|
|
m added a paragraph about how pangolins are important for the ecosystem
|
||
| (32 intermediate revisions by 22 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
{{
[[File:Zoo Leipzig - Tou Feng.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[Chinese pangolin]] (''Manis pentadactyla'') at [[Zoo Leipzig]] in [[Leipzig]], Germany]]
[[File:Manis ranges.png|thumb|300px|Pangolin species distributions:
Line 9:
{{leftlegend|#FF0090|'''[[Long-tailed pangolin]]''' ('''''Phataginus tetradactyla''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#03C03C|'''[[Giant pangolin]]''' ('''''Smutsia gigantea''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#1560BD|'''[[Ground pangolin|Cape pangolin]]''' ('''''Smutsia temminckii''''')|outline=gray}}
]]
The '''pangolin trade''' is the illegal [[poaching]], [[wildlife smuggling|trafficking]], and sale of [[pangolin]]s, parts of pangolins, or pangolin-derived products on the [[black market]]. Pangolins are believed to be the world's most trafficked [[mammal]], accounting for as much as 20% of all [[Wildlife trade|illegal wildlife trade]].<ref name=cnnchangethelist/><ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=ap5october2016/> According to the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), more than a million pangolins were poached in the decade prior to 2014.<ref name=iucnextinction/>
The animals are trafficked mainly for their [[Scale (anatomy)|scales]], which are believed to treat a variety of health conditions in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM), and as a luxury food in Vietnam and China. In Africa, pangolins are sold as a form of [[bushmeat]], for ritual or spiritual purposes, and use in [[traditional African medicine]]. Many times the animal is trafficked just for clothing and fashion.
Line 27:
==History==
The pangolin trade is centuries old. An early known example is in 1820, when [[Francis Rawdon]],
The [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] (CITES), which regulates the international wildlife trade, added the eight known species of pangolin to its appendices in 1975. CITES places species it seeks to protect in three appendices organized according to urgency and, correspondingly, the strictness of the regulations. Appendix I includes the strictest prohibitions and is reserved for animals threatened with extinction.<ref name=citeshow/> In 1975, ''[[Ground pangolin|Smutsia temminckii]]'' was placed in Appendix I; ''[[Indian pangolin|Manis crassicaudata]]'', ''[[Philippine pangolin|Manis culionensis]]'', ''[[Sunda pangolin|Manis javanica]]'', and ''[[Chinese pangolin|Manis pentadactyla]]'' were placed in Appendix II; ''[[Giant pangolin|Smutsia gigantea]]'', ''[[Long-tailed pangolin|Phataginus tetradactyla]]'', and ''[[Tree pangolin|Phataginus tricuspis]]'' were placed in Appendix III.<ref name=citeschecklist/> In 1995, ''Smutsia'' and ''Phataginus'' were moved to Appendix II. Finally, in 2016, at the 17th CITES Conference of Parties in [[Johannesburg]], representatives of 182 countries unanimously enacted a ban on the international trade of all pangolin species by moving them to Appendix I.<ref name=guardian28september2016/> Though the individual species are listed in Appendix I, the family as a whole (Manidae) is under Appendix II, with the implication that if additional species are discovered, they will be automatically placed in Appendix II.<ref name=citeschecklist/>
Line 33:
Despite restrictions on trade in place since 1975, enforcement is not uniformly strong. Most efforts have focused on curbing the supply side of the trade, but demand remains high and there is a thriving [[black market]]. Pangolins are believed to be the world's most trafficked mammal, accounting for as much as 20% of all illegal wildlife trade.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/><ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=ap5october2016/> In 2014, the [[Worldwatch Institute]] reported that more pangolins were seized than any other animal in Asia's wildlife black market.<ref name=quartz/><ref name=worldwatch/> Estimates place the number of pangolins poached each year at between 10,000 and 100,000.<ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=cnnchangethelist/> The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) estimates that more than a million pangolins were poached in the decade prior to 2014.<ref name=iucnextinction/> Most are sent to China and Vietnam, where their meat is prized and scales used for medicinal purposes.<ref name=telegraph1january2015/>
African and Asian nations frequently report on noteworthy confiscations of pangolins and pangolin parts. When a Chinese boat ran into a [[coral reef]] in the Philippines in 2013, officials discovered it to be carrying 10 tonnes of frozen pangolins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/apr/15/chinese-vessel-philippine-reef-illegal-pangolin-meat|title=Chinese vessel on Philippine coral reef caught with illegal pangolin meat|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2013-04-15|website=
During the [[COVID-19 pandemic|2019-20 coronavirus pandemic]], [[nucleic acid sequence]]s of [[virus]]es taken from pangolins had initially been found to be a 99% match with [[SARS-CoV-2]], the virus which causes [[COVID-19]].<ref name="Cyranoski-2020">{{Cite journal|last=Cyranoski|first=David|date=2020-02-07|title=Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people?|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00364-2|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|language=en|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00364-2|pmid=33547428|s2cid=212825975|access-date=2020-03-22|archive-date=2020-02-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207163538/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00364-2|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=P.|last2=Chen|first2=W.|last3=Chen|first3=J.-P.|year=2019|title=Viral Metagenomics Revealed Sendai Virus and Coronavirus Infection of Malayan Pangolins (Manis javanica)|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=11|page=979|doi=10.3390/v11110979|pmid=31652964|pmc=6893680|doi-access=free}}</ref> The virus was believed to have originated in [[bat]]s, and that pangolins were an intermediate host prior to infecting humans. The illicit Chinese trade of pangolins was suggested as a [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]] for human transmission.<ref name="Cyranoski-2020" /><ref name="Live">{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/first-case-coronavirus-found.html|title=1st known case of coronavirus traced back to November in China|last1=Bryner|first1=Jeanna|date=March 15, 2020|publisher=[[LiveScience]]|
==Asia==
Line 43:
[[File:Myanmar Illicit Endangered Wildlife Market 04 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Illicit wildlife trade in Myanmar|alt=]]
Pangolins have a thick layer of protective scales made from keratin, the same material that makes up human [[fingernail]]s and [[rhinoceros]] horns.<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> Scales account for about 20
The scales can cost more than $3,000/kg on the black market.<ref name="telegraph1january2015" /> In [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM), the scales are used for a variety of purposes. The pangolins are boiled to remove the scales,<ref name="cnnchangethelist" /> which are dried and roasted, then sold based on claims that they can stimulate [[lactation]],<ref name="telegraph1january2015" /> help to drain [[pus]],<ref name="telegraph1january2015" /> and relieve [[skin disease]]s<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> or [[palsy]].<ref name="telegraph1january2015" /> {{as of|2015}}, pangolin scales were covered under some [[health insurance]] plans in Vietnam.<ref name="nytimes30march2015a" />
Line 53:
===Ongoing use in traditional medicine===
The official [[pharmacopoeia]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] continues to include Chinese pangolin scales as an ingredient in TCM formulations, and there is a legal market for scales.<ref name=PanMed>{{cite book |last1=Xing |first1=Shuang
===Other products===
Though meat and scales are the primary drivers of the intercontinental pangolin trade, there are also other less common parts and uses. Pangolin [[wine]] is produced by boiling [[rice wine]] with a baby pangolin.<ref name="cnnchangethelist" /> It is purported to have various healing properties, such as for treatment of [[skin disease]] and improved breathing.<ref name="cnnchangethelist" /><ref name="cnn28september2016" /> Pangolin [[blood]] is similarly viewed by some as having medicinal value.<ref name="cnnchangethelist" /> Pangolin skins have also been trafficked. In 2015, Uganda reported it had seized two tons of pangolin skins.<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> There is also evidence of live pangolins traded internationally as zoo animals.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pangolinsg.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/06/Brauigam-et-al._1994_Recent-information-on-the-status-and-use-of-African-pangolins.pdf|title=Recent Information on the Status and Utilization of African Pangolins|last=Brautigam|first=Amie|date=1994|website=Pangolins.org|access-date=March 17, 2019|archive-date=April 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401134145/https://www.pangolinsg.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/06/Brauigam-et-al._1994_Recent-information-on-the-status-and-use-of-African-pangolins.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Africa ==
Humans hunt, trade, and traffic pangolins in Africa for spiritual purposes, traditional medicine, and consumption as bushmeat.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/pangolin|title=The world's most trafficked mammal is being slaughtered for its scales|date=2013-02-25|website=African Wildlife Foundation|access-date=2019-03-14|archive-date=2020-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825093140/https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/pangolin|url-status=live}}</ref> In some areas, poaching of pangolins is protected by either laws or cultural or spiritual taboos.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|
=== Bushmeat ===
Pangolins are [[Poaching|poached]] by subsistence hunters for direct consumption, sold in local markets, as well as purchased directly from home-working vendors or hunters.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pangolinsg.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/06/Brauigam-et-al._1994_Recent-information-on-the-status-and-use-of-African-pangolins.pdf|title=Recent Information on the Status and Utilization of African Pangolins|last=Brautigam|first=Amie|date=1994|website=Pangolins.org|access-date=March 17, 2019|archive-date=April 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401134145/https://www.pangolinsg.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/06/Brauigam-et-al._1994_Recent-information-on-the-status-and-use-of-African-pangolins.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A 1988 report found that in Nigeria, the [[long-tailed pangolin|long-tailed]] (''Phataginus tetradactyla'') and [[tree pangolin|white-bellied]] (''Phataginus tricuspis'') species were the second-most expensive bushmeat.<ref name=":15" /> However, in some areas, such as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], pangolins are one of the least frequently captured animals for bushmeat (totaling 1.7% of the species recorded in 1987).<ref name=":15" /> This was in-part due to their elusive nature as well as social taboos.<ref name=":15" /> In [[Ghana]], pangolins are hunted using traps, guns, or dogs, and often traded directly from hunters to roadside restaurants or wholesalers, bypassing markets.<ref>{{Cite journal|
=== Traditional medicine===
[[File:Pangolin scale burn in Cameroon. Credit- Kenneth Cameron - USFWS (2) (32575640450).jpg|thumb|Confiscated pangolin scales set to be destroyed in Cameroon in 2017]]Pangolins play a number of roles in traditional African medicine, and a larger number of the animals' parts have a purpose.<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |last1=Boakye |first1=Maxwell Kwame |last2=Pietersen |first2=Darren William |last3=Kotzé |first3=Antoinette |last4=Dalton |first4=Desiré-Lee |last5=Jansen |first5=Raymond |last6=Ai |first6=Jing |title=Knowledge and Uses of African Pangolins as a Source of Traditional Medicine in Ghana |journal=[[PLOS
The scales are used by [[Yorùbá medicine|Yorubic medical practitioners]] in Nigeria to treat, cure, or regulate stomach disorders, [[gonorrhea]], menstrual periods, genital itching or swelling, wounds and cuts, mental illness, stroke, and serve as an antidote for various poisons.<ref name=":25" /> The [[Awori tribe|Awori Tribe]] uses them to treat back pain, mental illness, rheumatism, stomach ulcers, venereal diseases, wounds and cuts, low sexual libido, and as antibiotics.<ref name=":44">{{cite journal|last1=Soewu|first1=Durojaye A|last2=Adekanola|first2=Temilolu A|date=2011|title=Traditional-medical knowledge and perception of pangolins (manis sps) among the awori people, Southwestern Nigeria|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=7|issue=1|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-7-25|pmc=3179697|pmid=21884607 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In Ghana, a study in [[Kumasi]] found scales used to treat a number of different medical ailments like rheumatism, infertility, convulsions, epilepsy, menstrual pains, stomach disorders, headaches, waist and back pain, stroke, mental illness, skin scars, waterborne illnesses, and leprosy.<ref name=":18" /> Research in Lentsweletau, Botswana found scales used for cracked heels, persistent cough, and nose bleeds in humans, and, when burned, the smoke was used to improve the health of cattle.<ref>{{Citation|title=Animals and African Ethics|year=2015|chapter=Animals and the Law in East, West and Southern Africa|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|doi=10.1057/9781137504050.0012|isbn=9781137504050}}</ref> In the Bombali district of Sierra Leone, scales were used for skin disease, impotence, infertility, broken ribs, stomach diseases, inflammation of the naval, athletes foot, nail disorders, healingpremature babies, arthritis, rheumatism, epilepsy, body pain, ear infections, rashes, and scars.<ref name=":34">{{cite journal|last1=Boakye|first1=Maxwell K|last2=Pietersen|first2=Darren W|last3=Kotzé|first3=Antoinette|last4=Dalton|first4=Desiré L|last5=Jansen|first5=Raymond|date=2014|title=Ethnomedicinal use of African pangolins by traditional medical practitioners in Sierra Leone|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=10|issue=1|pages=76|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-10-76|pmc=4247607|pmid=25412571 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
In Yorubic medicine, pangolin bones are used to treat stroke, back pain, and [[rheumatism]], while the Awori also use them to treat mental illness.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":44" /> In Ghana, they have been used for rheumatism, convulsions, headaches, stroke, waist pain, asthma, mental illness, fever, bed-wetting, broken legs, rashes, and breast cancer.<ref name=":18" />
Line 78:
=== Non-medicinal beliefs ===
In Africa, pangolins are used for a variety of non-medicinal purposes, such as improving finances, improving luck, or protecting against spiritual forces.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/content/eating-pangolins-extinction|title=Eating pangolins to extinction|date=2014-07-29|website=IUCN|access-date=2019-03-16|archive-date=2016-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125175332/https://www.iucn.org/content/eating-pangolins-extinction|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":18" /><ref name=":73" /><ref name=":25" /><ref name=":34" />
Some groups in Nigeria believe the flesh of the pangolin can give the consumer the power of divination, or otherwise bring good luck, safety, or calmness.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":44" /> People looking for business success might use the head and the tip of the tail.<ref name=":44" /> The limbs are believed to bring good fortune and money.<ref name=":44" /> The scales of a pangolin may be used to give good luck, increase the productivity of a farm, ward off witches and evil forces, have a safe delivery of a child, provide protection, to arrest thieves, and to create amulets.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":44" /> The whole body of a pangolin is used in building rituals, for good fortune, prosperity, warding off sickness, curing infertility in women, granting invisibility, achieving good sales in business, prevent spells or curses, hypnosis, or seduction.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":44" />
Line 85:
In the Bombali district of Sierra Leone, scales, meat, blood, intestines, claws, and whole pangolin are part of the pangolin body are used.<ref name=":34" /> The scales of the pangolin are used to make one invulnerable to bullets or cuts, to provide protection from witchcraft, and other forms of spiritual protection.<ref name=":34" /> The meat of a pangolin is used to increase intelligence of an individual, and the tail of a pangolin is used to prevent against a snake bite and to provide spiritual protection.<ref name=":34" /> The blood and claws of a pangolin is used for protection against witchcraft while the intestines of the pangolin are used for good luck.<ref name=":34" />
==Conservation and enforcement==
Line 92 ⟶ 91:
Governments and non-governmental organizations have undertaken a variety of conservation efforts, with varying activities and degrees of success in different parts of the world. The IUCN's [[IUCN Species Survival Commission|Species Survival Commission]] formed a Pangolin Specialist Group in 2012, comprising 100 experts from 25 countries, hosted by the [[Zoological Society of London]].<ref name="iucnextinction" /> It also coordinated an annual [[awareness day]], World Pangolin Day, on February 15, starting in 2014.<ref name="cnnchangethelist" />
Public awareness and support for conservation efforts can be important to their success. According to Annette Olsson, technical advisor at [[Conservation International]], one of the problems the pangolin faces is that, unlike more well-known endangered animals like [[elephant]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es, [[panda]]s, or [[tiger]]s, "It's not huge and not very charismatic. It's small and weird and just disappearing."<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> Legal measures focus on curbing poaching and the supply side of the market, while media attention and public awareness can be crucial to the success to animal conservation efforts by affecting demand. According to CNN's John D. Sutter, "the pangolin needs international celebrity to survive, and the CITES vote is a critical step toward achieving that celebrity."<ref name="cnn28september2016" /> In some part due to lack of attention, pangolin conservation has not been a significant recipient of funding from governments or [[non-governmental organization|NGOs]].<ref name="cnnchangethelist" />
Declining numbers of pangolin population also has detrimental effects on the ecosystem. The pangolins diet consists mainly of ants and termites in which they help with stabilizing forest pest destruction and controls forest termite disasters<ref name=":0" />. When foraging for their food by digging through the ground, pangolins actually help aerate the soil and assists in the process of decomposing organic matter. Additionally, though some pangolins species sleep in trees, others sleep in burrows they dig underground. But, pangolins frequently abandon their burrows which allows other animals to use it for themselves, helping out the rest of the animal kingdom.[[File:Weston Library Opening by John Cairns 20.3.15-139 David Attenborough.jpg|thumb|upright|[[David Attenborough]] has advocated for the protection of pangolins.]]On 17 February 2017, a day before World Pangolin Day, officials in [[Cameroon]] burned 3 tonnes of confiscated pangolin scales, representing up to 10,000 animals. The Cameroonian government had confiscated more than 8 tonnes of pangolin scales since 2013.<ref name=awf/> This conservation strategy is similar to the increasingly common [[destruction of ivory|destroying confiscated ivory]] to deter poaching and generate public outrage or action. As with ivory, there is an opportunity cost to destroying the material, trading awareness via public spectacle for the money which could be gained by reselling what was confiscated.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/>
In Vietnam, one of the countries in which the pangolin trade is most active, activists have access to only two centers able to take care of pangolins, and together they can only keep 50 animals in total.<ref name=nytimes30march2015a/> ''CNN'' characterized Vietnamese activists as having "vastly inadequate support."<ref name=cnnchangethelist/>
Line 98 ⟶ 99:
A significant challenge to conservationists is the difficulty pangolins have in captivity. The animals do not adapt well to alternative or artificial foods and suffer stress, depression and malnutrition, leading to significantly shortened lifespans.<ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=nytimes30march2015/> For these reasons they are rarely found in zoos or visible to the public while alive.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/> For example, {{as of|2015|lc=y}}, the only zoo in the United States to have a pangolin is the [[San Diego Zoo]], and only one because the other died due to digestive problems.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/> Part of the problem, which is also a major cause of the problem, is that without the ability to observe healthy pangolins in captivity, there is still a lot about pangolins humans have not yet been able to learn – variety in their diet, maximum lifespan, maximum size, mating habits, and many aspects of their behavior.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/>
In an episode of the [[BBC]] program ''[[Natural World (TV series)|Natural World]]'', [[David Attenborough]] highlighted the Sunda pangolin as one of the
In January 2022, an endangered pangolin was captured and "held hostage" by rebels in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DRC]]. They demanded ransom money from conservationists in exchange for the animal's release.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-26|title=Pangolin held to ransom in Congo amid fears of 'new trend' in wildlife crime|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/pangolin-kidnap-ransom-congo-b2001124.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/pangolin-kidnap-ransom-congo-b2001124.html |archive-date=2022-05-24 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-28|website=[[The Independent]]|language=en}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist|2|refs=
<ref name=cnnchangethelist>{{cite web|publisher=[[CNN]]|title=Change the List: The Most Trafficked Mammal You've Never Heard Of|last=Sutter|first=John D.|url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2014/04/opinion/sutter-change-the-list-pangolin-trafficking/|date=April 2014|access-date=2017-02-25|archive-date=2015-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202055005/http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2014/04/opinion/sutter-change-the-list-pangolin-trafficking/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=iucn>
{{cite iucn |author=Mahmood, T. |author2=Challender, D. |author3=Khatiwada, A. |author4=Andleeb, S. |author5=Perera, P. |author6=Trageser, S. |author7=Ghose, A. |author8=Mohapatra, R.K. |date=2019 |title=''Manis crassicaudata'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T12761A123583998 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12761A123583998.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}<br/>
{{cite iucn |author=Schoppe, S. |author2=Katsis, L. |author3=Lagrada, L. |date=2019 |title=''Manis culionensis'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T136497A123586862 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T136497A123586862.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}<br/>
{{cite iucn |author=Challender, D. |author2=Willcox, D.H.A. |author3=Panjang, E. |author4=Lim, N. |author5=Nash, H. |author6=Heinrich, S. |author7=Chong, J. |date=2019 |title=''Manis javanica'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T12763A123584856 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12763A123584856.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}<br/>
{{cite iucn |author=Challender, D. |author2=Wu, S. |author3=Kaspal, P. |author4=Khatiwada, A. |author5=Ghose, A. |author6=Ching-Min Sun, N. |author7=Mohapatra, R.K. |author8=Laxmi Suwal, T. |date=2019 |title=''Manis pentadactyla'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T12764A168392151 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12764A168392151.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}<br/>
{{cite iucn |author=Ingram, D.J. |author2=Shirley, M.H. |author3=Pietersen, D. |author4=Godwill Ichu, I. |author5=Sodeinde, O. |author6=Moumbolou, C. |author7=Hoffmann, M. |author8=Gudehus, M. |author9=Challender, D. |date=2019 |title=''Phataginus tetradactyla'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T12766A123586126 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12766A123586126.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}<br/>
{{cite iucn |author=Pietersen, D. |author2=Moumbolou, C. |author3=Ingram, D.J. |author4=Soewu, D. |author5=Jansen, R. |author6=Sodeinde, O. |author7=Keboy Mov Linkey Iflankoy, C. |author8=Challender, D. |author9=Shirley, M.H. |date=2019 |title=''Phataginus tricuspis'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T12767A123586469 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12767A123586469.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}<br/>
{{cite iucn |author=Nixon, S. |author2=Pietersen, D. |author3=Challender, D. |author4=Hoffmann, M. |author5=Godwill Ichu, I. |author6=Bruce, T. |author7=Ingram, D.J. |author8=Matthews, N. |author9=Shirley, M.H. |date=2019 |title=''Smutsia gigantea'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T12762A123584478 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12762A123584478.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}<br/>
{{cite iucn |author=Pietersen, D. |author2=Jansen, R. |author3=Connelly, E. |date=2019 |title=''Smutsia temminckii'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T12765A123585768 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12765A123585768.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
<ref name=nytimes30march2015>{{cite web|work=[[The New York Times]]|title=A Struggle to Save the Scaly Pangolin|date=30 March 2015|last=Goode|first=Erica|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/31/science/a-struggle-to-save-the-scaly-pangolin.html|access-date=25 February 2017|archive-date=15 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615184212/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/31/science/a-struggle-to-save-the-scaly-pangolin.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=nytimes30march2015a>{{cite web|work=[[The New York Times]]|title=In Vietnam, Rampant Wildlife Smuggling Prompts Little Concern|last=Nuwer|first=Rachel|author-link=Rachel Nuwer |date=30 March 2015|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/31/science/in-vietnam-rampant-wildlife-smuggling-prompts-little-concern.html|access-date=25 February 2017|archive-date=6 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606064918/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/31/science/in-vietnam-rampant-wildlife-smuggling-prompts-little-concern.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=telegraph1january2015>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/03/15/pangolins-13-facts-about-the-worlds-most-hunted-animal/|last=Kelly|first=Guy|date=1 January 2015|title=Pangolins: 13 facts about the world's most hunted animal|access-date=5 April 2018|archive-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224153802/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/03/15/pangolins-13-facts-about-the-worlds-most-hunted-animal/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=telegraph28october2012>{{cite news|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9637972/Sir-David-Attenborough-picks-10-animals-he-would-take-on-his-ark.html|title=Sir David Attenborough picks 10 animals he would take on his ark|date=28 October 2012|last=Gray|first=Richard|access-date=5 April 2018|archive-date=25 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225064815/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9637972/Sir-David-Attenborough-picks-10-animals-he-would-take-on-his-ark.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=ap5october2016>{{cite web|
<ref name=guardian28september2016>{{cite web|work=[[The Guardian]]|last=Carrington|first=Damian|title=Pangolins thrown a lifeline at global wildlife summit with total trade ban|date=28 September 2016|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/sep/28/pangolins-thrown-a-lifeline-at-global-wildlife-summit-with-total-trade-ban|access-date=25 February 2017|archive-date=10 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110201654/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/sep/28/pangolins-thrown-a-lifeline-at-global-wildlife-summit-with-total-trade-ban|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=citeshow>{{cite web|publisher=CITES Secretariat, United Nations Environment Program|title=How CITES works|url=https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/how.php|
<ref name=citeschecklist>{{cite web|url=http://checklist.cites.org/#/en/search/output_layout=alphabetical&level_of_listing=0&show_synonyms=1&show_author=1&show_english=1&show_spanish=1&show_french=1&scientific_name=Manis&page=1&per_page=20|title=Checklist of CITES Species|publisher=CITES Secretariat, United Nations Environment Program|
<ref name=cnn28september2016>{{cite web|publisher=[[CNN]]|last=Sutter|first=John D.|date=28 September 2016|title=This is the week to save the world's most trafficked mammal|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/09/28/opinions/sutter-pangolin-cites-illegal-trade/|access-date=26 February 2017|archive-date=27 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227151456/http://www.cnn.com/2016/09/28/opinions/sutter-pangolin-cites-illegal-trade/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=iucnextinction>{{cite web|work=IUCN|title=Eating pangolins to extinction|url=https://www.iucn.org/content/eating-pangolins-extinction|date=29 July 2014|access-date=26 February 2017|archive-date=25 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125175332/https://www.iucn.org/content/eating-pangolins-extinction|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=awf>{{cite web|title=Cameroon Burns 3 Tons of Pangolin Scales|url=https://www.awf.org/news/cameroon-burns-3-tons-pangolin-scales|publisher=African Wildlife Foundation|
<ref name=quartz>{{cite web|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|url=https://qz.com/170554/demand-for-traditional-chinese-medicine-is-killing-off-the-worlds-quirkiest-animal/|title=Demand for traditional Chinese medicine is killing off the world's quirkiest animal|last=Guilford|first=Gwynn|date=27 January 2014|access-date=7 May 2017|archive-date=7 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607205534/https://qz.com/170554/demand-for-traditional-chinese-medicine-is-killing-off-the-worlds-quirkiest-animal/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name=worldwatch>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/6198|publisher=Worldwatch Institute|title=Illegal Pangolin Trade Threatens Rare Species|last=Block|first=Ben|
}}
Line 132 ⟶ 135:
[[Category:Wildlife smuggling]]
[[Category:Pangolins]]
[[Category:Poaching]]
[[Category:Black markets]]
| |||