water body in Baizangdian Lake |last=Liu |first=C.-Q. |date=December 2013 |journal=Wetland Science |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=510–514 }}</ref> The leaves of the floating lotus reduce sunlight reaching the lower part of the water. This suppresses [[algae]] growth in ''N. nucifera'' aquatic systems and thus, the oxygen content is up to 20% higher than in other aquatic plant systems.<ref name=":0" /> Due to intense agricultural practices, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution are major problems in aquatic systems. ''N. nucifera'' is able to assimilate a higher content of phosphorus than aquatic plants currently used for water remediation (such as [[EichhorniaPontederia crassipes|water hyacinth]]). It also assimilates nitrogen ("[[denitrification]]") and creates a habitat for bacterial growth in the water body.<ref name=":0" /> Through [[rhizofiltration]], heavy metals – including arsenic, copper, and cadmium – can be removed efficiently from the water.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> The results observed are impressive showing 96% of copper and 85% cadmium metals removed after a seven-day [[incubation period]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|author=Virendra Mishra |date=2009 |title=Accumulation of Cadmium and Copper from Aqueous Solutions using Indian Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) |journal=Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=110–112 |doi=10.1579/0044-7447-38.2.110 |pmid=19431942 |bibcode=2009Ambio..38..110M |s2cid=43473128}}</ref> The accumulation of heavy metals doesn't show morphological symptoms of metal toxicity;<ref name=":2" /> however, the rhizome quality for human consumption needs further study.

All parts of ''Nelumbo nucifera'' are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. Traditionally rhizomes, leaves, and seeds have been used as [[Traditional medicine|folk medicines]], [[Ayurveda]], [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese traditional medicine]], and [[oriental medicine]].<ref name=":13">Khare CP.&nbsp;''Indian Herbal Remedies: Rational Western Therapy, Ayurvedic, and Other Traditional Usage, Botany'',&nbsp;1st edn.&nbsp;USA: Springer,&nbsp;2004:&nbsp;326–327.</ref><ref name=":14">Sridhar KR,&nbsp;Bhat R.&nbsp;Lotus: a potential nutraceutical source.&nbsp;''J Agri Technol''&nbsp;2007;&nbsp;'''3''':&nbsp;143–155.</ref> In Chinese medicine, seeds are still used as {{transliteration|zh|lian zi xin}} ({{lang|zh|蓮子心}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.10.025 |title = Neferine inhibits cultured hepatic stellate cell activation and facilitates apoptosis: A possible molecular mechanism |year = 2011 |last1 =Ding Ding|first1 =Hui Hui|last2 =Shi Shi|first2 =Jinghong Jinghong|last3 =Wang Wang|first3 =Ying Ying|last4 =Guo Guo|first4 =Jia Jia|last5 =Zhao Zhao|first5 =Juhui Juhui|last6 =Dong Dong|first6 =Lei Lei|journal = European Journal of Pharmacology |volume =650 650|issue =1 1|pages =163–169 163–169|pmid = 20969858}}</ref>

Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologically [[active substance]]s.<ref name=":15">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1211/jpp.61.04.0001 | pmid = 19298686 | title = The sacred lotus(Nelumbo nucifera)- phytochemical and therapeutic profile | journal = Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology | volume =61 61| issue =4 4| pages =407–22 407–22| year =2009 2009| last1 =Mukherjee Mukherjee| first1 = Pulok K | last2 =Mukherjee Mukherjee| first2 =Debajyoti Debajyoti| last3 =Maji Maji| first3 = Amal K | last4 =Rai Rai| first4 = S | last5 =Heinrich Heinrich| first5 =Michael Michael| s2cid =85342386 85342386| doi-access = free}}</ref> Especially in China, [[lotus seed]]s are popular with a cultural history going back about 3000 years. As early as the [[Han dynasty|Han Dynasty]], lotus seeds were already recorded as sweet, astringent, nourishing the heart and kidney in "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = Z | year = 2008 | title = Nutrient value and processing of lotus seed | journal = Acad Period Agric Prod Process | volume = 2008 | pages = 42–43 }}</ref> Nowadays there are 22 varieties for the four known Chinese lines, which are found particularly in [[Jianning County|Jianning]] (still called "the town of Jianlian lotus seeds in China") and [[Guangchang County|Guangchang]] ("the town of white lotus seeds in China").<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zheng | first1 = B | last2 = Zheng | first2 = J | last3 = Zeng | first3 = S | year = 2003 | title = Analysis of the nutritional compositionin chinese main lotus seed varieties | journal = Acta Nutr Sin | volume = 25 | pages = 153–156 }}</ref>

These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s11101-015-9401-9 | title = Nutritional composition, physiological functions and processing of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds: A review | journal = Phytochemistry Reviews | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | page = 321 | year = 2015 | last1 = Zhang | first1 = Yi | last2 = Lu | first2 = Xu | last3 = Zeng | first3 = Shaoxiao | last4 = Huang | first4 = Xuhui | last5 = Guo | first5 = Zebin | last6 = Zheng | first6 = Yafeng | last7 = Tian | first7 = Yuting | last8 = Zheng | first8 = Baodong | bibcode = 2015PChRv..14..321Z | s2cid = 16527010}}</ref> It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed as [[functional food]].<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /> Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use of ''N. nucifera'' as both "food and [[Medicinal plants|medicine]]."<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.04.011 |title = Evaluation of the quality of lotus seed of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn from outer space mutation |year = 2007 |last1 = Wu |first1 = J. |last2 = Zheng |first2 = Y. |last3 = Chen |first3 = T. |last4 = Yi |first4 = J. |last5 = Qin |first5 = L. |last6 = Rahman |first6 = K. |last7 = Lin |first7 = W. |journal = Food Chemistry |volume = 105 |issue = 2 |pages = 540–547}}</ref>

The functional components (polyphenols, protein, polysaccharides) in ''N. nucifera'' seeds can help combat high [[Hypertension|blood pressure]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], and [[gallstone]]s.<ref{{Citation nameneeded|date="auto">WuFebruary C, Xia Y, Tang X (2013) Optimization of the fermentation process for lotus rice-wine production by response surface methodology. Mod Food Sci Technol 29:1675–1679</ref>2024}}

In Asian art, a [[lotus throne]] is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It is the normal pedestal for divine figures in [[Buddhist art]] and [[Hindu art]] and is often seen in [[Jain art]]. Originating in [[Indian art]], it followed [[Indian religions]] to [[East Asia]] in particular. Lotus flowers are also often held by figures.<ref>Jansen, Eva Rudy, ''The Book of Hindu Imagery: The Gods and their Symbols'', p. 18, 1993, Binkey Kok Publications, {{ISBN|9074597076}}, 9789074597074, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1iASyoae8cMC&pg=PA18 google books]</ref><ref>Krishan, Yuvrajmm, Tadikonda, Kalpana K., ''The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development'', pp. 65, 78, 1996, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|8121505658}}, 9788121505659, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA65 google books]</ref><ref>Moore, Albert C., Klein, Charlotte, ''Iconography of Religions: An Introduction'', p. 148, 1977, Chris Robertson, {{ISBN|0800604881}}, 9780800604882, [https://books.google.com/books?id=chWcZcYcyeQC&pg=PA149 google books]</ref><ref>Rodrigues, H, [http://www.mahavidya.ca/2016/04/22/the-sacred-lotus-symbol/ "The Sacred Lotus Symbol"], ''Mahavidya'', 2016</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shakti |first=M. Gupta |title=Plant Myths and Traditions in India |year=1971 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=[[Netherlands]] |pages=65–67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref>

The ''Nelumbo nucifera'', which is also called ([[Niloufar|Nilufar]] Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of [[Anahita]] in the [[Persepolis]]. The lotus flower was included in [[Kaveh the blacksmith]]'s [[Derafsh]] and later as the flag of the Sasanian Empire [[Derafsh Kaviani]]. Today, it is the symbol of Iranians [[Solar Hijri calendar]].