m General & WP:TOL cleanup; WP:GenFixeson
|
m Open access bot: hdl updated in citation with #oabot.
|
||
(30 intermediate revisions by 25 users not shown) | |||
Line 3: | Line 3: | ||
{{Speciesbox |
{{Speciesbox |
||
| name = New Zealand sea urchin |
| name = New Zealand sea urchin |
||
| image = |
| image = Kina barrens Shaun Lee 52065449.jpg |
||
| image_caption = Kina feeding on kelp causing a kina barren near [[the Noises]] in the [[Hauraki Gulf]] |
|||
| image_caption = |
|||
| taxon = Evechinus chloroticus |
| taxon = Evechinus chloroticus |
||
| authority = [[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]], 1846 |
| authority = [[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]], 1846 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
'''Kina''' (''Evechinus chloroticus'') is a [[sea urchin]] endemic to New Zealand. This echinoderm belongs to the family Echinometridae and it can reach a maximum diameter of 16–17 cm |
'''Kina''' ('''''Evechinus chloroticus''''') is a [[sea urchin]] endemic to [[New Zealand]]. This echinoderm belongs to the family Echinometridae and it can reach a maximum diameter of 16–17 cm.<ref name="F Barker2007">{{cite book | title = Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science | last1 = F Barker | first1 = Michael | chapter = Chapter 16 Ecology of Evechinus chloroticus | date = 2007 | volume = 37 | pages = 319–338 | publisher = Elsevier | issn = 0167-9309 | doi = 10.1016/S0167-9309(07)80080-9 | isbn = 9780444529404 | url = }}</ref> |
||
Kina populations throughout New Zealand have dramatically grown due the effects of [[climate change]], resulting in over-grazing that significantly damages [[kelp forest]] ecosystems. Kina are now being actively removed from many ecosystems for marine conservation efforts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miller |first=Kelsey I. |last2=Shears |first2=Nick T. |date=January 2023 |title=The efficiency and effectiveness of different sea urchin removal methods for kelp forest restoration |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.13754 |journal=Restoration Ecology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |doi=10.1111/rec.13754 |issn=1061-2971|hdl=2292/61299 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> |
|||
Kina have been a traditional component of Māori diet since pre-European times and has been fished commercially since 1986 in small quantities under the quota management system in restricted areas along the coast of New Zealand (Barker 2007, James et al.2007). Attempts to export ''E. chloroticus'' to Asian markets have been unsuccessful, so it may not be an economically attractive species for aquaculture development (James 2003, James 2010). |
|||
Kina have been a traditional component of Māori diet since pre-European times and has been fished commercially since 1986 in small quantities under the quota management system in restricted areas along the coast of New Zealand.<ref name="F Barker2007"/><ref name="JamesHeathUnwin2007">{{cite journal | last1 = James | first1 = Philip J. | last2 = Heath | first2 = Philip | last3 = Unwin | first3 = Martin J. | title = The effects of season, temperature and initial gonad condition on roe enhancement of the sea urchin Evechinus chloroticus | journal = Aquaculture | date = September 2007 | volume = 270 | issue = 1–4 | pages = 115–131 | issn = 0044-8486 | doi = 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.03.011 | pmid = | bibcode = 2007Aquac.270..115J | url = }}</ref> Attempts to export ''E. chloroticus'' to Asian markets have been unsuccessful, so it may not be an economically attractive species for aquaculture development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.niwa.co.nz/our-science/fisheries/publications/all/fau/2003-07/urchin |first=Phil|last=James|title=Enhancing urchin roe value |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402065859/http://www.niwa.co.nz/fisheries/fau/no07-2003/enhancing-urchin-roe-value |archive-date=2 April 2012|access-date=2 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="James2010">James P. 2010. Sea urchins: opportunities and lessons. New Zealand Aquaculture 36 (July/August): 12–13.</ref> |
|||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' is distributed throughout New Zealand and in some northern and southern offshore islands (Dix 1970a, Barker 2007). |
|||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' is distributed throughout New Zealand and in some northern and southern offshore islands.<ref name="F Barker2007"/><ref name="Dix1970a">{{cite journal | last1 = Dix | first1 = Trevor G. | title = Biology ofevechinus chloroticus(echinoidea: Echinometridae) from different localities | journal = New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | date = June 1970 | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 91–116 | issn = 0028-8330 | eissn = 1175-8805 | doi = 10.1080/00288330.1970.9515331 | pmid = | url = | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1970NZJMF...4...91D }}</ref> It is the most common sea urchin species in New Zealand.<ref name="Secrets">{{citeq|Q114871191|pp=112-117}}</ref> |
|||
==Description== |
|||
[[File:Evechinus chloroticus (Valenciennes, 1846) (AM MA131226-1).jpg|thumb|left|The shell of ''Evechinus chloroticus'', with some spines remaining attached to the shell]] |
|||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' is oval in shape, covered by a large number of spines, which are used as protection. In between the spines are a number of [[tube feet]], which help kina to propel themselves along the seafloor.<ref name="Secrets"/> |
|||
==Habitat== |
==Habitat== |
||
⚫ |
This sea urchin is found all around New Zealand in shallow waters |
||
⚫ |
[[File: |
||
⚫ | This sea urchin is found all around New Zealand in shallow waters and up to 12–14 metres deep,<ref name="F Barker2007"/> although there are also intertidal populations in the north of both the North and South Islands.<ref name="Dix1970a"/> |
||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' prefers areas with moderate wave action (Barker 2007). In the north of New Zealand it is found mostly on rocky seafloor areas but also in areas of sandy seafloor (Dix 1970a, Choat and Schiel 1982). In the South Island it is also found in abundant densities throughout the fiords (Villouta et al. 2001). |
|||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' prefers areas with moderate wave action.<ref name="F Barker2007"/> In the north of New Zealand it is found mostly on rocky seafloor areas but also in areas of sandy seafloor.<ref name="Dix1970a"/><ref name="ChoatSchiel1982">{{cite journal | last1 = Choat | first1 = J.H. | last2 = Schiel | first2 = David R | title = Patterns of distribution and abundance of large brown algae and invertebrate herbivores in subtidal regions of northern New Zealand | journal = Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology | date = April 1982 | volume = 60 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 129–162 | issn = 0022-0981 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0981(82)90155-1 | pmid = | bibcode = 1982JEMBE..60..129C | url = }}</ref> In the South Island it is also found in abundant densities throughout the fiords.<ref name="VilloutaChaddertonPugsley2001">{{cite journal | last1 = Villouta | first1 = E. | last2 = Chadderton | first2 = W. L. | last3 = Pugsley | first3 = C. W. | last4 = Hay | first4 = C. H. | title = Effects of sea urchin(Evechinus chloroticus)grazing in Dusky Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand | journal = New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | date = December 2001 | volume = 35 | issue = 5 | pages = 1007–1024 | issn = 0028-8330 | eissn = 1175-8805 | doi = 10.1080/00288330.2001.9517060 | pmid = | bibcode = 2001NZJMF..35.1007V | s2cid = 84395381 | url = }}</ref> |
|||
⚫ |
Individuals smaller than 1 cm of diameter are found attached under both intertidal and subtidal rocks, whereas individuals between 1–4 cm are found in intertidal and subtidal areas under the rocks, or within small depressions in rocks |
||
⚫ | Individuals smaller than 1 cm of diameter are found attached under both intertidal and subtidal rocks, whereas individuals between 1–4 cm are found in intertidal and subtidal areas under the rocks, or within small depressions in rocks.<ref name="F Barker2007"/><ref name="Dix1970a"/> After the sea urchins reach 4 cm they migrate to open areas.<ref name="F Barker2007"/> |
||
==Diet== |
==Diet== |
||
⚫ | [[File:Evechinus chloroticus 221409831.jpg|thumb|''Evechinus chloroticus'' feeding on brown kelp]] |
||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' is mainly herbivorous (Barker 2007), feeding on large brown [[alga]]e, red algae and encrusting substrate (Dix 1970a). If kina populations become out of control, kelp forest can be entirely eaten away, leaving bare rocks, also known as Kina Barrens. |
|||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' is mainly herbivorous,<ref name="F Barker2007"/> feeding on large brown [[alga]]e, red algae and encrusting substrate.<ref name="Dix1970a"/> Larval stages can feed on different species of unicellular algae in a size range between 5 and 50 μm.<ref name="R McEdwardG Miner2007">{{cite book | title = Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science | last1 = R McEdward | first1 = Larry | last2 = G Miner | first2 = Benjamin | chapter = Chapter 5 Echinoid larval ecology | date = 2007 | volume = 37 | pages = 71–93 | publisher = Elsevier | issn = 0167-9309 | doi = 10.1016/S0167-9309(07)80069-X | isbn = 9780444529404 | url = }}</ref> |
|||
Larval stages can feed on different species of unicellular algae in a size range between 5 and 50 µm (MacEdward and Miner 2007). |
|||
==Predators== |
==Predators== |
||
[[Mollusc]]s such as the cymatiid gastropods ''Charonia capax'' and |
[[Mollusc]]s such as the cymatiid gastropods [[Charonia|''Charonia capax'']] and Charonia rubicunda, [[starfish]], and benthic feeding fishes can feed on individuals of ''E. chloroticus''.<ref name="Dix1970a"/> The most important predators are the [[Coscinasterias calamaria|eleven-armed sea star]], ''[[Coscinasterias calamaria]]'', the seven-armed prickly starfish ''[[Astrostole scabra]]'', and the spiny lobster ''[[Jasus edwardsii]]''.<ref name="F Barker2007"/><ref name="AndrewMacDiarmid1991">{{cite journal | last1 = Andrew | first1 = NL | last2 = MacDiarmid | first2 = AB | title = Interrelations between sea urchins and spiny lobsters in northeastern New Zealand | journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series | date = 1991 | volume = 70 | pages = 211–222 | issn = 0171-8630 | eissn = 1616-1599 | doi = 10.3354/meps070211 | pmid = | bibcode = 1991MEPS...70..211A | url = | doi-access = free }}</ref> |
||
==Reproduction== |
==Reproduction== |
||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' has an annual breeding cycle |
''Evechinus chloroticus'' has an annual breeding cycle.<ref name="Dix1970b">{{cite journal | last1 = Dix | first1 = Trevor G. | title = Biology ofEvechinus chloroticus(echinoidea: Echinometridae) from different localities | journal = New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | date = December 1970 | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = 385–405 | issn = 0028-8330 | eissn = 1175-8805 | doi = 10.1080/00288330.1970.9515355 | pmid = | bibcode = 1970NZJMF...4..385D | url = }}</ref> It becomes sexually mature between 3.5 and 7.5 cm in diameter, depending on the population.<ref name="Dix1970b"/> Gonads are ripe from October and individuals can spawn from November to February.<ref name="F Barker2007"/> |
||
Swimming larvae complete development in the water column between 4 and 6 weeks |
Swimming larvae complete development in the water column between 4 and 6 weeks.<ref name="Lamare1998">{{cite journal | last1 = Lamare | first1 = MD | title = Origin and transport of larvae of the sea urchin Evechinus chloroticus (Echinodermata:Echinoidea) in a New Zealand fiord | journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series | date = 1998 | volume = 174 | pages = 107–121 | issn = 0171-8630 | eissn = 1616-1599 | doi = 10.3354/meps174107 | pmid = | bibcode = 1998MEPS..174..107L | url = | doi-access = free }}</ref> Other studies related to larval development report development in the laboratory can take between 22 and 30 days.<ref name="Walker1984">{{cite journal | last1 = Walker | first1 = M. M. | title = Larval life span, larval settlement, and early growth ofEvechinus chloroticus(Valenciennes) | journal = New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | date = December 1984 | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 393–397 | issn = 0028-8330 | eissn = 1175-8805 | doi = 10.1080/00288330.1984.9516060 | pmid = | bibcode = 1984NZJMF..18..393W | url = }}</ref><ref name="Dix1969">{{cite journal | last1 = Dix | first1 = Trevor G. | title = Larval life span of the echinoidevechinus chloroticus(val.) | journal = New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | date = March 1969 | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–16 | issn = 0028-8330 | eissn = 1175-8805 | doi = 10.1080/00288330.1969.9515273 | pmid = | url = | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1969NZJMF...3...13D }}</ref> The larvae of ''E. chloroticus'' are known to settle on substrates covered with coralline algal species, such as ''[[Corallina officinalis]]''<ref name="Walker1984"/> as well as artificial surfaces.<ref name="F Barker2007"/> High sedimentation loads in the water column, such as those associated with residential construction, have a negative effect on settling sea urchins. |
||
''Evechinus chloroticus'' can grow between 0.8 and 1 cm in diameter only in its first year of life |
''Evechinus chloroticus'' can grow between 0.8 and 1 cm in diameter only in its first year of life,<ref name="LamareMladenov2000">{{cite journal | last1 = Lamare | first1 = Miles D. | last2 = Mladenov | first2 = Philip V. | title = Modelling somatic growth in the sea urchin Evechinus chloroticus (Echinoidea: Echinometridae) | journal = Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology | date = January 2000 | volume = 243 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–43 | issn = 0022-0981 | doi = 10.1016/S0022-0981(99)00107-0 | pmid = | bibcode = 2000JEMBE.243...17L | url = }}</ref> and growth rate of in wild populations has been reported between 1–2 cm in diameter annually.<ref name="Dix1972">{{cite journal | last1 = Dix | first1 = Trevor G. | title = Biology ofevechinus chloroticus(Echinoidia: Echinometridae) from different localities | journal = New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research | date = June 1972 | volume = 6 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 48–68 | issn = 0028-8330 | eissn = 1175-8805 | doi = 10.1080/00288330.1977.9515409 | pmid = | url = | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1972NZJMF...6...48D }}</ref> |
||
==In a human context== |
|||
⚫ | |||
[[File:Sea urchin, kina, Evechinus chloroticus.jpg|thumb|Kina shells have become a symbol of the beach in New Zealand]] |
|||
⚫ |
Sea urchin gonads are highly prized in some Asian and European seafood markets where demand has been increasing |
||
Kina are a traditional food for [[Māori people|Māori]], often eaten raw from the sea. Kina were known to develop a bitter taste during much of the year, with the blooming of the [[kōwhai]] in spring or [[pōhutukawa]] in summer indicating times when the roe was particularly palatable.<ref name="Secrets"/> |
|||
⚫ |
Despite the fact that ''E. chloroticus'' is not a profitable species for aquaculture, there are many studies on the complete culture of this species, especially relating to roe enhancement from fished sea urchins. There is strong interest in the production of good quality roe through roe enhancement, which could allow the export of them to markets such as Japan |
||
Kina shells, also known as tests, have become a symbol of coastal New Zealand. The shells have been used in crafts, such as ornaments and jewellery boxes.<ref name="Secrets"/> |
|||
⚫ |
Roe enhancement for only nine weeks can give the greatest return for the lowest costs (feeding and maintenance) |
||
⚫ | |||
⚫ |
The growth rate in juveniles of ''E. choloticus'' maintained in the laboratory is around 1 mm of diameter per month |
||
⚫ | Sea urchin gonads are highly prized in some Asian and European seafood markets where demand has been increasing.<ref name="James2010"/> In the New Zealand market, the roe can reach NZ$70 per kg.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://niwa.co.nz/publications/wa/vol13-no3-september-2005/award-winning-kina-research-wetland-construction-at-lake-okaro-ecological-engineers-fre |title=Award-winning kina research – Wetland construction at Lake Okaro – Ecological engineers – French Polynesia at Bream Bay |publisher=NIWA |date=1 September 2005 |access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref> However, because ''E. chloroticus'' is not well known in Japan and has a reputation for having a bitter taste, this sea urchin is unable to reach a high price in export markets.<ref name="James2010"/> |
||
⚫ | Despite the fact that ''E. chloroticus'' is not a profitable species for aquaculture, there are many studies on the complete culture of this species, especially relating to roe enhancement from fished sea urchins. There is strong interest in the production of good quality roe through roe enhancement, which could allow the export of them to markets such as Japan.<ref name="JamesHeath2008">{{cite journal | last1 = James | first1 = Philip J. | last2 = Heath | first2 = Philip L. | title = Long term roe enhancement of Evechinus chloroticus | journal = Aquaculture | date = June 2008 | volume = 278 | issue = 1–4 | pages = 89–96 | issn = 0044-8486 | doi = 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.03.006 | pmid = | bibcode = 2008Aquac.278...89J | url = }}</ref> |
||
⚫ |
Artificial diets for sea urchins are well developed. However, more studies in appropriate artificial food for newly settled sea urchins are necessary as well as the design of systems for the nursery culture of post-settled sea urchins |
||
⚫ | Roe enhancement for only nine weeks can give the greatest return for the lowest costs (feeding and maintenance).<ref name="JamesHeath2008"/> Also, it is more profitable to enhance sea urchins with low gonad index which are found in the North Island rather than the South Island.<ref name="JamesHeathUnwin2007"/> |
||
⚫ | |||
⚫ |
Copper |
||
⚫ | The growth rate in juveniles of ''E. choloticus'' maintained in the laboratory is around 1 mm of diameter per month.<ref name="Walker1984"/> Maturity in this species depends on the feed quality and availability rather than the sea urchin size. Therefore, it can reach maturity as small as 30 mm if it is fed with a prepared diet.<ref name="Barker1998">Barker MF, Keogh JA, Lawrence JM and Lawrence AL. 1998. Feeding rate, absorption efficiencies, growth, and enhancement of gonad production in the New Zealand sea urchin ''Evechinus chloroticus'' Valenciennes (Echinoidea: Echinometridae) fed prepared and natural diets. Journal of Shellfish Research 17: 1583–1590.</ref> |
||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | |||
• Andrew NL, MacDiarmid AB. 1991. Interrelations between sea urchins and spiny lobsters in northeastern New Zealand. Marine Ecology Progress Series 70: 211–222. |
|||
⚫ | Artificial diets for sea urchins are well developed. However, more studies in appropriate artificial food for newly settled sea urchins are necessary as well as the design of systems for the nursery culture of post-settled sea urchins.<ref name="James2010"/> |
||
• Barker MF. 2007. The ecology of ''Evechinus chloroticus''. In Lawrence J. (ed.). Edible sea urchins: biology and ecology. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. pp. 319–338. |
|||
=== Environmental Concerns === |
|||
• Barker MF, Keogh JA, Lawrence JM and Lawrence AL. 1998. Feeding rate, absorption efficiencies, growth, and enhancement of gonad production in the New Zealand sea urchin ''Evechinus chloroticus'' Valenciennes (Echinoidea: Echinometridae) fed prepared and natural diets. Journal of Shellfish Research 17: 1583–1590. |
|||
Many of the Kina's natural predators, such as [[crayfish]] and [[Snapper (fish)|snapper]], have experienced population decline due to the effects of global warming and overfishing. This has increased Kina population size all throughout New Zealand.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A tragedy of the commons |url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/a-tragedy-of-the-commons/ |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=New Zealand Geographic |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Kina continue to multiply rapidly, even in their natural environment, caused by a lack of adequate predation. Once Kina populations become out of control, kelp forest can be entirely eaten away, leaving bare rocks, also known as Kina Barrens.<ref name="Secrets" /> A notable example of a Kina Barren is the [[Hauraki Gulf]] Marine Park, which after also experiencing overfishing, has been almost entirely stripped of other marine life.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Evans |first=Kate |date=2020-03-11 |title=‘We used to be leaders’: the collapse of New Zealand’s landmark ocean park |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/11/we-used-to-be-leaders-the-collapse-of-new-zealands-landmark-ocean-park |access-date=2024-05-18 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> |
|||
⚫ | |||
• Choat JH and Schiel DR. 1982. Patterns of distribution and abundance of large brown algae and invertebrate herbivores in subtidal regions of northern New Zealand. Journal Expimental Marine Biology and Ecology 60: 129–162. |
|||
⚫ | Copper has a detrimental effect on all stages of ''E. choloticus''. For [[gametes]], LOEC of >15 μg/L over one hour. For the pluteus stage, LOEC of 10.4 μg/L over 4 days. For adults, LOEC of 50 μg/L over 2 weeks.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308698246 |title=Effects of copper toxicity on the sea urchin Evechinus chloroticus across multiple life stages and using realistic exposure scenarios |last1=Rouchon |first1=Agnes |last2=Phillips |first2=Nicole |date=2015-07-08 |conference=New Zealand Marine Science Society}}</ref> |
||
⚫ | |||
• Dix TG. 1969. Larval life span of the echinoid ''Evechinus chloroticus'' (VAL.). New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 3: 13–16. |
|||
⚫ | |||
• Dix TG. 1970a. Biology of ''Evechinus chloroticus'' (Echinodermata: Echinometridae) from different localities. 1. General. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 4: 91–116. |
|||
•Dix TG. 1970b. Biology of ''Evechinus chloroticus'' (Echinodermata: Echinometridae) from different localities. 3. Reproduction. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 4: 385–405. |
|||
• Dix TG. 1972. Biology of ''Evechinus chloroticus'' (Echinoidia: Echinometridae) from different localities. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 6(1): 48–68. |
|||
• James P. 2010. Sea urchins: opportunities and lessons. New Zealand Aquaculture 36 (July/August): 12–13. |
|||
• James P. 2003. Enhancing urchin roe value. Fisheries and Aquaculture Update No.7, NIWA. [http://www.niwa.co.nz/our-science/fisheries/publications/all/fau/2003-07/urchin] |
|||
• James P and Heath P. 2008. Long term roe enhancement of ''Evechinus chloroticus''. Aquaculture 278: 89–96. |
|||
• James P, Heath P and Unwin M. 2007. The effects of season, temperature and initial gonad condition on roe enhancement of the sea urchin ''Evechinus chloroticus''. Aquaculture 270: 115–131. |
|||
• Lamare MD. 1998. Origin and transport of larvae of the sea urchin ''Evechinus chloroticus'' (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) in a New Zealand fiord. Marine Ecology Progress Series 174: 107–121. |
|||
• Lamare MD and Mladenov PV. 2000. Modelling somatic growth in the sea urchin ''Evechinus chloroticus'' (Echinoidea: Echinometridae). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 243: 17–43. |
|||
• MacEdward L and Miner B. 2007. Echinoid larval ecology. In Lawrence J. (ed.). Edible sea urchins: biology and ecology. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. pp. 71–93. |
|||
• NIWA. 2005. News from NIWA: Award-winning kina research. Water and Atmosphere 13(3): 4. [http://www.niwa.co.nz/news-and-publications/publications/all/wa/13-3/news1] |
|||
• Villouta E, Chadderton WL, Pugsley CW, Hay CH. 2001. Effects of sea urchin (''Evechinus chloroticus'') grazing in Dusky Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 35: 1007–1024. |
|||
• Walker MM. 1984. Larval life span, larval settlement, and early growth of ''Evechinus chloroticus'' (Valenciennes). New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 18: 393–397. |
|||
==External links== |
==External links== |
||
Line 95: | Line 77: | ||
{{Taxonbar|from=Q3201808}} |
{{Taxonbar|from=Q3201808}} |
||
⚫ | |||
[[Category:Commercial echinoderms]] |
|||
[[Category:Echinometridae]] |
[[Category:Echinometridae]] |
||
[[Category: |
[[Category:Endemic echinoderms of New Zealand]] |
||
[[Category: |
[[Category:Māori cuisine]] |
||
⚫ | |||
[[Category:New Zealand seafood]] |
[[Category:New Zealand seafood]] |
||
[[Category:Māori cuisine]] |
New Zealand sea urchin | |
---|---|
Kina feeding on kelp causing a kina barren near the Noises in the Hauraki Gulf | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Echinodermata |
Class: | Echinoidea |
Order: | Camarodonta |
Family: | Echinometridae |
Genus: | Evechinus |
Species: |
E. chloroticus
|
Binomial name | |
Evechinus chloroticus Valenciennes, 1846 |
Kina (Evechinus chloroticus) is a sea urchin endemic to New Zealand. This echinoderm belongs to the family Echinometridae and it can reach a maximum diameter of 16–17 cm.[1]
Kina populations throughout New Zealand have dramatically grown due the effects of climate change, resulting in over-grazing that significantly damages kelp forest ecosystems. Kina are now being actively removed from many ecosystems for marine conservation efforts.[2]
Kina have been a traditional component of Māori diet since pre-European times and has been fished commercially since 1986 in small quantities under the quota management system in restricted areas along the coast of New Zealand.[1][3] Attempts to export E. chloroticus to Asian markets have been unsuccessful, so it may not be an economically attractive species for aquaculture development.[4][5]
Evechinus chloroticus is distributed throughout New Zealand and in some northern and southern offshore islands.[1][6] It is the most common sea urchin species in New Zealand.[7]
Evechinus chloroticus is oval in shape, covered by a large number of spines, which are used as protection. In between the spines are a number of tube feet, which help kina to propel themselves along the seafloor.[7]
This sea urchin is found all around New Zealand in shallow waters and up to 12–14 metres deep,[1] although there are also intertidal populations in the north of both the North and South Islands.[6]
Evechinus chloroticus prefers areas with moderate wave action.[1] In the north of New Zealand it is found mostly on rocky seafloor areas but also in areas of sandy seafloor.[6][8] In the South Island it is also found in abundant densities throughout the fiords.[9]
Individuals smaller than 1 cm of diameter are found attached under both intertidal and subtidal rocks, whereas individuals between 1–4 cm are found in intertidal and subtidal areas under the rocks, or within small depressions in rocks.[1][6] After the sea urchins reach 4 cm they migrate to open areas.[1]
Evechinus chloroticus is mainly herbivorous,[1] feeding on large brown algae, red algae and encrusting substrate.[6] Larval stages can feed on different species of unicellular algae in a size range between 5 and 50 μm.[10]
Molluscs such as the cymatiid gastropods Charonia capax and Charonia rubicunda, starfish, and benthic feeding fishes can feed on individuals of E. chloroticus.[6] The most important predators are the eleven-armed sea star, Coscinasterias calamaria, the seven-armed prickly starfish Astrostole scabra, and the spiny lobster Jasus edwardsii.[1][11]
Evechinus chloroticus has an annual breeding cycle.[12] It becomes sexually mature between 3.5 and 7.5 cm in diameter, depending on the population.[12] Gonads are ripe from October and individuals can spawn from November to February.[1]
Swimming larvae complete development in the water column between 4 and 6 weeks.[13] Other studies related to larval development report development in the laboratory can take between 22 and 30 days.[14][15] The larvae of E. chloroticus are known to settle on substrates covered with coralline algal species, such as Corallina officinalis[14] as well as artificial surfaces.[1] High sedimentation loads in the water column, such as those associated with residential construction, have a negative effect on settling sea urchins.
Evechinus chloroticus can grow between 0.8 and 1 cm in diameter only in its first year of life,[16] and growth rate of in wild populations has been reported between 1–2 cm in diameter annually.[17]
Kina are a traditional food for Māori, often eaten raw from the sea. Kina were known to develop a bitter taste during much of the year, with the blooming of the kōwhai in spring or pōhutukawa in summer indicating times when the roe was particularly palatable.[7]
Kina shells, also known as tests, have become a symbol of coastal New Zealand. The shells have been used in crafts, such as ornaments and jewellery boxes.[7]
Sea urchin gonads are highly prized in some Asian and European seafood markets where demand has been increasing.[5] In the New Zealand market, the roe can reach NZ$70 per kg.[18] However, because E. chloroticus is not well known in Japan and has a reputation for having a bitter taste, this sea urchin is unable to reach a high price in export markets.[5]
Despite the fact that E. chloroticus is not a profitable species for aquaculture, there are many studies on the complete culture of this species, especially relating to roe enhancement from fished sea urchins. There is strong interest in the production of good quality roe through roe enhancement, which could allow the export of them to markets such as Japan.[19]
Roe enhancement for only nine weeks can give the greatest return for the lowest costs (feeding and maintenance).[19] Also, it is more profitable to enhance sea urchins with low gonad index which are found in the North Island rather than the South Island.[3]
The growth rate in juveniles of E. choloticus maintained in the laboratory is around 1 mm of diameter per month.[14] Maturity in this species depends on the feed quality and availability rather than the sea urchin size. Therefore, it can reach maturity as small as 30 mm if it is fed with a prepared diet.[20]
Artificial diets for sea urchins are well developed. However, more studies in appropriate artificial food for newly settled sea urchins are necessary as well as the design of systems for the nursery culture of post-settled sea urchins.[5]
Many of the Kina's natural predators, such as crayfish and snapper, have experienced population decline due to the effects of global warming and overfishing. This has increased Kina population size all throughout New Zealand.[21] Kina continue to multiply rapidly, even in their natural environment, caused by a lack of adequate predation. Once Kina populations become out of control, kelp forest can be entirely eaten away, leaving bare rocks, also known as Kina Barrens.[7] A notable example of a Kina Barren is the Hauraki Gulf Marine Park, which after also experiencing overfishing, has been almost entirely stripped of other marine life.[22]
Copper has a detrimental effect on all stages of E. choloticus. For gametes, LOEC of >15 μg/L over one hour. For the pluteus stage, LOEC of 10.4 μg/L over 4 days. For adults, LOEC of 50 μg/L over 2 weeks.[23]
Evechinus chloroticus |
|
---|