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| Context | The first official international diplomatic act that recognized Greece as a sovereign and independent state. |
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| Signed | February 3, 1830 |
| Location | London, United Kingdom |
| Parties | |
The London Protocol of 1830, also known as the Protocol of Independence, was a treaty signed between France, Russia, and Great Britain on February 3, 1830. It was the first official international diplomatic act that recognized Greece as a sovereign and independent state. The protocol afforded Greece the political, administrative, and commercial rights of an independent state, and defined the northern border of Greece from the mouth of the Achelous river to the mouth of the Spercheios river. The first governor of the First Hellenic Republic (1830-1831) was Ioannis Kapodistrias.
The London Protocol determined that the Greek state would be a monarchy, ruled by the "Ruler Sovereign of Greece". The signatories to the protocol initially selected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as monarch. After Leopold declined the offer of the Greek throne[1], a meeting of the powers at the London conference of 1832 named the 17-year-old Prince Otto of Bavaria as the King of Greece and designated the new state the Kingdom of Greece.
The Greek war of independence began in 1821, and by January 1822 the provisional regime of Greece had established an assembly, and a formal constitution.[2] By 1823, the British Foreign Secretary George Canning was taking an keen interest in the 'Greek issue'. He wished to see the international recognition of Greece, in order to impede Russia's expansion into the Aegean Sea.[3][4]
The terms of the St. Petersburg protocol were repeated in the Treaty of London in July 1827. This treaty set out to cease hostilities in Greece, and proposed that Greece become a dependency of the Ottoman Empire, and pay a tribute to reflect that. Later amendments gave Turkey one month to accept. A secret "supplementary" article also provided for military coercion, on both sides, to accept the terms of the Treaty.[8] This eventually led to the Battle of Navarino (7/20 October 1827). The defeat of the Turkish fleet by the three Great Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia) gave hope to the Greeks, although the European powers still only spoke of autonomy, rather than independence.
From 1827 to 1828, there were major personnel changes in the British government. George Canning was promoted from Foreign Secretary to Prime Minister in April 1827; but died in August after just 119 days in post. Viscount Goderich followed as Prime Minister, but only until January 1828, when he was succeeded by the Duke of Wellington. Canning was succeeded as Foreign Secretary first by the Viscount Dudley and Ward and then in June 1828 by Lord Aberdeen.
The Russian-Turkish War was a series of conflicts between the Russian Empire and the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and later with France and Great Britain allying with Russia. After the ninth war ended with the defeat of Turkey in 1829, Russia forced Turkey to sign the Treaty of Adrianople, also known as the Treaty of Edirne (September 14, 1829).[16][12][12][17]
The Treaty of Adrianople gave the Ottoman Empire suzerain rule over the Danube states of Moldova and Wallachia, and permitted Russia to take control of the Caucasus' towns of Anape and Poti, and placed Russian traders in Turkey under the jurisdiction of the Russian Ambassador.
Once Russia emerged victorious from the Russian-Turkish War, Russia sought to resolve Greece's wish to become a sovereign nation. Russia forced the Sultan to agree to grant autonomy to Greece and accept terms over Eastern Mediterranean trade that were favourable to Russia. Britain, who was involved in helping the other powers liberate Greece, had their own terms as well. The purpose of the British policy was to create an independent Greek state that would close routes to Russia in the Aegean and reduce Russian influence in the newly formed Greek state. At the same time, however, they sought to limit the borders, especially in Western Greece, so that there would be a safe distance between the new state and the Ionian Islands, which were then under British occupation.[18] The Greek senate asked the allies that the northern border be changed to include Mount Oxas but the allies responded that this was not possible.[19] Thus, a new round of negotiations were commenced, which resulted in the protocol of independence (22 January / 3 February 1830), also known as the London Protocol. This protocol was accepted by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.[12]
The plenipotentiaries of England, France and Russia (Aberdeen, Montmorency-Laval, Leuven) participated in the London negotiations and signed the protocol of independence, while representatives of the Greeks and Turks were absent. All three countries aimed to increase their influence in the newly formed state while limiting the influence of their opponents.
Kapodistrias was excluded from the negotiations due to British suspicions, as they considered that he was inciting a revolution in the Ionian Islands.[20] In response, he warned that he would not accept unfavorable terms for Greece and insisted on his country's right to express itself at the Conference.[21]
As for the Sultan, he had agreed to sign everything that would be decided at the London conference for the implementation of peace and the end of the war.[22][23]
In the 11 articles of the Protocol,[24][25] an independent Greek state was solemnly recognized with a border along on the Aspropotamos–Spercheios line. Initially, Euboea the Cyclades and the Sporades were adjudged as part of Greece, while Crete and Samos were not. In a second protocol on the same day Leopold was elected as the "Ruler Sovereign of Greece”[26] and a loan was granted for the maintenance of the army that he would bring with him.[27] The Great Powers demanded that Greece respect the life and property of Muslims in Greek territory and withdraw Greek troops from the areas outside its borders.
With the protocol of February 3, the war ended and the Greek state was recognized in the international community. The recognition of the independence of Greece by the three Powers and Turkey is a critical turning point in Modern Greek history.
However, these decisions would not be final in terms of borders and the person and title of sovereign. The final settlement of the Greek Issue would occur later with the international acts of 1832.
On March 27 / April 8, 1830, ambassadors from Russia, Britain and France notified Greece and the Ottoman Empire of the protocol.[19] The Sultan was forced to accept the independence of Greece. Ioannis Kapodistrias was once the Foreign Minister for Russia and was elected as president of Greece, arriving in 1828.[28] He agreed with the condition that the Turks evacuate the islands of Attica and Euboea.[29] He also demanded the presence of foreign legislators and the provision of means to deal with the refugee problem that would be caused by the evacuation of the areas outside the borders by the Greek population. At the same time he informed Leopold, who was made king of Greece, about his claims.[30]
He also asked Leopold to embrace Eastern Orthodoxy, grant political rights to the Greeks, and work to expand the borders in order to include Acarnania, Crete, Samos, and Psara.[31]
Leopold, however, met with the refusal of the British government. This fact led him to resign (9/21 May 1830) with the argument that he did not want to impose on the Greeks the unfavourable decisions of foreigners[30][32] but also for personal reasons.[30]
Kapodistrias’s internal opposition accepted the terms of the Protocol with relative satisfaction, accusing Kapodistrias of restricting borders like what Britain and Russia aimed to do.[33]
While ruling Greece, Kapodistrias made attempts to establish central governance over Greece. He also organised tax authorities, sorted the judiciary, introduced a quarantine system to deal with typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery infections, and brought the cultivation and consumption of potatoes into the country. Though his government became increasingly unpopular and was assassinated in 1831.[28]
Leopold’s resignation in conjunction with Kapodistrias’s postponement policy led to a new Conference in July 1831 proposing to Turkey the extension of the Ambracian Gulf - Pagasetic Gulf line. Turkey was forced to accept the terms and a new protocol was finally signed (14/26 September 1831). Unfortunately, Kapodistrias was assassinated a few days later (September 27 / October 9, 1831), before seeing the positive results of his policy.[34] He was killed by Konstantis and Georgios Mavromichalis after Kapodistrias had ordered the imprisonment of Petrobey Mavromichalis on the front steps of the church of Saint Spyridon. After the assassination of Kapodistrias,[35] The three powers Russia, Britain and France with the protocol of 1/13 February 1832 and the Treaty of 25 April / 7 May in the same year that Prince Otto of the House of Wittelsbatch from Bavaria would be made King of Greece after the resignation of Leopold.[36][28] The Sultan agreed, after tough negotiations, with the signing of the Treaty of Constantinople on 9/21 July 1832 which provided for the independence of Greece and the enlarged Pagasetic Gulf - Ambracian Gulf border.[37]Prince Otto, newly crowned, arrived with a Regency Council in Greece in 1833 who ruled alongside the prince until he reached majority.[28]
