Ismail al-Faruqi

Al-Faruqi was born in Jaffa, in British-mandate Palestine.^[2][3] His father, 'Abd al-Huda al-Faruqi, was an Islamic judge (qadi). Al-Faruqi received his early religious education at home and in the local mosque. In 1936, he began attending the French Dominican Collège des Frères de Jaffa.

In 1942, he was appointed as a registrar of cooperative societies under the British Mandate government in Jerusalem. In 1945, he became the district governor of Galilee.^[3] Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, al-Faruqi emigrated to Beirut, Lebanon, where he studied at the American University of Beirut. He later enrolled at Indiana University, obtaining his M.A. in philosophy with a thesis titled The Ethics of Reason and the Ethics of Life (Kantian and Nietzschean Ethics) in 1949.^[4]

In his Master’s thesis, al-Faruqi examined the ethics of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche. He followed this with a second M.A. in philosophy from Harvard University in 1951 and earned his Ph.D. with a thesis titled On Justifying the Good from Indiana University in 1952.^[5] His early philosophical work laid the groundwork for his later critiques of Western ethical systems and his development of Islamic ethical thought.^[6] In his doctoral thesis, al-Faruqi argued that values are absolute, self-existent essences known a priori through emotional intuition. He based his theories on Max Scheler's use of phenomenology and Nicolai Hartmann's studies in ethics.^[7][8]

His studies led him to conclude that the absence of a transcendent foundation leads to moral relativism, prompting him to reassess his Islamic heritage. Within six years of arriving in the United States, he recognized the need for a more thorough study of Islam, which led him to study at Egypt’s Al-Azhar University. By the time he left the United States, he had developed new questions about moral obligations and sought to integrate his intellectual pursuits with his Islamic identity.^[9]

In 1958, al-Faruqi was offered a visiting fellowship at McGill University's Faculty of Divinity. He joined McGill University's Institute of Islamic Studies at the invitation of its founder, Wilfred Cantwell Smith. From 1958 to 1961, he taught alongside Smith.^[10] During his tenure, he studied Christian theology and Judaism and became acquainted with Pakistani philosopher Fazlur Rahman, significantly shaping his comparative religious framework and his critical approach to interfaith dialogue.^[11]

In 1961, Rahman arranged a two-year appointment for al-Faruqi at the Central Institute of Islamic ResearchinKarachi, Pakistan, to expose him to diverse Muslim cultures. Al-Faruqi worked as a visiting professor there from 1961 to 1963.^[2] His exposure to diverse Muslim cultures and his studies of Western and Islamic traditions significantly shaped his later works and theories on comparative religion and meta-religion.^[12][13]

In 1964, Al-Faruqi returned to the United States and served as a visiting professor at the University of Chicago's Divinity School and as an associate professor at Syracuse University.

In 1968, he joined Temple University as a professor of religion, where he founded the Islamic Studies Program and held the position until he died in 1986.^[14] During his tenure at Temple University, al-Faruqi mentored many students, including his first doctoral student, John Esposito.^[15][16]

In 1973, al-Faruqi established the Islamic Studies Group in the American Academy of Religion (AAR) and chaired it for ten years.^[14]

In March 1977, al-Faruqi played a significant role in the First World Conference on Muslim Education in Makkah. This conference included participants such as Muhammad Kamal Hassan, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, and Syed Ali Ashraf, among others. The conference laid the groundwork for establishing Islamic universities in Dhaka, Islamabad, Kuala Lumpur, Kampala, and Niger. Al-Faruqi was instrumental in the conference's deliberations and the development of its action plans.^[16]

Al-Faruqi's early intellectual focus was on 'urubah (Arabism). He argued that 'urubah was the core identity and set of values uniting all Muslims into a single community of believers (ummah). Al-Faruqi believed that Arabic, as the language of the Qur'an, was essential for fully understanding the Islamic conception of the world. He posited that 'urubah was inseparable from Muslim identity, embracing linguistic and religious dimensions. These ideas are elaborated in his book, 'Urubah and Religion.^[17] His concept of Arabism emphasized that Islam and monotheism were gifts of Arab consciousness to humanity, opposing modern race-based nationalism.^[18] He also emphasized that the revival of Islamic civilization necessitated the re-establishment of the Arabic language and culture, viewing this revival as essential to the cultural and religious unity of Muslims.^[19]

Al-Faruqi also emphasized the concept of tawhid (monotheism) as a central element of Arab religious consciousness, which he found in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This idea highlighted a shared stream of monotheistic beliefs across these religions, rooted in Arab culture and language.^[17] He believed that Islam and monotheism were gifts of Arab consciousness to humanity, which was in opposition to the race-based nationalism of the modern age.^[20]

Some scholars critiqued this stance for its perceived essentialist and Arab-centric approach.^[21] Critics, including non-Arab Muslim intellectuals, challenged his assertion that Arabic was the only linguistic structure suitable for Islamic thought. Al-Faruqi's time in Pakistan, where he was exposed to diverse Muslim cultures, did little to alter his Arab-centric views initially.^[22]

Al-Faruqi's perspectives evolved significantly after relocating to the United States. His involvement with the Muslim Students Association (MSA) at Temple University exposed him to diverse Muslim students, leading him to reconsider his earlier focus on Arabism. He began to prioritize a broader Islamic identity over Arab nationalism, stating, "Until a few months ago, I was a Palestinian, an Arab, and a Muslim. Now I am a Muslim who happens to be an Arab from Palestine".^[23] Reflecting further on his identity, he remarked, "I asked myself: Who am I? A Palestinian, a philosopher, a liberal humanist? My answer was: I am a Muslim".^[24]

He explored the historical presence and impact of Muslims in the New World, highlighting the early settlement of African Muslims, the challenges they faced during slavery, and the subsequent waves of Muslim immigration. Al-Faruqi discussed the roles of Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X in shaping the Islamic movement among African Americans. His insights into the ethical framework of Islam, the concept of Ummah, and the responsibilities of Muslim immigrants have been influential in framing the Muslim experience in North America.^[25]

This engagement also influenced his approach to interfaith dialogue, where he saw the importance of a unified Islamic identity to foster meaningful conversations with non-Muslims. His involvement in the MSA and encounters with diverse Muslim cultures in the United States reinforced his broader Islamic identity over his earlier Arab-centric views.^[22]

Al-Faruqi’s views on tawhid included a critical perspective on Sufism, which he considered to emphasize mysticism and esoteric practices. He critiqued Sufism for its mysticism, arguing that it often detracted from the rational and practical aspects of Islam.^[26] Al-Faruqi was inspired by Mu'tazilī theologians such as al-Naẓẓām and Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar, who advocated for the use of reason and logic in understanding Islamic principles. Additionally, he found value in the works of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ), whose writings combined Islamic teachings with elements of Greek philosophy. Al-Faruqi’s emphasis on tawhid extended beyond theology, promoting an integrated approach that included rational thought and ethical conduct in various aspects of life.^[27][3]

Al-Faruqi sought to establish meta-religion principles based on reason to evaluate religions against universal standards rather than against each other. This ambitious undertaking sought common ground for understanding and cooperation between different faiths. He proposed several guiding principles for dialogue, including that all dialogue is subject to critique, communication must obey laws of internal and external coherence, dialogue should correspond with reality and be free from "canonical figurizations", and a focus on ethical questions rather than theological disputes.^[28] Al-Faruqi's concept of meta-religion involves belief in God or Ultimate Reality as the totally other. He emphasized that the study of religion should not be about testing its validity through external or functional tests but about understanding the condition of the homo religiosus.^[29]

Al-Faruqi believed that meta-religious dialogue could serve as a means to achieve mutual understanding and respect between different faith communities, helping to bridge the gap created by doctrinal differences. His focus on ethics over theology was intended to facilitate more constructive and less contentious interfaith engagements.^[22]

Al-Faruqi contributed significantly to developing the concept of holistic knowledge, expressing concerns about the secularization of knowledge in Muslim societies. He discussed "the malaise of the ummah" and argued that reliance on Western secular tools and methods led to a disconnect with the ecological and social realities of Muslim nations, often overlooking breaches of Islamic ethics.^[30] He emphasized the importance of integrating Islamic principles with modern knowledge to address contemporary challenges and maintain the ethical integrity of the ummah.^[20]

Al-Faruqi's later intellectual efforts focused on the Islamization of knowledge.^[14] The concept of the Islamization of knowledge was a response to the perceived secularization and Western dominance in Muslim educational systems. His approach aimed to integrate Islamic values with modern scientific and academic disciplines, striving for a holistic epistemology that maintained ethical integrity.^[31] He sought to harmonize Islamic principles with contemporary academic disciplines, advocating for a holistic integration of faith and reason.^[32] His work in this area culminated in the founding of IIIT, which aimed to develop an Islamic epistemology and methodology for various fields of study.^[32]

Al-Faruqi emphasized the need for integrating Islamic knowledge with modern sciences. He believed in developing a unified Islamic curriculum that incorporates contemporary disciplines while grounding them in Islamic thought.^[33] His approach involved a systematic process for identifying and eliminating elements incompatible with Islamic principles and integrating Islamic values into various academic disciplines.^[33] This approach aimed to produce scholars proficient in both areas, capable of addressing contemporary challenges from an Islamic perspective. Al-Faruqi also stressed the importance of curriculum development, practical strategies for implementation, and a holistic approach to reforming the entire educational system.^[22]

Some scholars have critiqued the "Islamization of knowledge" approach for primarily targeting the humanities and excluding modern scientific knowledge. This critique suggests that this focus could lead to a sociological emphasis on Islamic knowledge and potentially neglect the secularizing impact of modern science.^[34]

Al-Faruqi was a vocal critic of Zionism, viewing it as incompatible with Judaism due to its nationalist ideology.^[35] He argued that the injustices caused by Zionism necessitated its dismantling.^[35] He proposed that former Israeli Jews who renounced Zionism could live as an "ummatic community" within the Muslim world, adhering to Jewish law as interpreted by rabbinic courts within an Islamic framework.^[35] This stance underscored his commitment to a vision of justice rooted in Islamic principles.^[22][36]

In 1980, Ismail al-Faruqi co-founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT)^[3] with Taha Jabir Alalwani, Abdul Hamid AbuSulayman, and Anwar Ibrahim.

Al-Faruqi contributed to Islamic studies through his writings and involvement in academic and interfaith organizations. He authored over 100 articles in scholarly journals and magazines and published 25 books, including Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas (1968), Islam and the Problem of Israel (1980), and Al-Tawhid: Its Implications For Thought And Life (1982). He was involved in establishing the Islamic Studies Group of the American Academy of Religion and served as its chair for ten years.^[14] Additionally, he held positions such as vice president of the Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium and president of the American Islamic College in Chicago.^[9]

Al-Faruqi was the first Muslim academic to engage in the phenomenological and history of religions approaches. He viewed these approaches as contributing to the appreciation of Islam as part of human religious history and enabling Muslim engagement in the modern study of religion and as a participant in building understanding between religions.^[14]

He also served as an adviser to political leaders in the Muslim world, including Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan and Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia.^[27] During Zia-ul-Haq’s administration, al-Faruqi contributed to the establishment of the International Islamic University in Islamabad in 1980, which aimed to integrate Islamic values with contemporary academic disciplines. In Malaysia, al-Faruqi advised Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, assisting in the foundation of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in 1983. These institutions were part of efforts to develop educational systems that combined religious and secular knowledge.^[27]

Additionally, al-Faruqi was involved in interfaith dialogue, promoting mutual understanding and cooperation among different religious communities.^[14] His efforts aimed to foster a global environment of peace and respect, highlighting the commonalities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.^[37]

Al-Faruqi's ideas on the Islamization of knowledge continue to influence contemporary Islamic thought. His emphasis on integrating Islamic principles with modern academic disciplines remains relevant for scholars and educators who aim to harmonize faith and reason. His work is frequently cited in academic conferences and publications on Islamic thought and education.^[38][39]

Al-Faruqi's contributions to interfaith dialogue are also widely recognized. Several scholarly works have noted his efforts to promote mutual understanding and cooperation among different religious communities. His approach to interfaith dialogue, which emphasized the commonalities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, is considered an important contribution to fostering a global environment of peace and respect.^[40][41]

Al-Faruqi's framework for religious studies has also inspired the establishment of related academic programs. The International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) adopted his methodologies, making religious studies a mandatory course and fostering a comprehensive understanding of religious traditions and their civilizational impact.^{[citation needed]}

Furthermore, Al-Faruqi's scholarly works, such as Christian Ethics^[42] and Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths^[43], have provided valuable resources for interfaith dialogue and comparative religion studies, influencing both Islamic and Western academic circles.^{[citation needed]}

Al-Faruqi's interest in Comparative Religious studies and Islam led him to spearhead the creation of the Islamic Studies Section of the American Academy of Religion (AAR) in 1976, setting the stage for Muslim-Jewish-Christian dialogue.^[44]

His contributions to the Muslim community in Montreal and his influence on Islamic scholarship have been recognized posthumously.^[10]

In May 1986, al-Faruqi and his wife were murdered^[3] at their home in Wyncote, Pennsylvania by Joseph Louis Young, also known as Yusuf Ali.^[27] Young confessed to the crime, was sentenced to death, and died in prison of natural causes in 1996.^[45][46][47] The attack also left their daughter, Anmar al-Zein, severely injured but she survived after requiring extensive medical treatment. Various theories have been suggested regarding the motivations behind the murders, including a botched burglary and politically motivated assassination.^{[48][9][49][50]}

• 'Urubah and Religion: An Analysis of the Dominant Ideas of Arabism and of Islam as Its Highest Moment of Consciousness. On Arabism. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: Djambatan. 1962.
• Christian Ethics: A Systematic and Historical Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas. Montreal and Amsterdam: McGill University Press and Djambatan. 1968.
• W.T. Chan; P.T. Raju; J. Kitagawa (1969). The Great Asian Religions. New York: Macmillan.
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• Islam and the Problem of Israel. London: The Islamic Council of Europe. 1980. ISBN 983954134X.
• A. O. Naseef, ed. (1981). Social and Natural Sciences. Sevenoaks, UK and Jeddah: Hodder and Stoughton and King Abdulaziz University.
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• Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths. Herndon, VA: IIIT. 1982. ISBN 0915957256.
• Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and Work Plan. Herndon, VA: IIIT. 1982.
• Al-Tawhid: Its Implications For Thought And Life. Kuala Lumpur: IIIT. 1982.
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• Usul al Sahyuniyah fi al Din al Yahudi (An Analytical Study of the Growth of Particularism in Hebrew Scripture). Cairo: Institute of Higher Arabic Studies. 1964.
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• An Anthology of Readings on Tawhid. Kuwait: IIFSO.
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• The Life of Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Higher Education.

• K.M. Khalid (1953). From Here We Start. Translated by Ismail Raji al-Faruqi. Washington, DC: American Council of Learned Societies.
• M. al Ghazali (1953). Our Beginning in Wisdom. Translated by Ismail Raji al-Faruqi. Washington, DC: American Council of Learned Societies.
• M. B. Ghali (1953). The Policy of Tomorrow. Translated by Ismail Raji al-Faruqi. Washington, DC: American Council of Learned Societies.
• Haykal, Muḥammad Ḥusayn (1976). The Life of Muhammad. Translated by Ismail Raji al-Faruqi. Indianapolis: North American Trust Publications. ISBN 9780892590025.
• Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al Wahhab (1979). Sourceworks of Islamic Thought: Three Essays on Tawhid. Translated by Ismail Raji al-Faruqi. Indianapolis: North American Trust Publications.

• Ataullah Siddiqui, ed. (2007). Islam and Other Faiths. Islamic Foundation.
• Imtiyaz Yusuf, ed. (2012). Islam: Religion, Practice, Culture & World Order. London: IIIT.
• International Institute of Islamic Thought, ed. (2018). Isma'il Al Faruqi: Selected Essays. London, Washington: IIIT. ISBN 978-1-56564-598-1.
• Imtiyaz Yusuf, ed. (2021). Essential Writings: Ismail Al Faruqi. Kuala Lumpur: IBT Books.

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• Al-Faruqi, Isma'IL R. (1962). "Towards a Historiography of Pre-Hijrah Islam". Islamic Studies. 1 (2): 65–87. JSTOR 20832632. Retrieved December 20, 2023.
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• "Islam as Culture and Civilization," in Islam and Contemporary Society. London and New York: Longman and the Islamic Council of Europe, 1982, pp. 140–76.
• "Jawhar al Hadarah al Islamiyah," in Al Islam wa al Hadarah. Riyadh: Al Nadwah al ‘Alamiyah li al Shahab al Islami, vol. II, 1979, pp. 583–668.
• "Intention and Works in Islam," discussion and response, Al Fikr al Islami, Algiers: Ministry of Religious Affairs, 1976, vol. Ill, pp. 135–64.
• "Al Ab’ad al Ruhiyah, wa al Siyasiyah, wa al Iqtisadiyah, wa al Ijtima’iyah li al ‘Ibadat, wa Ahamiyatuha li Kullin min al Ummah wa al Fard," discussion and response, Al Fikr al Islami, Algiers: Ministry of Religious Affairs, 1976, vol. IV, pp. 9–24, 71–158.
• "How the U. S. and Islam Can Work Together," Arabia, no. 10 (June 1982): 36.
• "Siyam (Fasting)," Al Nahdah, vol. 2, no. 2 (April–June 1982): 6–7.
• "Salat (Worship)," Al Nahdah, vol. 2, no. 1 (January–March 1982): 6–7.
• "On the Nature of Islamic Da’wah," The Muslim (October 1981): 1–4.
• "Divine Transcendence and Its Expression," The Global Congress of the World’s Religions, Proceedings 1980–1982, ed. Henry O. Thompson. New York: The Rose of Sharon Press, 1982, pp. 267–316.
• "Hisab ma’a al Jami’iyin," Al Muslim al Mu’asir, vol. 8, no. 31 (May–July 1982): 47–57.
• "Freedom of Non-Muslims in an Islamic State," The Muslim Reader, vol. 4, no. 2 (Ramadan 1402 / July 1982): 32–35.
• "Hicret’in Ihyasi ve Zamanimizda Yeniden Ikamesinin Luzumu," Milli Gazette, tr. Hamza Kucuk and H. Coskun, twenty installments, (12/26/1402 [October 13, 1982] to 1/15/1403 [December 1, 1982]).
• "Islamic ‘Fundamentalism’ and the U.S.A.," in Islamic Fundamentalism by Karim B. Akhtar and Ahmad H. Sakr. Cedar Rapids, IA: Igram Press, 1982, pp. 122–25.
• "Islam and Other Faiths," in 30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa, Middle East 1, ed. Graciela de la Lama. Mexico City: El Colegio de Mexico, 1982, pp. 153–79.
• "The Nation State and Social Order in the Perspective of Islam," in Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths. Herndon, VA: HIT, 1982, pp. 47–59.
• "Aslimah al Ma’rifah," Al Muslim al Mu’asir, vol. 8, no. 32 (August–October 1982): 9–23.
• "Islam and the Theory of Nature," The Islamic Quarterly, vol. XXVI, no. 1 (1982): 16–26.
• "The Objective of the Seminar," in Knowledge for What? (Proceedings of the Seminar of Islamization of Knowledge, Rabi’ al Awwal 1402 / January 1982). Islamabad: Institute of Education, 1982, pp. ix–xii.
• Waugh, Earle H.; Abu-Laban, Baha; Qureshi, Regula B., eds. (1983). "Islamic Ideals in North America". The Muslim Community in North America. Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press. pp. 359–370.

• "Report of the Seminar," in Knowledge for What? (Proceedings of the Seminar of Islamization of Knowledge, Rabi’ al Awwal 1402 / January 1982), Islamabad: Institute of Education, 1982, pp. xxii–xxvi.
• "Islamization of Knowledge: The General Principles and the Work-plan," in Knowledge for What? (Proceedings of the Seminar of Islamization of Knowledge, Rabi’ al Awwal, 1402 / January 1982), Islamabad: Institute of Education, 1982, pp. 1–49.
• "Nahwa Jami’ah Islamiyah," Al Muslim al Mu’asir, vol. 9, no. 33 (November 1982–January 1983): 47–56.
• "Islamization of Knowledge: The General Principles and the Work Plan," reprinted in Pakistan Journal of History and Culture, vol. 3, no. 1 (January–June 1982): 21–69.
• "Islamic Message and Islamic Vision: A Challenge for Muslims in America," The Orange Crescent, vol. 9, no. 4 (April 1983): 1–3.
• "Al Islam wa Farm al ‘Amarah," Al Muslim al Mu’asir, vol. 9, no. 34 (February–April 1983): 87–99.

• Lois Lamya al-Faruqi

• Quraishi, M. Tariq (1986). Ismail al-Faruqi: An Enduring Legacy. Plainfield, IN: Muslim Students Association of the U.S.A. and Canada. OCLC 63933715.
• Shafiq, Muhammad (1994). Growth of Islamic Thought in North America: Focus on Isma'il Raji al Faruqi. Brentwood, MD: Amana Publications. ISBN 9780915957163. OCLC 30154345.
• Siddiqui, Ataullah (1997). Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London: Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN 0333673581.
• Zebiri, Kate (1997). Muslims and Christians Face to Face. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851681337. OCLC 37537981.
• Yusuf, Imtiyaz (2012). Islam and Knowledge: Al Faruqi's Concept of Religion in Islamic Thought. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 9780857731265. OCLC 851315602.
• --------, Yusuf, Imtiyaz (Spring–Summer 2014). "Ismail al-Faruqi's Contribution to the Academic Study of Religion". Islamic Studies. 53 (1/2). Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad: 99–115. JSTOR 44627369.
• Fletcher, Charles (2014). Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Inter-faith Dialogue and the Work of Ismail Al-Faruqi. London, UK: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9780857738288. OCLC 1030941522.
• Rafiabadi, Hamid Naseem (2023). Life and Work of Prof. Ismail Raji Al-Faruqi. New Delhi, India: Institute of Objective Studies. ISBN 9789391659387. OCLC 1378474036.

• Ismail Faruqi Online Website on the life and works of Dr. Isma'il al Faruqi
• Works by Ismail al-FaruqiinOpen Library, Internet Archive