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{{Short description|1945–49 Indonesian conflict and diplomatic struggle against Dutch rule}}
{{For|the violent revolution and unrest in 1998|May 1998 riots of Indonesia}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Indonesian National Revolution
| partof            = the [[aftermath of World War II]] and the [[decolonisation of Asia]]
| image             = {{multiple image|border=infobox|perrow=2/2/2|total_width=300
|image1 = Indonesia declaration of independence 17 August 1945.jpg {{!}}  Sukarno reading the proclamation of Indonesian independence. To the far right is Mohammad Hatta. The one in the black vest is Soewirjo
|image2 = Een afdeling TNI militairen marcheert door een lege straat, Bestanddeelnr 888.jpg {{!}} A section of Indonesian soldiers marches through an empty street. 12 November 1949
|image3= LaSalle 1940 Series 52 Sedan Burnt Out During The British Occupation of Java SE5724.jpg {{!}} The burnt-out LaSalle 1940 Series 52 Sedan of the late Brigadier Mallaby on the spot where he was murdered by Indonesian nationalists in Surabaya (Soerabaja) on 31 October 1945.
|image4 = Militairen rennen in een kampong, waar een aantal huizen in brand staan, Bestanddeelnr 39-4-6.jpg {{!}} Soldiers run into a kampong, where a number of houses are on fire, 1946.
|image5 = Een groep Recce M3 Stuart tanks passeert geparkeerde vrachtwagen. Bestanddeelnr 5740.jpg {{!}} A group of Dutch turretless M3 Stuart reconnaissance tanks pass a line of parked trucks, watched by a captain of Dutch 5 Brigade, 20 December 1948.
|image6 = Soevereiniteitsoverdracht Indonesië. Koningin Juliana tekent de akte, Bestanddeelnr 934-5295.jpg {{!}} Queen Juliana of the Netherlands signing the treaty that transferred sovereignty to Indonesia, 27 December 1949.
|image7 = }}
| image_size        = 
| caption           = {{Collapsible list
| bullets = on
| title = '''From top, left to right:'''
| [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta]] proclaimed Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945.
| Indonesian soldiers in the streets, November 1949.
| Remains of the car of Brigadier [[Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby]], where he was killed on 30 October 1945 during the [[Battle of Surabaya]].
| A village near [[Bandung]], where [[Bandung Sea of Fire|a number of houses were set on fire]]. Two Indonesian soldiers are visible on the left of the picture.
| Dutch forces during [[Operation Kraai]], 1948.
| Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands]] signing the ''Soevereiniteitsoverdracht'' (Transfer of Sovereignty) of Indonesia.
}}
| date              = {{start and end dates|1945|8|17|1949|12|27|df=yes}}<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=08|day1=17|year1=1945|month2=12|day2=27|year2=1949}})
| place             = [[Dutch East Indies]] (today [[Indonesia]])
| territory         = [[Netherlands]] cedes control of most territories of the [[Dutch East Indies]] to the [[United States of Indonesia]]
| result            = *Independence of Indonesia from the Netherlands
*End of [[Dutch colonial empire]] rule over most parts of Indonesia, as the [[Dutch East Indies]] ceased to exist
*Dutch recognition of the Indonesian independence in the [[Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference]]
*Formation of the [[United States of Indonesia]] 
*Creation of the [[Netherlands-Indonesia Union]]
| combatant1        = {{flagicon|Indonesia}} '''[[Indonesia]]'''
* {{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia|PDRI]]{{efn|group=infobox|1948-1949, after ''Operation Kraai''}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Indonesian National Armed Forces.svg}} [[Indonesian National Armed Forces|TNI]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Indonesian National Police.png}} [[Indonesian National Police|POLRI]]
*{{flagdeco|Japan|1870}} [[Japanese holdout]]s
----
<small>'''Internal conflict:'''</small><br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of Islamic State of Indonesia.svg}} [[Darul Islam (Indonesia)|DI/TII]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg}} [[People's Democratic Front (Indonesia)|FDR]]
| combatant2        = '''{{Flag|Netherlands}}'''{{efn|group=infobox|from 1946}}
*{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Dutch East Indies]]
**{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army|KNIL]]
**{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands Indies Civil Administration|NICA]]
*{{flagicon image|Pao An Tui.svg}} [[Pao An Tui]]{{efn|group=infobox|claimed neutrality}}
{{flagcountry|UK}}{{efn|group=infobox|name=until1946|until 1946}}
* {{flag|British Raj}}{{efn|group=infobox|name=until1946}}
{{flagdeco|Japan|1870}} [[Japanese Surrendered Personnel|Japan]]{{efn|group=infobox|name=until1946}}
| commander1        = {{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} '''[[Sukarno]]'''}}<br>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} '''[[Mohammad Hatta|M. Hatta]]'''<br>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Sudirman]]<br>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Oerip Soemohardjo|O. Soemohardjo]]<br>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Hamengkubuwono IX|HB IX]]<br>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Gatot Soebroto]]<br>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Abdul Haris Nasution|A.H Nasution]]<br>[[List of high-ranking commanders of the Indonesian War of Independence|''and others...'']]
----
{{flagicon image|Flag of Islamic State of Indonesia.svg}} [[Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo|S.M Kartosoewirjo]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg}} [[Musso]]{{executed}}<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg}} [[Amir Sjarifuddin|A. Sjarifuddin]]{{executed}}<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg}} [[D. N. Aidit]]
| commander2        = {{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} '''[[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands|Wilhelmina]]'''<br>{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} '''[[Juliana of the Netherlands|Juliana]]'''<br>{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Louis Beel]]<br>{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Willem Drees]]<br>{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Hubertus van Mook]]<br>{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Tony Lovink]]<br>{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Simon Spoor]]<br>{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Abdulkadir Widjojoatmodjo|A. Widjojoatmodjo]]<br>{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Raymond Westerling]]<br>{{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} [[Louis Mountbatten]]<br>{{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} [[Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby|A.W.S Mallaby]] {{KIA}}<br>{{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} [[Robert Mansergh]]}}
| strength1         = {{plainlist|
*'''Republican Army''': 150,000<ref>{{citation |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200 |year=2008 |publisher=Palgrave Macmilan |location=New York |isbn=978-0230546868 |page=291 }}</ref>
*'''Youth volunteers''': 100,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nusantara.com/heritage/surabaya.html|title = Indonesian Heritage}}</ref>
*'''Japanese volunteers''': 903<ref name="ji2"/>
*'''Indian defectors''': 600<ref name="mi">{{cite web|url=http://www.milligazette.com/news/3662-indian-muslim-soldiers-heroic-role-in-indonesias-liberation|title=Indian Muslim soldiers: heroic role in Indonesia's liberation|first=AG|last=Khan|work=The Milli Gazette|date=12 May 2012|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref>}}
| strength2         = {{plainlist|
*'''Netherlands''': 220,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://historibersama.com/how-studying-1945-1949-wars-can-benefit-indonesia-the-jakarta-post/|title=How studying 1945–1949 wars can benefit Indonesia|date=1 February 2018}}</ref>
*'''United Kingdom''': 45,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kompaspedia.kompas.id/baca/paparan-topik/pasukan-inggris-di-indonesia-1945-1946|title=Pasukan Inggris di Indonesia: 1945–1946|date=13 November 2020}}</ref>
*'''Japan''': 35,000<ref name="salim">{{citation |last=Salim |first=Emil |title=Kembali ke Jalan Lurus: Esai-esai 1966–99 |year=2000 |publisher=AlvaBet |location=Jakarta |isbn=979-95821-6-4 |page=286 }}</ref>}}
| casualties1       = {{plainlist|
*'''Indonesia''': (civilian and combatants): 97,421 (confirmed killed)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.groene.nl/artikel/wie-telt-de-indonesische-doden | title=Wie telt de Indonesische doden? | date=26 July 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Exeter">{{cite web |first1=Christiaan |last1=Harinck|first2= Nico|last2=van Horn|first3=Bart|last3=Luttikhuis|url=https://imperialglobalexeter.com/2017/08/14/do-the-indonesians-count-calculating-the-number-of-indonesian-victims-during-the-dutch-indonesian-decolonization-war-1945-1949/ | title=Do the Indonesians count? Calculating the number of Indonesian victims during the Dutch-Indonesian decolonization war, 1945–1949 | date=14 August 2017|access-date=2023-02-14 }}</ref><br/>100,000 killed(highest estimate)<ref name="Exeter"/>{{sfn|Friend|1988|pp=228 and 237}}{{sfnm|Pendit|1988|1p=|Stoler|1985|2p=103|3a1= Toer|3a2=Toer|3a3= Kamil|3y=2005a|3p=|4a1= Toer|4a2=Toer|4a3=Kamil|4y=2005b|4p=|5a1=Toer|5a2=Toer|5a3=Kamil|5y=2005c|5p=|6a1=Toer|6a2=Toer|6a3=Kamil|6y=2014|6p=|ps=, all cited in {{harvtxt|Vickers|2005|p=100}}}}
* '''Japanese volunteers''': 531 killed<ref name="ji2">{{cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/global/read/2577201/kisah-rahmat-shigeru-ono-tentara-jepang-yang-membelot-ke-nkri|title=Kisah Rahmat Shigeru Ono, Tentara Jepang yang 'Membelot' ke NKRI|language=id|access-date=13 May 2020|work=liputan6.com|first=Arie Mega|last=Prastiwi|date=15 August 2016}}</ref>
*'''Indian defectors''': 525 killed<ref name="mi"/>}}
| casualties2       = {{plainlist|
• '''Netherlands''': 4,585 killed<ref name="niod">{{cite web|url=https://www.niod.nl/en/frequently-asked-questions/indonesian-war-independence-numbers |title=Indonesian War of Independence (in numbers) |access-date=2023-02-09|publisher=[[NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies]]}}</ref>{{efn|2,479 killed in action and 2,106 who died of disease or accidents (in total: 4,585).<ref name="niod"/>}}

• '''United Kingdom''': 980 killed{{sfn|Kirby|1969|p=544}}

• 3,500–10,000 [[Indo people]] and European civilians killed and 2,500 missing<ref name="NIOD FAQ">{{cite web|url=https://www.niod.nl/en/frequently-asked-questions/indonesian-war-independence-numbers|title=Indonesian War of Independence (in numbers)|publisher=[[NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies|NIOD]]|access-date=12 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="NIOD Kemperman">{{cite web|url=https://niodbibliotheek.blogspot.com/2014/05/de-slachtoffers-van-de-bersiap_16.html|title=De slachtoffers van de Bersiap|trans-title=The Victims of the Bersiap|last=Kemperman|first=Jeroen|date=16 May 2014|website=Niodbibliotheek.blogspot.com|language=nl|access-date=2 December 2023}}</ref> 
}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Indonesian National Revolution}}
{{Japanese colonial campaigns}}
{{Dutch colonial campaigns}}
{{History of Indonesia|||image=LaSalle 1940 Series 52 Sedan of Brigadier-Mallaby - Burnt Car - 194511.jpg}}

The '''Indonesian National Revolution''' ({{Lang-id|Revolusi Nasional Indonesia}}), also known as the '''Indonesian War of Independence''' ({{lang-nl|Indonesische Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog}}), was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the [[Republic of Indonesia]] and the [[Dutch Empire]] and an internal [[social revolution]] during [[Aftermath of WWII|postwar]] and [[Dutch East Indies#World War II and independence|postcolonial]] Indonesia. It took place between [[Indonesian Declaration of Independence|Indonesia's declaration of independence]] in 1945 and the [[Netherlands]]' [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference|transfer of sovereignty over the Dutch East Indies to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia]] at the end of 1949.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=van der Kroef |first=Justus M. |date=1951 |editor-last=Ranneft |editor-first=J. W. Meyer |editor2-last=van Mook |editor2-first=H. J. |title=The Indonesian Revolution in Retrospect |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2009120 |journal=World Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=369–398 |doi=10.2307/2009120 |jstor=2009120 |s2cid=155137141 |issn=0043-8871}}</ref>

The four-year struggle involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces (and, for a while, the forces of the [[World War II Allies|World War II allies]]) were able to control the major towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]] but could not control the countryside. By 1949, international pressure on the Netherlands, the [[United States]] threatening to cut off all [[Marshall Plan|economic aid for World War II rebuilding efforts]] to the Netherlands and the partial military [[stalemate]] became such that the Netherlands transferred sovereignty over the Dutch East Indies to the Republic of the [[United States of Indonesia]].{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35}}

The revolution marked the end of the [[Colonialism|colonial administration]] of the [[Dutch East Indies]], except for [[Dutch New Guinea|New Guinea]]. It also significantly changed ethnic castes as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers (''[[raja]]''). It did not significantly improve the economic or political fortunes of the majority of the population, although a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce.{{sfn|Reid|1974|pp=170–171}}

==Background==
{{See also|Indonesian National Awakening|Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies}}

The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the "[[Indonesian National Awakening|Day of National Awakening]]" ({{lang-id|Hari Kebangkitan Nasional}}). Indonesian nationalism and movements supporting independence from Dutch colonialism, such as [[Budi Utomo]], the [[Indonesian National Party]] (PNI), [[Sarekat Islam]] and the [[Indonesian Communist Party]] (PKI), grew rapidly in the first half of the 20th century. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated ''Volksraad'' ("People's Council") in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule.{{sfn|Vandenbosch|1931|pp=1051–106}} Others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony.{{sfn|Kahin|1980|pp=113–120}} The most notable of these leaders were [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta]], two students and nationalist leaders who had benefited from the educational reforms of the [[Dutch Ethical Policy and Indonesian National Revival|Dutch Ethical Policy]].

The [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|occupation of Indonesia by Japan]] for three and a half years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had minimal ability to defend its colony against the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese army]], and within only three months of their initial attacks, the Japanese had occupied the Dutch East Indies. In Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra (Indonesia's two dominant islands), the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Although this was done more for Japanese political advantage than from altruistic support of Indonesian independence, this support created new Indonesian institutions (including local neighbourhood organisations) and elevated political leaders such as Sukarno. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, and political infrastructure.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=85}}

On 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister [[Kuniaki Koiso|Koiso]] promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=207}} For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese.{{sfn|Frederick|Worden|1993}}

==Situation From Japanese Surrender until Brith Landing in Java - September–August 1945==
===Proclamation of Indonesian Independence===
{{Main|Proclamation of Indonesian Independence}}
The [[Victory over Japan Day|unconditional surrender of Japan]] on August 15, 1945 was eagerly received by the radical and politicised ''pemuda'' (Indonesian for 'male youth') groups. They pressured Sukarno and Hatta to proclaim Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945, two days later. The following day, the [[Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence]] (PPKI) elected Sukarno as [[President of Indonesia|President]], and Hatta as [[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice-president]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=213}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=325}}{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=30}}

{{blockquote|
| style = text-align:left; width:30%;padding:10px 15px; border-style:solid; border-width:1px;min-width: 20em
| text = PROCLAMATION

We, the people of Indonesia, hereby declare the independence of Indonesia.

Matters which concern the transfer of power and other things will be executed by careful means and in the shortest possible time.

Djakarta, 17 August 1945{{efn|group=infobox|In fact, 05 was used for the year meaning [[Japanese imperial year]] 2605.}}

In the name of the people of Indonesia,

[signed] Soekarno—Hatta

(translation by the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]], October 1948){{sfn|Kahin|2000|pp=1–4}}
}}

===Revolution and Bersiap===
{{See also|Bersiap}}

[[File:Indonesian flag raised 17 August 1945.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Bendera Pusaka]]'', the first Indonesian flag, is raised on 17 August 1945.]]
It was mid-September before news of the declaration of independence spread to the outer islands, and many Indonesians far from the capital [[Jakarta]] did not believe it. As the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=214–215}} External power had shifted; it would be weeks before [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]] shipping entered Indonesia (owing in part to [[Black Armada|boycotts and strikes, in Australia]], on coaling, loading and manning Dutch shipping from Australia, where the Netherlands East Indies Government in exile was based). These strikes were only fully broken in July 1946.{{sfn|Lockwood|1975}} The Japanese, on the other hand, were required by the terms of the surrender to both lay down their arms and maintain order; a contradiction that some resolved by handing weapons to Japanese-trained Indonesians.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=32}}{{sfn|Cribb|1986|pp=72–85}}

The resulting power vacuums in Java and Sumatra in the weeks following the Japanese surrender created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=32}} Many ''pemuda'' joined pro-Republic struggle groups (''badan perjuangan''). The most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded ''Giyūgun'' ([[Defenders of the Homeland|PETA]], volunteer army) and ''[[Heiho]]'' (local soldiers employed by Japanese armed forces) groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit. In the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=215–216}}

By September 1945, control of major infrastructure installations, including railway stations and trams in Java's largest cities, had been taken over by Republican ''pemuda'' who encountered little Japanese resistance.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=215–216}} To spread the revolutionary message, ''pemuda'' set up their own radio stations and newspapers, and graffiti proclaimed the nationalist sentiment. On most islands, struggle committees and [[militia]] were set up.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=198}} Republican newspapers and journals were common in Jakarta, [[Yogyakarta]], and [[Surakarta]], which fostered a generation of writers known as ''angkatan 45'' ('generation of 45') many of whom believed their work could be part of the revolution.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=215–216}}

Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment; some wanted passionate armed struggle; others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist [[Tan Malaka]], spread the idea that this was a revolutionary struggle to be led and won by the Indonesian ''pemuda''. Sukarno and Hatta, by contrast, were more interested in planning government and institutions to achieve independence through diplomacy.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=97}} Pro-revolution demonstrations took place in large cities, including one in Jakarta on 19 September with over 200,000 people, which Sukarno and Hatta, fearing violence, successfully quelled.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=216}}

By September 1945, many of the self-proclaimed ''pemuda'', who were ready to die for '100% freedom', were getting impatient. It was common for ethnic 'out-groups' – Dutch internees, [[Indo people|Eurasian]], [[Ambon Island|Ambonese]] and [[Chinese Indonesians|Chinese]] – and anyone considered to be a spy, to be subjected to intimidation, kidnapping, robbery, murder and organised massacres. Such attacks would continue throughout the course of the revolution, but were most present during the 1945–46 period, which is known as the [[Bersiap]].{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=49}}{{sfn|Fenton-Huie|2005|p=}}{{sfn|Reid|1981|pp=107–157}}

Estimates of the death toll of the Bersiap period vary from 3,500 to 30,000. [[NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies|NIOD]] concluded a Dutch casualty number of approximately 5,500 with possible higher numbers but not above 10,000.<ref name="niod"/> Estimates of the number of Indonesian fighters killed in the lead up to and during the Battle of Surabaya range from 6,300 to 15,000.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=98}} The Japanese forces lost around 1,000 soldiers and the British forces registered 660 soldiers, mostly [[British Indian Army|British Indians]], as killed (with a similar number missing in action).{{sfn|Bussemaker|2005|p=}} The actual Dutch military was hardly involved,{{efn|group=infobox|Former KNIL POWs were still recuperating in Allied military bases outside of Indonesia (e.g. Japan and the Philippines). The British in fact prohibited Dutch troops from entering the country during most of the Bersiap period.}} as it started to return to Indonesia only in March and April 1946.

===Formation of the Republican government===
By the end of August 1945, a central Republican government had been established in Jakarta. It adopted [[Constitution of Indonesia|a constitution]] drafted during the Japanese occupation by the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence. With general elections yet to be held, a [[Central Indonesian National Committee]] (KNIP) was appointed to assist the President. Similar committees were established at provincial and regency levels.{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=140}}

Questions of allegiance immediately arose amongst indigenous rulers. [[Central Java]]nese principalities, for example, immediately declared themselves Republican, while many ''raja'' ('rulers') of the outer islands, who had been enriched from their support of the Dutch, were less enthusiastic. Such reluctance among many outer islands was sharpened by the radical, non-aristocratic, and sometimes Islamic nature of the Java-centric Republican leadership. Support did, however, come from [[South Sulawesi]] (including the King of [[Bone state|Bone]], who still recalled battles against the Dutch from early in the century), and from [[Makassarese people|Makassarese]] and [[Bugis]] ''raja'', who supported the Republican Governor of Jakarta, a [[Menado]]nese Christian. Many [[Bali]]nese ''raja'' accepted Republican authority.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=214}}

Fearing the Dutch would attempt to re-establish their authority over Indonesia, the new Republican Government and its leaders moved quickly to strengthen the fledgling administration. Within Indonesia, the newly formed government, although enthusiastic, was fragile and focused in Java (where focused at all). It was rarely and loosely in contact with the outer islands,{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=33}} which had more Japanese troops (particularly in [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese naval]] areas), less sympathetic Japanese commanders, and fewer Republican leaders and activists.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=215}} In November 1945, a [[parliamentary|parliamentary form of government]] was established and [[Sutan Sjahrir|Sjahrir]] was appointed Prime Minister.

In the week following the Japanese surrender, the Giyūgun (PETA) and Heiho groups were disbanded by the Japanese.{{efn|group=infobox|Most PETA and Heiho members did not yet know about the declaration of independence.}} Command structures and membership vital for a national army were consequently dismantled. Thus, rather than being formed from a trained, armed, and organised army, the Republican armed forces began to grow in September from usually younger, less trained groups built around charismatic leaders.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=214}} Creating a rational military structure that was obedient to central authority from such disorganisation, was one of the major problems of the revolution, a problem that remains through to contemporary times.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35}} In the self-created Indonesian army, Japanese-trained Indonesian officers prevailed over those trained by the Dutch.<ref>{{cite web |last=Matanasi |first=Petrik |date=5 October 2018 |editor-last=Ahsan |editor-first=Ivan Aulia |title=Pertarungan Abadi di Tubuh TNI: Eks KNIL vs Eks PETA |url=https://tirto.id/pertarungan-abadi-di-tubuh-tni-eks-knil-vs-eks-peta-c4K7 |access-date=3 December 2019 |website=tirto.id |language=id}}</ref> A thirty-year-old former school teacher, [[Sudirman]], was elected 'commander-in-chief' at the first meeting of Division Commanders in Yogyakarta on 12 November 1945.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=78}}

==Allied Situation;  WW2, power vacuum, and British landing on Java - circa early 1945, September–November 1945==
The Dutch accused Sukarno and Hatta of collaborating with the Japanese, and denounced the Republic as a creation of [[Statism in Shōwa Japan|Japanese fascism]].{{sfn|Frederick|Worden|1993}} The Dutch East Indies administration had just received a ten million dollar loan from the [[United States of America|United States]] to finance its return to Indonesia.{{sfn|Bidien|1945|pp=345–348}}

===Allied occupation===
The Netherlands, however, was critically weakened from World War II in Europe and did not return as a significant military force until early 1946. The Japanese and members of the Allied forces reluctantly agreed to act as caretakers.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=97}} Australian forces of [[I Corps (Australia)|I Corps]] under general [[Leslie Morshead]] had [[Borneo campaign|landed]] in [[Borneo]] in May 1945, to destroy the Imperial Japanese forces stationed there, as well as maintaining order on the island until the Dutch could return.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} As US forces were focusing on the Japanese home islands, the archipelago was put under the jurisdiction of British Admiral Earl [[Louis Mountbatten]], the [[Supreme Allied Commander]], [[South East Asia Command]]. Allied enclaves already existed in [[Kalimantan]] (Indonesian [[Borneo]]), [[Morotai]] ([[Maluku Islands|Maluku]]) and parts of [[Irian Jaya]]; Dutch administrators had already returned to these areas.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=215}} In the Japanese navy areas, the arrival of Allied troops quickly prevented revolutionary activities where Australian troops, followed by Dutch troops and administrators, took the Japanese surrender (except for [[Bali]] and [[Lombok]]).{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=216}} Due to the lack of strong resistance, two [[Australian Army]] divisions succeeded in occupying eastern Indonesia.{{sfn|Ashton|Hellema|2001|p=181}}
[[File:The British Occupation of Java SE6731.jpg|thumb|left|Indian and British troops move cautiously along a jungle track round the town of [[Gresik]].]]

The British were charged with restoring order and civilian government in Java. The Dutch took this to mean pre-war colonial administration and continued to claim sovereignty over Indonesia.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=97}} The [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[British Raj|Indian]] troops did not, however, land on Java to accept the Japanese surrender until late September 1945. Lord Mountbatten's immediate tasks included the repatriation of some 300,000 Japanese, and freeing prisoners of war. He did not want, nor did he have the resources, to commit his troops to a long struggle to regain Indonesia for the Dutch.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=99}} The first British troops reached Jakarta in late September 1945, and arrived in the cities of [[Medan]] ([[North Sumatra]]), [[Padang, Indonesia|Padang]] ([[West Sumatra]]), [[Palembang]] ([[South Sumatra]]), [[Semarang]] ([[Central Java]]) and [[Surabaya]] ([[East Java]]) in October. In an attempt to avoid clashes with Indonesians, the British commander Lieutenant General Sir [[Philip Christison]] diverted soldiers of the former Dutch colonial army to eastern Indonesia, where Dutch reoccupation was proceeding smoothly.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=216}} Tensions mounted as Allied troops entered Java and Sumatra; clashes broke out between Republicans and their perceived enemies, namely Dutch prisoners, [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army|Dutch colonial troops (KNIL)]], Chinese, [[Indo (Eurasian)|Indo-Europeans]] and Japanese.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=216}}

The first stages of warfare were initiated in October 1945 when, in accordance with the terms of their surrender, the Japanese tried to re-establish the authority they had relinquished to Indonesians in the towns and cities. Japanese military police killed Republican ''pemuda'' in [[Pekalongan]] (Central Java) on 3 October, and Japanese troops drove Republican ''pemuda'' out of [[Bandung]] in [[West Java]] and handed the city to the British, but the fiercest fighting involving the Japanese was in Semarang. On 14 October, British forces began to occupy the city. Retreating Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and 300 Japanese prisoners they were holding. Five hundred Japanese and two thousand Indonesians had been killed and the Japanese had almost captured the city six days later when British forces arrived.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=216}} The Allies repatriated the remaining Japanese troops and civilians to Japan, although about 1,000 elected to remain behind and later assisted Republican forces in fighting for independence.{{sfn|Tjandraningsih|2011|p=3}}

[[File:Een sectie militairen tijdens een rustpauze, Bestanddeelnr 15857.jpg|thumb|upright|Dutch soldiers in the East Indies, 1946]]

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Vernielingen in de Chinese wijk TMnr 10014680.jpg|thumb|Destruction in Bandung's Chinese quarter]]

The British subsequently decided to evacuate the 10,000 Indo-Europeans and European internees in the volatile Central Java interior. British detachments sent to the towns of [[Ambarawa]] and [[Magelang]] encountered strong Republican resistance and used air attacks against the Indonesians. Sukarno arranged a ceasefire on 2 November, but by late November fighting had resumed and the British withdrew to the coast (refer [[Battle of Ambarawa]]).{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=216}}{{sfn|McMillan|2005|pp=306–307}} Republican attacks against Allied and alleged pro-Dutch civilians reached a peak in November and December, with 1,200 killed in Bandung as the ''pemuda'' returned to the offensive.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=54}} In March 1946, departing Republicans responded to a British ultimatum for them to leave the city of Bandung by deliberately burning down much of the southern half of the city in what is popularly known in Indonesia as the "[[Bandung Sea of Fire]]".

===Battle of Surabaya===
{{Main|Battle of Surabaya}}
[[File:IWM-SE-5742-tank-Surabaya-194511.jpg|thumb|upright|A soldier of an Indian armoured regiment examines a [[Marmon-Herrington CTLS]] light tank used by Indonesian nationalists and captured by British forces during the fighting in Surabaya.]]
The Battle of Surabaya was the heaviest and bloodiest single battle of the revolution and became a national symbol of Indonesian resistance.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=217}} ''Pemuda'' groups in Surabaya, the second largest city in Indonesia, seized [[Weapon|arms]] and [[ammunition]] from the Japanese and set up two new organisations; the Indonesia National Committee (KNI) and the People's Security Council (BKR). By the time the [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] arrived at the end of October 1945, the ''pemuda'' foothold in Surabaya city was described as "a strong unified fortress".{{sfn|Parrott|1975|pp=87–111}}

{{quote box
| width   = 30%
| align   = left
| fontsize = 95%
| quote   = The city itself was in pandemonium. There was bloody hand-to-hand fighting on every street corner. Bodies were strewn everywhere. Decapitated, dismembered trunks lay piled one on top of the other{{nbsp}}... Indonesians were shooting and stabbing and murdering wildly
| salign  = right
| source  = — Sukarno{{sfn|Sukarno|Adams|1965|p=228}}
}}

In September and October 1945 Europeans and pro-Dutch Eurasians were attacked and killed by Indonesian mobs.{{sfn|Frederick|1989|pp=237–243}} Ferocious fighting erupted when 6,000 British Indian troops landed in the city. [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta|Hatta]] negotiated a ceasefire between the Republicans and the [[British Armed Forces|British forces]] led by [[Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby|Brigadier Mallaby]]. Mallaby was killed on 30 October 1945 while he was travelling about Surabaya under a white flag to spread the news about the cease fire agreement{{sfn|Parrott|1975|p=75}} and rescue some stranded [[5th Mahratta Light Infantry|Mahratta]] troops, despite being warned of the danger by [[Force 136]] troops.{{sfn|Heren 2010, The Death Knell}} Following the killing of Mallaby on 30 October,{{sfn|Parrott|1975|pp=87–111}} the British sent more troops into the city from 10 November under the cover of air attacks. Although the European forces largely captured the city in three days, the poorly armed Republicans fought on until 29 November{{sfn|Jessup|1989|p=}} and thousands died as the population fled to the countryside.

Despite the military defeat suffered by the Republicans and a loss of manpower and weaponry that would severely hamper Republican forces for the rest of the revolution, the battle and defence mounted by the Indonesians galvanised the nation in support of independence and helped garner international attention. For the Dutch, it removed any doubt that the Republic was a well-organised resistance with popular support.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=217}} It also convinced Britain to lie on the side of neutrality in the revolution,{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=217}} and within a few years, Britain would support the Republican cause in the United Nations. 
The last British troops left Indonesia in November 1946, but by this time 55,000 Dutch troops had landed in Java.

===Situation from Dutch Landing on Java until Linggadjati -- circa January–December 1946===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Javaanse Revolutionairen strijden voor onafhankelijkheid. Ze zijn voor het merendeel bewapend met bamboesperen de enkele geweren zijn afkomstig van Japanners' TMnr 10001495.jpg|thumb|right|Javanese revolutionaries armed with bamboo spears and a few Japanese rifles, 1946]]
[[File:Pemuda AA weapon.jpg | thumb|right | Indonesian pemuda operating an AA weapon during the Indonesian National Revolution, 1946]]
[[File:HB_IX's_mandate_regarding_Indonesian_independence.jpg|265x265px|right|thumb|Inscription of King HB IX's mandate regarding Indonesian independence in the front wall of [[Yogya Kembali Monument]].]]
With British assistance, the Dutch landed their [[Netherlands Indies Civil Administration]] (NICA) forces in Jakarta and other key centres. Republican sources reported 8,000 deaths up to January 1946 in the defence of Jakarta, but they could not hold the city.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=99}} The Republican leadership thus established themselves in the city of [[Yogyakarta (city)|Yogyakarta]] with the crucial support of the new sultan, [[Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX]]. Yogyakarta went on to play a leading role in the revolution, which would result in the city being granted its own Special Territory status.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=420}} In [[Bogor]], near Jakarta, and in [[Balikpapan]] in Kalimantan, Republican officials were imprisoned. In preparation for the Dutch occupation of Sumatra, its largest cities, Palembang and Medan, were bombed. In December 1946, [[Korps Speciale Troepen|Special Forces Depot]] (DST), led by commando and [[counterinsurgency|counter-insurgency]] expert [[Raymond Westerling|Captain Raymond "Turk" Westerling]], were accused of [[South Sulawesi campaign of 1946–1947|pacifying the southern Sulawesi region]] using arbitrary terror techniques, which were copied by other anti-Republicans. As many as 3,000 Republican militia and their supporters were killed in a few weeks.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=224}}

On Java and Sumatra, the Dutch found military success in cities and major towns, but they were unable to subdue the villages and countryside. On the outer islands (including Bali), Republican sentiment was not as strong, at least among the elite. They were consequently occupied by the Dutch with comparative ease, and autonomous states were set up by the Dutch. The largest, the [[State of East Indonesia]] (NIT), encompassed most of eastern Indonesia, and was established in December 1946, with its administrative capital in [[Makassar]].{{sfn|Kahin|1952|pp=355, 357}}

==Diplomacy and major military engagements -  circa November 1946-December 1948==
[[File:Dutch soldiers with old Indonesian couple, September 1947.jpg|thumb|An old Indonesian couple with Dutch soldiers in a Bren Carrier]]

===Linggadjati Agreement===
The [[Linggadjati Agreement]], brokered by the British and concluded in November 1946, saw the Netherlands recognise the Republic as the ''de facto'' authority over Java, [[Madura]], and Sumatra. Both parties agreed to the formation of the [[United States of Indonesia]] by 1 January 1949, a semi-autonomous [[Federation|federal]] state with the [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|monarch of the Netherlands]] at its head. The Republican-controlled Java and Sumatra would be one of its states, alongside areas that were generally under stronger Dutch influence, including southern Kalimantan, and the "[[Great East]]", which consisted of Sulawesi, Maluku, the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], and [[Western New Guinea]]. The Central National Committee of Indonesia (KNIP) did not ratify the agreement until February 1947, and neither the Republic nor the Dutch were satisfied with it.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35}} On 25 March 1947 the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|Lower House of the Dutch parliament]] ratified a stripped-down version of the treaty, which was not accepted by the Republic.{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=206}} Both sides soon accused the other of violating the agreement.

{{quote box
| width  = 30%
| align  = right
| fontsize = 95%
| quote  = ...{{nbsp}}[the Republic] became increasingly disorganised internally; party leaders fought with party leaders; governments were over thrown and replaced by others; armed groups acted on their own in local conflicts; certain parts of the Republic never had contact with the centre – they just drifted along in their own way.

The whole situation deteriorated to such an extent that the Dutch Government was obliged to decide that no progress could be made before law and order were restored sufficiently to make intercourse between the different parts of Indonesia possible, and to guarantee the safety of people of different political opinions.
| salign = right
| source = — former [[East Indies]] Governor [[Hubertus Johannes van Mook|H. J. van Mook]]'s justification for [[Operatie Product|the first Dutch "police action"]].{{sfn|van Mook|1949|p=298}}}}

===Operation Product===
{{Main|Operation Product}}
At midnight on 20 July 1947, the Dutch launched a major military offensive called ''Operatie Product'', with the aim of regaining control of economically lucrative areas in Java and Sumatra and deep ports in Java, thus covering the cost of the ~120,000-strong Dutch military presence. {{sfn|Reid|1974|pp=111–112}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=225}} Claiming violations of the Linggajati Agreement, the Dutch euphimistically described the campaign as ''[[politionele acties]]'' ("police actions") to restore law and order. In the offensive, Dutch forces drove Republican troops out of parts of Sumatra, and East and West Java. The Republicans were confined to the Yogyakarta region of Java.

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Militaire kolonne tijdens de eerste politionele actie TMnr 10029134.jpg|thumb|A Dutch military column during Operation Product]]

International reaction to the Dutch actions was negative. Neighbouring [[Australia]] and newly independent [[India]] were particularly active in supporting the Republic's cause in the UN, as were the [[Soviet Union]] and, most significantly, the United States. Dutch ships continued to be boycotted from loading and unloading by Australian waterside workers, a blockade that began in September 1945. The [[United Nations Security Council]] became directly involved in the conflict, establishing a Committee of Good Office (CGO, known in Indonesia as Komite Tiga Negara, KTN, but not confused with Unilateral Committee.) to sponsor further negotiations, making the Dutch diplomatic position particularly difficult. A ceasefire, called for by [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 27|UNSC resolution 27]], was ordered by the Dutch and Sukarno on 4 August 1947.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=226}}

===Renville Agreement===
{{Main|Renville Agreement}}
[[File:Van Mook.png|thumb|The Van Mook line in Java. Areas in red were under Republican control.{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=233}}]]

The United Nations Security Council brokered the Renville Agreement in an attempt to rectify the collapsed Linggadjati Agreement. The agreement was ratified in January 1948 and recognised a cease-fire along the so-called '[[Van Mook line]]'; an artificial line which connected the most advanced Dutch tanks' positions.{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=229}} Many Republican positions, however, were still intact behind the Dutch lines. Some Republican militias, particularly laborers, peasants, and student troops, just couldn't leave thus must live (and operate) behind Renville Line. The agreement also required referendums to be held on the political future of the Dutch-held areas.  The apparent reasonableness of Republicans garnered much important American goodwill.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=226}}

Indonesian Republic faced economic hardship due to continued naval blockade and land blockades at Renville line (in violation of Renville Agreement){{sfn|Colin & Crey|1988|p=134}}{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=221}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1993|p=226}} which affect sufficient avalailability of not only arms, but also food, clothing,{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=221}} medicines including bandages, mails, books, magazines,{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=253}} material to service and repair tranportation,{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=222}} and overpopulation because of people fleeing from Dutch advances in Operation Product. This economic hardship paired with political crisis by accepting terms of Renville Agrement, and factional conflicts due to conflicting ideologies of Indonesian nationalists fed fuel to one of internal turmoils which later into [[Madiun Affair]].

Diplomatic efforts between the Netherlands and the Republic continued throughout 1948 and 1949. Political pressures, both domestic and international, hindered Dutch attempts to decide upon objectives. Similarly, Republican leaders faced great difficulty in persuading their people to accept diplomatic concessions. By July 1948 negotiations were in deadlock and the Netherlands pushed unilaterally towards Van Mook's federal Indonesia concept. The new federal states of South Sumatra and East Java were created, although neither had a viable support base.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=149}} The Netherlands set up the ''Bijeenkomst voor Federaal Overleg (BFO)'' (or [[Federal Consultative Assembly]]), a body comprising the leadership of the federal states, and charged with the formation of a [[United States of Indonesia]] and an interim government by the end of 1948. The Dutch plans, however, had no place for the Republic unless it accepted a minor role already defined for it. Later plans included Java and Sumatra but dropped all mention of the Republic. The main sticking point in the negotiations was the balance of power between the Netherlands High Representative (successor to office of Governor-General) and the Republican forces.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=150}}

Mutual distrust between the Netherlands and the Republic hindered negotiations. Indonesia who faced aforementioned naval and land blockades (which violated Renville Agreement) also feared a second major Dutch offensive. Meanwhile, the Dutch objected to continued pro-Republican activity on the Dutch side of the Renville line.

In February 1948 the Siliwangi Battalion of the Republican Army, led by [[Nasution]], marched from West Java to Central Java; the relocation was intended to ease internal Republican tensions involving the Battalion in the Surakarta area. The Battalion, however, clashed with Dutch troops while crossing [[Mount Slamet]], and the Dutch believed it was part of a systematic troop movement across the Renville Line. The fear of such incursions actually succeeding, along with apparent Republican undermining of the Dutch-established Pasundan state{{citation needed|date=July 2024}} and negative reports, led to the Dutch leadership increasingly seeing itself as losing control.{{sfn|Reid|1974|pp=149–151}}

===Operation Crow and General Offensive (''Serangan Oemoem'')===
{{quote box
| width  = 25%
| align  = right
| fontsize = 95%
| quote  = We have been attacked{{nbsp}}.... The Dutch government have betrayed the cease-fire agreement. All the Armed Forces will carry out the plans which have been decided on to confront the Dutch attack
| salign = right
| source = — [[General Sudirman]], broadcast from his sickbed.{{sfn|Kodam VI/Siliwang|1968|p=|ps=, cited in {{harvtxt|Reid|1974|p=152}}}}
}}

{{Main|Operatie Kraai}}
[[File:Twee mannen met touw geboeid worden ondervraagd door TNI-officieren, Bestanddeelnr 8812.jpg|left|thumb|Two men with rope around their necks are handcuffed by TNI officers in September 1948 in [[Madiun]], Indonesia.]]
Frustrated at negotiations with the Republic and believing it weakened by both the ''[[Darul Islam (Indonesia)|Darul Islam]]'' and [[Madiun affair|Madiun]] insurgencies, the Dutch launched a military offensive on 19 December 1948 which it termed 'Operatie Kraai' (Operation Crow). By the following day it had conquered the city of Yogyakarta, the location of the temporary Republican capital.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kahin |first=George McTurnan |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56360152 |title=Southeast Asia : a testament |date=2003 |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |isbn=0-203-30112-9 |location=London |pages=87 |oclc=56360152}}</ref> By the end of December, all major Republican held cities in Java and Sumatra were in Dutch hands.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=152}} The Republican president, vice-president, and all but six Republic of Indonesia ministers were captured by Dutch troops and exiled on [[Bangka Island]] off the east coast of Sumatra. In areas surrounding Yogyakarta and Surakarta, Republican forces refused to surrender and continued to wage a [[guerrilla]] war under the leadership of Republican military chief of staff [[Sudirman|General Sudirman]], who had escaped the Dutch offensives. An emergency Republican government, the [[Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia|Pemerintahan Darurat Republik Indonesia]] (PDRI), was established in West Sumatra.

Although Dutch forces conquered the towns and cities in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra, they could not control villages and the countryside.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=153}} Republican troops and militia led by [[Lieutenant Colonel|Lt. Colonel]] (later President) [[Suharto]] attacked Dutch positions in Yogyakarta at dawn on 1 March 1949. The Dutch were expelled from the city for six hours but reinforcements were brought in from the nearby cities of Ambarawa and Semarang that afternoon.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=153}} Indonesian fighters retreated at 12:00&nbsp;pm and the Dutch re-entered the city. The Indonesian attack, later known in Indonesia as ''Serangan Oemoem'' (new spelling: ''Serangan Umum'' '[[General Offensive of 1 March 1949|1 March General Offensive]]'), is commemorated by [[Yogya Kembali Monument|a large monument]] in Yogyakarta. A large-scale attack against Dutch troops in [[Surakarta]] on 10 August the same year resulted in republican forces holding the city for two days.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=161}}

Once again, international opinion of the Dutch military campaigns was one of outrage, significantly in both the United Nations and the United States. [[United States Secretary of State|U.S. Secretary of State]] [[George C. Marshall]] threatened to stop all of the economic aid program to the Netherlands unless they immediately withdraw from Indonesia and transferred all of the sovereignty to Indonesia.<ref name="marshall">{{Cite book|last=Gouda|first=Frances|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55842798|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia : US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949|date=2002|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|others=Thijs Brocades Zaalberg|isbn=1-4175-2156-2|location=Amsterdam|oclc=55842798}}</ref> In January 1949, the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 63|United Nations Security Council passed a resolution]] demanding the reinstatement of the Republican government.{{sfn|Frederick|Worden|1993}} United States aid specifically earmarked for Dutch Indonesia was immediately cancelled and pressure mounted within the [[US Congress]] for all United States aid to be cut off. This included [[Marshall Plan]] funds vital for Dutch post-World War II rebuilding that had so far totalled $US 1&nbsp;billion.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=37}} The Netherlands Government had spent an amount equivalent to almost half of this funding their campaigns in Indonesia. That United States aid could be used to fund "a senile and ineffectual imperialism" encouraged many key voices in the United States – including those amongst the US [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] and from within American churches and NGOs – to speak out in support of Indonesian independence.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=38}}
[[File:Grafitti Freedom. Is for us Indenesians Liberty or Death. De Hollanders zijn…, Bestanddeelnr 495-4-6.jpg|thumb|Graffiti in Java, 1948: "Freedom is for us Indonesians", "Liberty or Death", "Hollanders go to Hel".]]

==Internal turmoil==
The internal turmoil happened was called as social revolutions and insurgencies of Communist and Islamist. It is argued there were common causes because of general similarity of these separated actions. The common causes are extreme polarization of ''pergerakan'' and aristocrat groups, the harshness of Japanese requirement for labour and rice; the vacuum of central authority; powerful Islamic sentiment for mass mobilization; and activity of minute semi-underground revolutionary cadres (commonly communist).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |url=https://brill.com/view/title/23090 |title=An Indonesian Frontier: Acehnese and Other Histories of Sumatra |year=2004 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-48655-3 |doi=10.1163/9789004486553_019|s2cid=243462303 }}</ref>

===Social revolutions===
The so-called 'social revolutions' following the independence proclamation were challenges to the Dutch-established Indonesian social order, and to some extent a result of the resentment against Japanese-imposed policies. Across the country, people rose up against traditional aristocrats and village heads and attempted to exert popular ownership of land and other resources.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=101–104}} The majority of the social revolutions ended quickly; in most cases the challenges to the social order were quashed, although in [[East Sumatra revolution|East Sumatra]], the sultanates were overthrown and there were mass killings of members of the aristocratic families.{{sfn|Colombijn|Linblad|2002|pp =143–173}}{{sfn|Said|1973|pp =145–186}}

A culture of violence rooted in the deep conflicts that split the countryside during the revolution would repeatedly erupt throughout the whole second half of the 20th century.{{sfn|Colombijn|Linblad|2002|pp =143–173}} The term 'social revolution' has been applied to a range of mostly violent activities of the left that included both altruistic attempts to organise real revolution and simple expressions of revenge, resentment and assertions of power. Violence was one of the many lessons learned during the Japanese occupation, and figures identified as '[[feudal]]', including kings, regents, or simply the wealthy, were often attacked and sometimes beheaded. Rape became a weapon against 'feudal' women.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=101–104}} In the coastal sultanates of Sumatra and Kalimantan, for example, [[sultan]]s and others whose authority had been shored up by the Dutch, were attacked as soon as Japanese authority left. The pro-Dutch aristocratic administrators (''uleëbalangs'') secular local lords of [[Aceh]], who had been the foundation of Dutch rule, were executed during local civil war, and its place was taken over by pro-Republican religious leaders. (''ulama'').{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=220}} Meanwhile, monarchical officials in [[Special Region of Surakarta|Surakarta]] was kidnapped by anti-monarchist movement which led to the freezing and abolition of the special region.<ref name="DIS">{{Citation |title=Daerah Istimewa Surakarta - Tuduhan Pro Belanda dan Kesetiaannya kepada Republik Indonesia | date=September 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdbI0edGFBc |access-date=2023-06-28 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Johari |first=Hendi |date=2019-05-17 |title=Di Bawah Simbol Banteng |url=https://historia.id/militer/articles/di-bawah-simbol-banteng-DbenQ |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=Historia - Majalah Sejarah Populer Pertama di Indonesia |language=id-ID}}</ref>

Many Indonesians lived in fear and uncertainty, particularly a significant proportion of the population who supported the Dutch or who remained under Dutch control. The popular revolutionary cry 'Freedom or Death' was often interpreted to justify killings under claimed Republican authority. Traders were often in particularly difficult positions. On the one hand, they were pressured by Republicans to boycott all sales to the Dutch; on the other hand, Dutch police could be merciless in their efforts to stamp out smugglers on which the Republican economy depended. In some areas, the term ''kedaulatan rakyat'' ('exercising the sovereignty of the people') – which is mentioned in the preamble of the Constitution and used by ''pemuda'' to demand pro-active policies from leaders – came to be used not only in the demanding of free goods, but also to justify extortion and robbery. Chinese merchants, in particular, were often forced to keep their goods at artificially low prices under threat of death.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=101–104}}{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=60}}

===Communist and Islamist insurgencies===
{{Main|Madiun Affair|Darul Islam rebellion}}
On 18 September 1948 an 'Indonesian [[Soviet (council)|Soviet]] Republic' was declared in Madiun, east of Yogyakarta, by members of the PKI and the [[Socialist Party of Indonesia|Indonesian Socialist Party]] (PSI). Judging the time right for a [[proletarian revolution|proletarian uprising]], they intended it to be a rallying point for revolt against "Sukarno-Hatta, the slaves of the Japanese and America".{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=32}} Madiun however was won back by Republican forces within a few weeks and the insurgency leader, Musso, killed. RM [[Suryo]], the governor of East Java, as well as several police officers and religious leaders, were killed by the rebels. This ended a distraction for the revolution,{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=32}} and it turned vague American sympathies based on anti-colonial sentiments into diplomatic support. Internationally, the Republic was now seen as being staunchly [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] and a potential ally in the emerging global [[Cold War]] between the American-led 'free world' and the Soviet-led bloc.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=230}}

Members of the Republican Army who had come from Indonesian Hizbullah felt betrayed by the Indonesian Government for ratifying the Renville Agreement<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Temby|first=Quinton|date=2010|title=Imagining an Islamic State in Indonesia: From Darul Islam to Jemaah Islamiyah|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20798213|journal=Indonesia|issue=89|pages=1–36|jstor=20798213|issn=0019-7289}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Melanjutkan Perjanjian Linggarjati, Inilah Perjanjian Renville yang Justru Setelah Disepakati Malah Menyulut Amarah Warga di Jawa Barat, Mengapa? – Halaman 2 – Intisari|url=https://intisari.grid.id/read/032934750/melanjutkan-perjanjian-linggarjati-inilah-perjanjian-renville-yang-justru-setelah-disepakati-malah-menyulut-amarah-warga-di-jawa-barat-mengapa|access-date=31 January 2022|website=intisari.grid.id|language=id}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Primadia |first=Adara |date=12 October 2016 |title=Sejarah Perjanjian Renville – Isi dan Dampaknya untuk Indonesia |url=https://sejarahlengkap.com/indonesia/kemerdekaan/pasca-kemerdekaan/sejarah-perjanjian-renville |access-date=31 January 2022 |website=Sejarah Lengkap |language=en-US}}</ref> – therefore recognising many areas behind the van Mook Line as ''de jure'' Dutch. In May 1948, they declared a break-away regime, the ''Negara Islam Indonesia'' (Indonesian Islamic State), better known as ''Darul Islam''. Led by an Islamic mystic, [[Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo]], ''Darul Islam'' sought to establish Indonesia as an [[Islamic state|Islamic theocracy]]. At the time, the Republican Government did not respond, as they were focused on the threat from the Dutch. Some leaders of [[Masjumi]] sympathised with the rebellion. After the Republic regained all territories in 1950, the government took the ''Darul Islam'' threat seriously, especially after some provinces declared that they had joined ''Darul Islam''. The last group of rebels was put down in 1962.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fahmi |first=Yusron |date=20 September 2019 |title=20 September 1953: Daud Beureueh Pimpin Pemberontakan DI/TII Aceh |work=Liputan6.com |url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/4066677/20-september-1953-daud-beureueh-pimpin-pemberontakan-ditii-aceh}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Keterangan Pemerintah tentang peristiwa Daud Beureuh : diutjapkan dalam rapat pleno terbuka Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat Republik Indonesia tanggal 28 Oktober 1953|url=https://digitalcollections.universiteitleiden.nl/view/item/129780|journal=Digitalcollections.universiteitleiden.nl}}</ref>

==Transfer of sovereignty==
[[File:Indonesian independence 27 december 1949 Dutch East Indies Independent Newspaper.jpg|thumb|Australia's ''[[The Northern Star]]'' newspaper regarding the independence of Indonesia date 28 December 1949]]
<!-- This section is linked from [[Sudjana Kerton]] -->
{{quote box
| width  = 40%
| align  = right
| fontsize = 95%
| quote = Millions upon millions flooded the sidewalks, the roads. They were crying, cheering, screaming "...{{nbsp}}Long live Bung Karno{{nbsp}}..." They clung to the sides of the car, the hood, the running boards. They grabbed at me to kiss my fingers.

Soldiers beat a path for me to the topmost step of the big white palace. There I raised both hands high. A stillness swept over the millions.
"''Alhamdulillah'' – Thank God," I cried. "We are free"
| salign = right
| source = — [[Sukarno]]'s recollections of independence achieved.{{sfn|Sukarno|Adams|1965|pp=262–263}}
}}

The resilience of Indonesian Republican resistance and active international diplomacy set world opinion against the Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=38}} The second 'police action' was a diplomatic disaster for the Dutch cause. The newly appointed [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Dean Acheson]] pushed the Netherlands government into negotiations earlier recommended by the United Nations but until then defied by the Netherlands. The [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference]] was held in The Hague from 23 August 1949 to 2 November 1949 between the Republic, the Netherlands, and the Dutch-created federal states. The Netherlands agreed to recognise Indonesian sovereignty over a new [[federal state]] known as the '[[United States of Indonesia]]' (RUSI). It would include all the territory of the former Dutch East Indies with the exception of [[Dutch New Guinea]]; sovereignty over which it was agreed would be retained by the Netherlands until further negotiations with Indonesia within a year of the transfer of sovereignty.{{sfn|Agung|1973|pp=69–70}} The other issue on which Indonesia gave concessions was paying the Netherlands East Indies debt which amounted to 4.5 billion guilders. This amount would mean, Indonesia paid for the colonial government expenses of "{{lang|nl|[[Politionele acties]]}}".<ref name="theconversation.com">{{cite web |last1=Toebosch |first1=Annemarie |title=Dutch Memorial Day: Maintaining colonial innocence by excluding people of color |url=https://theconversation.com/dutch-memorial-day-maintaining-colonial-innocence-by-excluding-people-of-color-116410 |website=theconversation.com |date=3 May 2019 |access-date=9 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Giebels |first1=Lambert |title=The Indonesian Injection |url=https://www.groene.nl/artikel/de-indonesische-injectie |website=www.groene.nl|date=5 January 2000 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Marhé |first1=Usha |title=The Netherlands and reparations [COLUMN] |url=https://www.waterkant.net/suriname/2014/07/03/nederland-en-herstelbetalingen-column/ |website=waterkant.net |date=2 July 2014 |access-date=9 April 2021}}</ref> Sovereignty was formally transferred on 27 December 1949, and the new state was immediately recognised by the United States of America.

[[File:Map of the United States of Indonesia.svg|thumb|left|The [[United States of Indonesia]], December 1949 – the Republic of Indonesia is shown in red.]]
Republican-controlled Java and Sumatra together formed a single state in the seven-state, nine-territory RUSI federation, but accounted for almost half its population. The other fifteen 'federal' states and territories had been created by the Netherlands since 1945. These entities were dissolved into the Republic over the first half of 1950. An [[APRA Coup d'état|abortive anti-Republic coup]] in Bandung and Jakarta by Westerling's [[Legion of the Just Ruler]] (APRA) on 23 January 1950 resulted in the dissolution of the populous [[Pasundan]] state in West Java, thus quickening the dissolution of the federal structure. Colonial soldiers, who were largely Ambonese, clashed with Republican troops in [[Makassar]] during the [[Makassar Uprising]] in April 1950. The predominantly Christian Ambonese were from one of the few regions with pro-Dutch sentiments and they were suspicious of the Javanese Muslim-dominated Republic, whom they unfavourably regarded as leftists. On 25 April 1950, an independent [[Republic of South Maluku]] (RMS) was proclaimed in Ambon but this was suppressed by Republican troops during a campaign from July to November. With the state of East Sumatra now being the only federal state remaining, it too folded and fell in line with the unitary Republic. On 17 August 1950, the fifth anniversary of his declaration of Indonesian independence, Sukarno proclaimed the Republic of Indonesia as a [[unitary state]].{{sfn|Reid|1974|pp=170–172}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=232–233}}{{sfn|Frederick|Worden|1993}}
{{clear}}

==Impacts and casualties==
[[File:RI Transfer Signing.jpg|thumb|Indonesian Vice-president [[Mohammad Hatta|Hatta]] and Dutch Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands|Juliana]] at the signing ceremony which took place at the [[Royal Palace of Amsterdam]]. With the treaty signed, the Dutch officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty.]]

Although there is no accurate account of how many Indonesians died, they died in far greater numbers than the Europeans. Estimates of Indonesian deaths in fighting and civilians range from 97,421 to 100,000 dead.<ref name="Exeter"/>{{sfn|Friend|1988|pp=228 and 237}}{{sfnm|Pendit|1988|1p=|Stoler|1985|2p=103|3a1= Toer|3a2=Toer|3a3= Kamil|3y=2005a|3p=|4a1= Toer|4a2=Toer|4a3=Kamil|4y=2005b|4p=|5a1=Toer|5a2=Toer|5a3=Kamil|5y=2005c|5p=|6a1=Toer|6a2=Toer|6a3=Kamil|6y=2014|6p=|ps=, all cited in {{harvtxt|Vickers|2005|p=100}}}} A total of 980 British soldiers were killed or went missing in Java and Sumatra in 1945 and 1946, most of them Indian soldiers.{{sfn|Kirby|1969|p=258}} More than 4,000 Dutch soldiers lost their lives in Indonesia between 1945 and 1949. Many Japanese died; while it is unknown how many died, only about half of whom died in actual combat, the rest killed in rampages by Indonesians. Seven million people were displaced on Java and Sumatra.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=100}}<ref>Documentary film [http://docsonline.eu/?search=Tabee%20Toean&type=title&docinfo=80%20 Tabee Toean], 1995. Director: Tom Verheul. Combination of footage and stories of Dutch war veterans.</ref> Based on demographic data, historian Pierre van der Eng estimated a demographic gap of around 2.4 million people in Indonesia during the entire 1940s, including the period of the
[[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|Japanese invasion and occupation during WW2]], and the Indonesian National Revolution. Van der Eng states that conflict led to significant ramifications for Indonesians outside of direct violence, such as widespread famine, disease and a lowered fertility rate.<ref name="Exeter"/><ref>{{cite journal|first=Pierre|last=van der Eng|year=2002|title=Bridging a gap: a reconstruction of population patterns in Indonesia, 1930–61|doi=10.1080/10357820208713359|journal=Asian Studies Review|volume=26|issue=4|pages=487–509 |s2cid=145436500 }}</ref> According to the official website of Indonesian veterans, there were 863,432 people who joined the struggle for Indonesian independence and this included those who were members of the militia, police, intelligence and auxiliary<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.veteranri.go.id/no.2.pdf|title=Veteran|website=www.veteranri.go.id|lang=id}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.veteranri.go.id/sejarah-legiun-veteran-republik-indonesia.pdf|title=sejarah-legiun-veteran-republik-indonesia.pdf|website=www.veteranri.go.id}}</ref> and as of July 2023, there are still 89,377 Indonesian National Revolution veterans alive<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veteranri.go.id/index.php/kekuatan|title=LEGIUN VETERAN REPUBLIK INDONESIA|website=www.veteranri.go.id}}</ref> and According to the official [[Netherlands]] veterans website, there are around 5,000 veterans who were deployed to the [[Dutch East Indies]] still alive, this also includes former [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army|KNIL]] members.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nlveteraneninstituut.nl/over-veteranen/beleid-feiten-cijfers/|title=Beleid, feiten en cijfers}}</ref>

[[File:Delft memorial Indonesian war.jpg|left|thumb|Memorial to Dutch losses in the war at the Prinsenhof in [[Delft]]]]

The revolution had direct effects on economic conditions; shortages were common, particularly food, clothing and fuel. There were in effect two economies – the Dutch and the Republican – both of which had to simultaneously rebuild after World War II and survive the disruptions of the revolution. The Republic had to set up all necessities of life, ranging from '[[postage stamp]]s, army badges, and [[train ticket]]s' whilst subject to Dutch trade blockades. Confusion and ruinous inflationary surges resulted from competing currencies; Japanese, new Dutch money, and Republican currencies were all used, often concurrently.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=101}} The Indonesian government was saddled with significant debt, slowing development, with last remaining payment for [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference]] was made in the form of annual payment, with 1% annual interest rate since 1973, was made in 2002.<ref name="theconversation.com"/>

Indonesian independence was secured through a blend of both diplomacy and force. Despite their ill-discipline raising the prospect of anarchy, without {{lang|id|pemuda}} confronting foreign and Indonesian colonial forces, Republican diplomatic efforts would have been futile. The revolution is the turning point of modern [[History of Indonesia|Indonesian history]], and it has provided the reference point and validation for the country's major political trends that continue to the present day. It gave impetus to communism in the country, to militant nationalism, to Sukarno's '[[guided democracy]]', to political Islam, the origins of the Indonesian army and its role in Indonesian power, the country's constitutional arrangements, and the centralism of power in Indonesia.{{sfn|Reid|1974|pp=170–171}}

The revolution destroyed a colonial administration ruled from the other side of the world, and dismantled with it the {{lang|id|raja}}, seen by many as obsolete and powerless. Also, it relaxed the rigid racial and social categorisations of colonial Indonesia. Tremendous energies and aspirations were created amongst Indonesians; a new creative surge was seen in writing and art, as was a great demand for education and modernisation. It did not, however, significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the population's poverty-stricken peasant majority; only a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce, and hopes for democracy were dashed within a decade.{{sfn|Reid|1974|pp=170–171}}
{{Clear}}

==Dutch apologies==
In 2013, the Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jatmiko |first1=Andi |title=Dutch king apologises for colonial killings in Indonesia |url=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/dutch-king-apologises-for-colonial-killings-in-indonesia-39032071.html |newspaper=Belfasttelegraph|first2=Niniek|last2=Karmink|date=2020-03-10|access-date=2023-02-14}}</ref> In 2016, Dutch Foreign Minister [[Bert Koenders]] apologized for a massacre by Dutch troops of 400 Indonesian villagers in 1947.<ref name="dw">dw.com 17 February 2022: [https://www.dw.com/en/netherlands-apologizes-to-indonesia-over-war-crimes/a-60817847 ''Netherlands apologizes to Indonesia over war crimes'']</ref> During a [[state visit]] to Indonesia in March 2020, [[King Willem-Alexander]] made a surprise apology for "excessive violence" by Dutch troops.<ref name="dw" />

On 17 February 2022, a major Dutch historical review was released, titled ''Independence, Decolonization, Violence and War in Indonesia, 1945–1950''. The research was done by three institutions: [[Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies]] (KITLV), [[Netherlands Institute for Military History]] (NIMH) and [[NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kitlv.nl/presentation-results-research-independence-decolonization-violence-and-war-in-indonesia-1945-1950/ |website=kitlv.nl|title=Presentation results research 'Independence, Decolonization, Violence and War in Indonesia, 1945–1950'|date=19 January 2022 |access-date=2023-02-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Amsterdam University Press]]|url=https://www.aup.nl/en/series/onafhankelijkheid-dekolonisatie-geweld-en-oorlog-in-indonesie-1945-1950|title=Onafhankelijkheid, Dekolonisatie, Geweld en Oorlog in Indonesië 1945–1950|access-date=2023-02-14}}</ref> The review concluded that the Netherlands had used systematic and excessive violence during the war. According to the review, "The use of extreme violence by the Dutch armed forces was not only widespread, but often deliberate, too" and "was condoned at every level: political, military and legal." On the same day, the [[Dutch Prime Minister]] [[Mark Rutte]] apologized for the atrocities committed by the Dutch during the war and also for the failure of [[List of cabinets of the Netherlands|past Dutch governments]] to acknowledge it.<ref name=dw />

==See also==
{{Portal|Indonesia}}
* [[Independence Day (Indonesia)]]
* [[List of high-ranking commanders of the Indonesian National Revolution]]
* [[Timeline of the Indonesian National Revolution]]
* [[United Nations Commission for Indonesia]]
* [[Netherlands-Indonesia Union]]
* ''[[Revolusi]]''

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
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* {{cite book  | last =Taylor  | first =Jean Gelman  | title =Indonesia: Peoples and History  | publisher=Yale University Press  | year =2003  | page = 325 | isbn = 0-300-10518-5 }}
* {{cite news | url = https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/08/19/national/indonesians-to-get-book-on-japanese-freedom-fighter/#.W9aAumgzbIU  | title = Indonesians to get book on Japanese freedom fighter  | last =Tjandraningsih  | first =Christine T.  | date =19 August 2011 | newspaper =[[Japan Times]] | access-date =29 October 2018}}
* {{cite journal|title=Nationalism in Netherlands East India|journal=Pacific Affairs|first =Amry |last=Vandenbosch| volume=4 |issue=12|pages=1051–1069|year=1931 |doi=10.2307/2750579 |jstor=2750579 |publisher=Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri/page/85 85–112] |isbn=0-521-54262-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri/page/85 }}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |author=Anderson, Ben |title=Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946 |year=1972 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=0-8014-0687-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/javaintimeofrevo0000ande |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cribb |first=Robert |title=Gangster and Revolutionaries: The Jakarta People's Militia and the Indonesian Revolution 1945–1949 |publisher=ASSA Southeast Asian Publications Series – Allen and Unwin |year=1991 |location =Sydney, Australia |isbn=0-04-301296-5 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Drooglever |first1=P. J. |title=Guide to the Archives on Relations between the Netherlands and Indonesia 1945–1963 |first2=M. J. B. |last2=Schouten |first3=Mona |last3=Lohanda |year=1999 |publisher=ING Research Guide |location=[[The Hague]], Netherlands |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=George |first=Margaret |title =Australia and the Indonesian Revolution |publisher=Melbourne University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-522-84209-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Heijboer |first=Pierre |author-link=Pierre Heijboer |year=1979 |title=De Politionele Acties |publisher=Fibula-van Dishoeck |location=Haarlem |language=nl|ref=none}}
* Holst Pellekaan, R.E. van, I.C. de Regt『Operaties in de Oost: de Koninklijke Marine in de Indische archipel (1945–1951)』(Amsterdam 2003).
* Ide Anak Agug Gde Agung (1996) (translated to English by Linda Owens)''From the Formation of the State of East Indonesia Towards the Establishment of the United States of Indonesia'' Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia {{ISBN|979-461-216-2}} (Original edition Dari Negara Indonesia Timur ke Republic Indonesia Serikat 1985 Gadjah Mada University Press)
* Jong, L. de (1988). ''Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog'', deel 12, Sdu, 's-Gravenhage (an authoritative standard text on both the political and military aspects, in Dutch)
* {{Cite book |last=Kahin|first=Audrey|title=Regional Dynamics of the Indonesian Revolution|year=1995|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=0-8248-0982-3|ref=none}}
* {{cite book | author=Kodam VI/Siliwang | title =Siliwangi dari masa kemasa |language=id | publisher=Fakta Mahjuma | year =1968}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lucas |first=A. |title=One Soul One Struggle. Region and Revolution in Indonesia |year=1991 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |location=St. Leonards, Australia |isbn=0-04-442249-0 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book | last =Payne  | first =Robert | title =The Revolt In Asia  | publisher=John Day | year =1947  | location = New York |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book | last =Poeze  | first =Harry A. | title =Verguisd en vergeten. Tan Malaka, de linkse beweging en de Indonesische Revolutie 1945–1949  | publisher=KITLV  | year =2007  | page =2200  |  isbn = 978-90-6718-258-4|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Alastair M. |title=Indonesian Independence and the United Nations |author-link = Alastair M. Taylor |year=1960 |publisher=Stevens & Sons|location=London |asin=B0007ECTIA  |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Yong Mun Cheong |title=The Indonesian Revolution and the Singapore Connection, 1945–1949 |year=2004 |publisher=KITLV Press |location=[[Leiden]], Netherlands |isbn=90-6718-206-0|ref=none}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
* [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/frnlus.htm Parallel and Divergent Aspects of British Rule in the Raj, French Rule in Indochina, Dutch Rule in the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), and American Rule in the Philippines].
* [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/queen.htm Radio address by Queen Wilhelmina on 7 December 1942].
* [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/Indo_nov6.htm Dutch Proposals for Indonesian Settlement 6 November 1945].
* [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/Indo_feb10.htm Dutch Proposals for Indonesian Settlement 10 Feb 1946].
* [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/linggadjati.htm Text of the Linggadjati Agreement 10 Feb 1946].
* [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/renville.htm The Renville Political Principles 17 January 1948].
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_SyNndqVMwM Dutch Queen Signs away an Empire (1950)], newsreel on the [[British Pathé]] YouTube Channel

{{Indonesian National Revolution}}
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