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{{Short description|Species of plant}} |
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{{Use Australian English|date=November 2017}} |
{{Use Australian English|date=November 2017}} |
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{{Speciesbox |
{{Speciesbox |
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|image = Mature mangrove tree (Avicennia marina) at edge of Lake Be Malae.jpg |
|image = Mature mangrove tree (Avicennia marina) at edge of Lake Be Malae.jpg |
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|image_caption = |
|image_caption = At Lago Malai, [[East Timor]] |
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|status = LC |
|status = LC |
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|status_system = IUCN3.1 |
|status_system = IUCN3.1 |
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|status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite |
|status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite iucn |author=Duke, N. |author2=Kathiresan, K. |author3=Salmo III, S.G. |author4=Fernando, E.S. |author5=Peras, J.R. |author6=Sukardjo, S. |author7=Miyagi, T. |author8=Ellison, J. |author9=Koedam, N.E. |author10=Wang, Y. |author11=Primavera, J. |author12=Jin Eong, O. |author13=Wan-Hong Yong, J. |author14=Ngoc Nam, V. |year=2010 |title=''Avicennia marina'' |page=e.T178828A7619457 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-2.RLTS.T178828A7619457.en |access-date=16 November 2022}}</ref> |
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|genus = Avicennia |
|genus = Avicennia |
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|species = marina |
|species = marina |
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|authority = ([[Forssk.]]) [[Vierh.]] |
|authority = ([[Peter Forsskål|Forssk.]]) [[Friedrich Karl Max Vierhapper|Vierh.]] |
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|synonyms_ref = <ref name=TPL>{{ThePlantList | id = kew-18454 | taxon = Avicennia marina | authority = (Forssk.) Vierh. | access-date = 21 May 2016 }}</ref> |
|synonyms_ref = <ref name=TPL>{{ThePlantList | id = kew-18454 | taxon = Avicennia marina | authority = (Forssk.) Vierh. | access-date = 21 May 2016 }}</ref> |
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|synonyms = |
|synonyms = |
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==Description== |
==Description== |
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Grey mangroves grow as a shrub or tree to a height of {{convert|3|to|10|m|ft|abbr=on}}, or up to {{convert|14|m}} in tropical regions. The habit is a gnarled arrangement of multiple branches. It has smooth light-grey bark made up of thin, stiff, brittle flakes. This may be whitish, a characteristic described in the common name. The leaves are thick, {{convert|5|to|8|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, a bright, glossy green on the upper surface, and silvery-white, or grey, with very small matted hairs on the surface below. As with other ''[[Avicennia]]'' species, it has [[aerial root]]s (pneumatophores) |
Grey mangroves grow as a shrub or tree to a height of {{convert|3|to|10|m|ft|abbr=on|0}}, or up to {{convert|14|m}} in tropical regions. The habit is a gnarled arrangement of multiple branches. It has smooth light-grey bark made up of thin, stiff, brittle flakes. This may be whitish, a characteristic described in the common name. The leaves are thick, {{convert|5|to|8|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, a bright, glossy green on the upper surface, and silvery-white, or grey, with very small matted hairs on the surface below. As with other ''[[Avicennia]]'' species, it has [[aerial root]]s (pneumatophores), which grow to a height of about {{cvt|20|cm}}, and a diameter of {{cvt|1|cm|1}}. These allow the plant to absorb oxygen, which is deficient in its habitat. These roots also anchor the plant during the frequent inundation of seawater in the soft substrate of tidal systems. The flowers range from white to a golden yellow colour, are less than {{cvt|1|cm|1}} across, and occur in clusters of three to five. The fruit contains large [[cotyledon]]s that surround the new stem of a seedling. This produces a large, fleshy seed, often germinating on the tree and falling as a seedling.<ref name="adelaideplants" /> The grey mangrove can experience stunted growth in water conditions that are too saline, but thrive to their full height in waters where both salt and fresh water are present. The species can tolerate high salinity by excreting salts through its leaves.<ref name = "Rippey">{{cite book |last= Rippey| first=Elizabeth |author2=Rowland, Barbara |title=Coastal plants: Perth and the south-west region |orig-year=1995 |edition= 2nd |year=2004 |publisher= [[University of Western Australia|UWA]] Press |location= Perth |isbn= 1-920694-05-6}}</ref> |
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The grey mangrove is a highly variable tree, with a number of ecotypes, and in forms closely resembling other species. It has been reported to tolerate extreme weather conditions, high winds, and various pests and diseases. It is a pioneer in muddy soil conditions with a pH value of 6.5 to 8.0, but is intolerant of shade. |
The grey mangrove is a highly variable tree, with a number of ecotypes, and in forms closely resembling other species. It has been reported to tolerate extreme weather conditions, high winds, and various pests and diseases. It is a pioneer in muddy soil conditions with a pH value of 6.5 to 8.0, but is intolerant of shade.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} |
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==Subdivision== |
==Subdivision== |
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A number of botanists have proposed division of the species, but currently three subspecies and one variety are recognised:<ref name="POWO_861130-1">{{cite web |title=''Avicennia marina'' (Forssk.) Vierh. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url= |
A number of botanists have proposed division of the species, but currently three subspecies and one variety are recognised:<ref name="POWO_861130-1">{{cite web |title=''Avicennia marina'' (Forssk.) Vierh. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:861130-1 |access-date=2022-03-17 }}</ref> |
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*''A. m.'' subsp. ''australasica'' <small>(Walp.) J.Everett</small> |
*''A. m.'' subsp. ''australasica'' <small>(Walp.) J.Everett</small> |
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*''A. m.'' subsp. ''eucalyptifolia'' <small>(Valeton) J.Everett</small> |
*''A. m.'' subsp. ''eucalyptifolia'' <small>(Valeton) J.Everett</small> |
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==Distribution== |
==Distribution== |
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It is distributed along [[Africa]]'s east coast, [[South-west Asia|south-west]], south and south-east [[Asia]], [[Australia]], and northern parts of [[New Zealand]]. It is one of the few mangroves found in the arid regions of the coastal [[Arabian Peninsula]], mainly in [[sabkha]] environments in the [[United Arab Emirates]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uae.gov.ae/uaeagricent/FISHERIES/mangrove_en.stm |title=Mangrove_Fisheries |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125120841/http://www.uae.gov.ae/uaeagricent/FISHERIES/mangrove_en.stm |archive-date=January 25, 2009 }}</ref> [[Qatar]],<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.freewebs.com/drtayab/Publications/Mangrove%20Conservation%20Programme.pdf |title= Mangrove Conservation Programme}}</ref> [[Bahrain]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Critical Habitats Assessment|url=https://www.bapco.net/downloads/Critical-Habitats-Assessment.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001111055/https://www.bapco.net/downloads/Critical-Habitats-Assessment.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2021 |access-date=|website=}}</ref> [[Oman]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arabianwildlife.uaeinteract.com/current/mangrove.html |title=Mangrove_Arabian Wildlife |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417005211/http://arabianwildlife.uaeinteract.com/current/mangrove.html |archive-date=2010-04-17 }}</ref> as well as in similar environments on both side of the [[Red Sea]] (in [[Yemen]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/coa_cou_887.pdf |title=Mangrove_World Resource Institute |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081128190557/http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/coa_cou_887.pdf |archive-date=November 28, 2008 }}</ref> [[Saudi Arabia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eprints.kfupm.edu.sa/3871/ |title=KFUPM ePrints }}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> [[Egypt]],<ref name="IUCN" /> [[Eritrea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Avicennia%20marina_En.htm |title=Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh._PROTA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327051149/http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Avicennia%20marina_En.htm |archive-date=2013-03-27 }}</ref> and [[Sudan]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1533e/J1533E36.htm|title=FAO Corporate Document Repository_Sudan}}</ref> and Qatar<ref>{{cite book|last1=Norton|first1=John|last2=Majid|first2=Sara Abdul|last3=Allan|first3=Debbie|last4=Al Safran|first4=Mohammed|last5=Böer|first5=Benno|last6=Richer|first6=Renee|title=An Illustrated Checklist of the Flora of Qatar|date=2009|publisher=Browndown Publications, Gosport, UK|isbn=978-0-9563961-0-5|url=http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Doha/pdf/SC/Plant%2520Species%2520Checklist%2520of%2520Qatar.pdf|access-date=6 February 2016}}</ref> and southern [[Mangrove forests of Qeshm|Iran]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Harra Protected Area|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5277/|website=UNESCO » Culture » World Heritage Centre » The List » Global Strategy » Tentative Lists|access-date=6 February 2016}}</ref> along the Persian Gulf coast. It is a characteristic species of the [[Southern Africa mangroves]] ecoregion, and is one of three species present in Africa's southernmost mangroves, in the estuary of [[South Africa]]'s [[Nahoon River]] at 32°56′S.<ref>Naidoo, Gonasageran (2016). "The mangroves of South Africa: An ecophysiological review". ''South African Journal of Botany'', Volume 107, November 2016, Pages 101-113</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=van Wyk|last1= |
It is distributed along [[Africa]]'s east coast, [[South-west Asia|south-west]], south and south-east [[Asia]], [[Australia]], and northern parts of [[New Zealand]]. It is one of the few mangroves found in the arid regions of the coastal [[Arabian Peninsula]], mainly in [[sabkha]] environments in the [[United Arab Emirates]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uae.gov.ae/uaeagricent/FISHERIES/mangrove_en.stm |title=Mangrove_Fisheries |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125120841/http://www.uae.gov.ae/uaeagricent/FISHERIES/mangrove_en.stm |archive-date=January 25, 2009 }}</ref> [[Qatar]],<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.freewebs.com/drtayab/Publications/Mangrove%20Conservation%20Programme.pdf |title= Mangrove Conservation Programme}}</ref> [[Bahrain]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Critical Habitats Assessment|url=https://www.bapco.net/downloads/Critical-Habitats-Assessment.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001111055/https://www.bapco.net/downloads/Critical-Habitats-Assessment.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2021 |access-date=|website=}}</ref> [[Oman]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arabianwildlife.uaeinteract.com/current/mangrove.html |title=Mangrove_Arabian Wildlife |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417005211/http://arabianwildlife.uaeinteract.com/current/mangrove.html |archive-date=2010-04-17 }}</ref> as well as in similar environments on both side of the [[Red Sea]] (in [[Yemen]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/coa_cou_887.pdf |title=Mangrove_World Resource Institute |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081128190557/http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/coa_cou_887.pdf |archive-date=November 28, 2008 }}</ref> [[Saudi Arabia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eprints.kfupm.edu.sa/3871/ |title=KFUPM ePrints }}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> [[Egypt]],<ref name="IUCN" /> [[Eritrea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Avicennia%20marina_En.htm |title=Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh._PROTA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327051149/http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Avicennia%20marina_En.htm |archive-date=2013-03-27 }}</ref> and [[Sudan]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1533e/J1533E36.htm|title=FAO Corporate Document Repository_Sudan}}</ref> and Qatar<ref>{{cite book|last1=Norton|first1=John|last2=Majid|first2=Sara Abdul|last3=Allan|first3=Debbie|last4=Al Safran|first4=Mohammed|last5=Böer|first5=Benno|last6=Richer|first6=Renee|title=An Illustrated Checklist of the Flora of Qatar|date=2009|publisher=Browndown Publications, Gosport, UK|isbn=978-0-9563961-0-5|url=http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Doha/pdf/SC/Plant%2520Species%2520Checklist%2520of%2520Qatar.pdf|access-date=6 February 2016}}</ref> and southern [[Mangrove forests of Qeshm|Iran]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Harra Protected Area|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5277/|website=UNESCO » Culture » World Heritage Centre » The List » Global Strategy » Tentative Lists|access-date=6 February 2016}}</ref> along the Persian Gulf coast. It is a characteristic species of the [[Southern Africa mangroves]] ecoregion, and is one of three species present in Africa's southernmost mangroves, in the estuary of [[South Africa]]'s [[Nahoon River]] at 32°56′S.<ref>Naidoo, Gonasageran (2016). "The mangroves of South Africa: An ecophysiological review". ''South African Journal of Botany'', Volume 107, November 2016, Pages 101-113</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=van Wyk|last1=B.|first2=van Wyk|last2=P.|year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgj04X12TtgC|title=Field Guide to trees of South Africa|publisher=Struik, Cape Town|isbn=9781868259229}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The species is also found in [[Somalia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Spalding|first=Mark|title=World atlas of mangroves|date=2010|publisher=Earthscan|location=London|isbn=978-1849776608|author2=Kainuma, Mami |author3=Collins, Lorna }}</ref> |
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===Australia=== |
===Australia=== |
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In Australia it occurs in every mainland [[States and territories of Australia|state]] and extends much farther south than other mangroves, with its southern most limit at [[Corner Inlet]] ( |
In Australia it occurs in every mainland [[States and territories of Australia|state]] and extends much farther south than other mangroves, with its southern most limit at [[Corner Inlet]] (38°45′S) near [[Wilson's Promontory]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]. Its distribution is disjunct in [[Western Australia]]; the population of the [[Houtman Abrolhos|Abrolhos Islands]] is {{convert|300| km|mi|abbr=on}} further south than the nearest population of [[Shark Bay]]. Another mangrove system is found {{cvt|500|km}} further south at [[Bunbury, Western Australia|Bunbury]]. This colonisation of southerly climes may have occurred relatively recently, perhaps several thousand years ago, when they were transferred by the [[Leeuwin Current]].<ref name = "Rippey"/> The most inland occurrence of mangroves in Australia is a stand of grey mangroves in the [[Mandora Marsh]], some {{cvt|60|km}} from the coast.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} In [[South Australia]] along the [[Barker Inlet]] and [[Port River]] in [[Gulf St Vincent]], as well as in sheltered bays in [[Spencer Gulf]] and the west coast of [[Eyre Peninsula]], ''A. marina'' forests form hatcheries for much of the state's fish and shellfish commercial and recreational fisheries.<ref name="adelaideplants">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FuO-NwAACAAJ|title=The Native Plants of Adelaide | last=Bagust | first=Phil |author2=Tout-Smith, Lynda | isbn=0-646-44313-5 | publisher=Department for Environment and Heritage | year=2005 | pages=100}}</ref> |
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===New Zealand=== |
===New Zealand=== |
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* {{cite book|author=Boland, D. J.|year=1984|title=Forest Trees of Australia |edition=4th |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |isbn=0-643-05423-5|display-authors=etal}}. |
* {{cite book|author=Boland, D. J.|year=1984|title=Forest Trees of Australia |edition=4th |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |isbn=0-643-05423-5|display-authors=etal}}. |
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* {{cite journal|author=Duke, N.C.|year=1991|url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/?paper=SB9910299|title=A Systematic Revision of the Mangrove Genus Avicennia (Avicenniaceae) in Australasia|journal=Australian Systematic Botany|volume=4|issue=2|pages=299–324|doi=10.1071/SB9910299}} |
* {{cite journal|author=Duke, N.C.|year=1991|url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/?paper=SB9910299|title=A Systematic Revision of the Mangrove Genus Avicennia (Avicenniaceae) in Australasia|journal=Australian Systematic Botany|volume=4|issue=2|pages=299–324|doi=10.1071/SB9910299}} |
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{{Wikispecies-inline|Avicennia marina}} |
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{{Commons-inline}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{Commonscat}} |
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{{Wikispecies}} |
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*{{cite web |title=''Avicennia marina'' (Forssk.) Vierh. |work=Australasian Virtual Herbarium |url=https://avh.ala.org.au/occurrences/search?taxa=Avicennia+marina#tab_mapView}} |
*{{cite web |title=''Avicennia marina'' (Forssk.) Vierh. |work=Australasian Virtual Herbarium |url=https://avh.ala.org.au/occurrences/search?taxa=Avicennia+marina#tab_mapView}} |
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Avicennia marina | |
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![]() | |
At Lago Malai, East Timor | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Lamiales |
Family: | Acanthaceae |
Genus: | Avicennia |
Species: |
A. marina
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Binomial name | |
Avicennia marina | |
Subspecies and varieties | |
Synonyms[2] | |
Avicennia marina, commonly known as grey mangroveorwhite mangrove, is a species of mangrove tree classified in the plant family Acanthaceae (formerly in the VerbenaceaeorAvicenniaceae). As with other mangroves, it occurs in the intertidal zones of estuarine areas.
Grey mangroves grow as a shrub or tree to a height of 3 to 10 m (10 to 33 ft), or up to 14 metres (46 ft) in tropical regions. The habit is a gnarled arrangement of multiple branches. It has smooth light-grey bark made up of thin, stiff, brittle flakes. This may be whitish, a characteristic described in the common name. The leaves are thick, 5 to 8 cm (2.0 to 3.1 in) long, a bright, glossy green on the upper surface, and silvery-white, or grey, with very small matted hairs on the surface below. As with other Avicennia species, it has aerial roots (pneumatophores), which grow to a height of about 20 cm (7.9 in), and a diameter of 1 cm (0.4 in). These allow the plant to absorb oxygen, which is deficient in its habitat. These roots also anchor the plant during the frequent inundation of seawater in the soft substrate of tidal systems. The flowers range from white to a golden yellow colour, are less than 1 cm (0.4 in) across, and occur in clusters of three to five. The fruit contains large cotyledons that surround the new stem of a seedling. This produces a large, fleshy seed, often germinating on the tree and falling as a seedling.[3] The grey mangrove can experience stunted growth in water conditions that are too saline, but thrive to their full height in waters where both salt and fresh water are present. The species can tolerate high salinity by excreting salts through its leaves.[4]
The grey mangrove is a highly variable tree, with a number of ecotypes, and in forms closely resembling other species. It has been reported to tolerate extreme weather conditions, high winds, and various pests and diseases. It is a pioneer in muddy soil conditions with a pH value of 6.5 to 8.0, but is intolerant of shade.[citation needed]
A number of botanists have proposed division of the species, but currently three subspecies and one variety are recognised:[5]
It is distributed along Africa's east coast, south-west, south and south-east Asia, Australia, and northern parts of New Zealand. It is one of the few mangroves found in the arid regions of the coastal Arabian Peninsula, mainly in sabkha environments in the United Arab Emirates,[6] Qatar,[7] Bahrain,[8] Oman,[9] as well as in similar environments on both side of the Red Sea (inYemen,[10] Saudi Arabia,[11] Egypt,[1] Eritrea,[12] and Sudan),[13] and Qatar[14] and southern Iran[15] along the Persian Gulf coast. It is a characteristic species of the Southern Africa mangroves ecoregion, and is one of three species present in Africa's southernmost mangroves, in the estuary of South Africa's Nahoon River at 32°56′S.[16][17] The species is also found in Somalia.[18]
In Australia it occurs in every mainland state and extends much farther south than other mangroves, with its southern most limit at Corner Inlet (38°45′S) near Wilson's PromontoryinVictoria. Its distribution is disjunct in Western Australia; the population of the Abrolhos Islands is 300 km (190 mi) further south than the nearest population of Shark Bay. Another mangrove system is found 500 km (310 mi) further south at Bunbury. This colonisation of southerly climes may have occurred relatively recently, perhaps several thousand years ago, when they were transferred by the Leeuwin Current.[4] The most inland occurrence of mangroves in Australia is a stand of grey mangroves in the Mandora Marsh, some 60 km (37 mi) from the coast.[citation needed]InSouth Australia along the Barker Inlet and Port RiverinGulf St Vincent, as well as in sheltered bays in Spencer Gulf and the west coast of Eyre Peninsula, A. marina forests form hatcheries for much of the state's fish and shellfish commercial and recreational fisheries.[3]
In New Zealand, Avicennia marina is the only mangrove species. It grows in the top half of the North Island, between 34 and 38 degrees south. Avicennia marina was known in New Zealand as Avicennia resinifera until recently; its Māori name is mānawa.[19]
Avicennia marina |
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