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: George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Samuel Adams all exercised public diplomacy in arguing the case of justice for the American colonies. The most notable use of Public Diplomacy by American Founding Fathers was the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] in '''1776''' <ref>Waller, J. Michael (ed.) The Public Diplomacy Reader. (Washington, D.C.: The Institute of World Politics Press), 40.</ref> |
: George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Samuel Adams all exercised public diplomacy in arguing the case of justice for the American colonies. The most notable use of Public Diplomacy by American Founding Fathers was the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] in '''1776''' <ref>Waller, J. Michael (ed.) The Public Diplomacy Reader. (Washington, D.C.: The Institute of World Politics Press), 40.</ref> |
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:::''' |
:::'''1914–1918 [[World War I]]''' |
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''' |
'''1917–1919''' – President Wilson created the [[Committee on Public Information]] led by advertiser [[George Creel]] |
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:::'''1920s |
:::'''1920s – Advent of ''Radio''''' |
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:::''' |
:::'''1939–1945 [[World War II]]''' |
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'''1936''' |
'''1936''' – Roosevelt's [[Good Neighbor Policy]] |
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'''1938''' |
'''1938''' – The Division of Cultural Relations (State Dept.) |
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– Interdeparmental Committee for Scientific Cooperation (USIA pamphlet) – response to German and Italian propaganda aimed at Latin America. |
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'''1940''' |
'''1940''' – Nelson Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs |
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'''1941''' |
'''1941''' – U.S. broadcasting 24/7 |
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'''1941''' |
'''1941''' – Pearl Harbour, U.S. enters into WWII → U.S. broadcasting goes global |
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'''1942''' |
'''1942''' |
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: February |
: February – [[VOA]]'s first broadcast |
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: June |
: June – [[United States Office of War Information]] (OWI) created by Roosevelt |
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: The [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) |
: The [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) – predecessor to the CIA<ref>Nakamura, Kennon H., Weed, Matthew C. ''U.S. Public Diplomacy: Background and Current Issues'' (Dec. 18, 2009) Congressional Research Service. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40989.pdf</ref> |
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:::'''1945 |
:::'''1945 – [[Cold War]]''' |
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:OWI terminated |
:OWI terminated |
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:VOA |
:VOA – transferred to the State Department |
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:Founding of [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]<ref>Nakamura</ref> |
:Founding of [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]<ref>Nakamura</ref> |
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'''1946''' |
'''1946''' – The Fulbright Act of 1946 – "Mandated a peacetime international exchange program" |
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'''1947''' |
'''1947''' – [[Fulbright Program]] founded. |
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: Establishment of the [[CIA]], the Central Intelligence Agency was a successor to the OSS and it proceeded to lend intellectual, legal, and material support to American Public Diplomacy <ref>Waller</ref> |
: Establishment of the [[CIA]], the Central Intelligence Agency was a successor to the OSS and it proceeded to lend intellectual, legal, and material support to American Public Diplomacy <ref>Waller</ref> |
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'''1948''' |
'''1948''' – U.S. Information and Educational Exchange Act signed by President Truman |
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::Also known as the [[Smith-Mundt Act]], it is a charter addressing America's peacetime overseas information program. |
::Also known as the [[Smith-Mundt Act]], it is a charter addressing America's peacetime overseas information program. |
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'''1948''' |
'''1948''' – Congress creates the U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy – to advise and make recommendations on the conduct of public |
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:diplomacy.<ref>Hybl, William J. , Bagley, Elizabeth F. et. Al. Getting the People Part Right: a report on the human resources dimension of U.S. public diplomacy. U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, 2008. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/106297.pdf</ref> |
:diplomacy.<ref>Hybl, William J. , Bagley, Elizabeth F. et. Al. Getting the People Part Right: a report on the human resources dimension of U.S. public diplomacy. U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, 2008. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/106297.pdf</ref> |
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:: '''June 1948 |
:: '''June 1948 – May 1949 – [[Berlin Blockade]]''' |
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'''1949''' |
'''1949''' – the [[Hoover Commission]] advised the creation of an independent information agency |
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'''1950''' |
'''1950''' – Campaign of Truth (Truman) |
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'''Aug. 1, 1953''' |
'''Aug. 1, 1953''' – Eisenhower founded the Independent [[United States Information Agency]] (USIA) |
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:: the [[United States Department of State]] directed educational exchange programs.<ref>Dizard Jr., Wilson P. Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency, (Boulder: Lyne Rienner Publishers, Inc.,) 2004.</ref> |
:: the [[United States Department of State]] directed educational exchange programs.<ref>Dizard Jr., Wilson P. Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency, (Boulder: Lyne Rienner Publishers, Inc.,) 2004.</ref> |
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<ref>Nye</ref> |
<ref>Nye</ref> |
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'''1961''' |
'''1961''' – ''Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act'' ([[Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961]]) - "consolidated various U.S. international educational and cultural exchange activities.. It expanded other cultural and athletic exchanges, translation of books and periodicals, and U.S. representation in international fairs and expositions. The Act also established government operation of cultural and education centers abroad."<ref>USIA Overview Brochure. http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/usia/usiahome/overview.pdf</ref> |
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''' |
'''1961–1964''' – [[Edward R. Murrow]] appointed USIA director. He states, “Truth is the best propaganda.” |
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:::'''1962 |
:::'''1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis''' |
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''' |
'''1977–1978''' – the State Department's [[Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs]] is combined with USIA to create the ''United States International Communication Agency'' (USICA) |
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Carter issues second mandate for USIA/USICA: ''"to reduce the degree to which misperceptions and misunderstandings complicate relations between the United States and other nations. It is also in our interest—and in the interest of other nations—that Americans have the opportunity to understand the histories, cultures, and problems of others, so that we can come to understand their hopes, perceptions, and aspirations."''<ref>USIA Overview Brochure</ref> |
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'''1978''' |
'''1978''' – VOA folded into USIA/USICA |
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'''1982''' |
'''1982''' – Reagan restored the name to USIA<ref>USIA overview brochure</ref> |
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'''1987''' |
'''1987''' – Reagan's [[tear down this wall!]] speech at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany. |
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'''1989''' |
'''1989''' – Year of Miracles: |
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::[[Solidarity (Polish trade union)]] |
::[[Solidarity (Polish trade union)]] |
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'''1990''' |
'''1990''' – amendment to U.S. Information and Educational Exchange Act – authorized USIA director to "make certain products available to the Archivist of the United States for domestic distribution". But only 12 years after the fact. |
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'''1994''' |
'''1994''' – ''United States [[International Broadcasting Act]]'' |
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'''1998''' |
'''1998''' – Foreign Affairs Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998 |
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: States that |
: States that – USIA will be integrated with the Department of State as of October 1, 1999, moving public diplomacy closer to the center of U.S. foreign policymaking.–<ref>USIA Overview Brochure</ref> |
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'''1999''' |
'''1999''' – USIA abolished and full authority given to the State Department's [[Undersecretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs]] |
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:VOA is put under the direction of the bipartisan [[Broadcasting Board of Governors]]<ref>USIA Overview Brochure</ref> |
:VOA is put under the direction of the bipartisan [[Broadcasting Board of Governors]]<ref>USIA Overview Brochure</ref> |
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::'''2001''' |
::'''2001''' – '''''September 11''''' – Terrorist attacks against United States. Subsequent invasion of Afghanistan. |
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'''2002''' |
'''2002''' – Strategic communication Policy coordinating Committee established. |
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::'''2003 |
::'''2003 – Invasion of Afghanistan''' |
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''' |
'''2007–2008''' – ''Counter-Terrorism Communication Center'' established – replaced by ''Global Strategic Engagement Cent''er.<ref>Nakamura</ref> |
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== Important |
== Important legislation == |
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:The following four acts provide the foundational legislative authority for public diplomacy as practiced by the U.S. government: |
:The following four acts provide the foundational legislative authority for public diplomacy as practiced by the U.S. government: |
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: Therefore, a piece of legislation which had serious ramifications for American Public Diplomacy was the ''Foreign Affairs Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998'' which folded USIA into the State Department and put all International Broadcasting in the hands of the BBG. |
: Therefore, a piece of legislation which had serious ramifications for American Public Diplomacy was the ''Foreign Affairs Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998'' which folded USIA into the State Department and put all International Broadcasting in the hands of the BBG. |
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== |
== In the 21st century == |
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===Structure=== |
===Structure=== |
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:Since 1999, the ''Foreign Affairs Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998'', also known as ''The Consolidation Act'', abolished USIA and transferred its functions (information, cultural, and educational operations) to the [[United States Secretary of State]] and the [[United States State Department]]. Specifically, these functions fall under the leadership of the [[Undersecretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs]]. |
:Since 1999, the ''Foreign Affairs Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998'', also known as ''The Consolidation Act'', abolished USIA and transferred its functions (information, cultural, and educational operations) to the [[United States Secretary of State]] and the [[United States State Department]]. Specifically, these functions fall under the leadership of the [[Undersecretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs]]. |
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:On the other hand, the Consolidation Act also established the BBG as an "independent entity within the executive branch." |
:On the other hand, the Consolidation Act also established the BBG as an "independent entity within the executive branch."<ref>Nakamura</ref> U.S. International Broadcasting continues to play a vital role in American public diplomacy. As former president of the BBG and 2008 undersecretary of state for public diplomacy, [[James K. Glassman]] says, "U.S. international broadcasting is America's largest civilian public diplomacy program, and one that "provides a lifeline to people seeking the truth" in many closed societies."<ref>Babb, MacKenzie C. (Staff Writer America.gov) New U.S. Public Diplomacy Head Cites "ArsenalofPersuasion". (09 June 2008) http://www.america.gov/st/peacesec-english/2008/June/20080609153917cmbbab0.5993921.html</ref> |
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::An organizational chart of Public Diplomacy within the Department of State is available on pg. 19 of the 2009 report by CRS ([[Congressional Research Service]]) entitled ''U.S. Public Diplomacy: Background and Current Issues'' available online at: https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40989.pdf |
::An organizational chart of Public Diplomacy within the Department of State is available on pg. 19 of the 2009 report by CRS ([[Congressional Research Service]]) entitled ''U.S. Public Diplomacy: Background and Current Issues'' available online at: https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40989.pdf |
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:::funding, staffing and access to department officials.”<ref>Hybl, William J. , Olson, Lyndon L. et. Al. Assessing U.S. Public Diplomacy: a notional model. United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/149966.pdf</ref> |
:::funding, staffing and access to department officials.”<ref>Hybl, William J. , Olson, Lyndon L. et. Al. Assessing U.S. Public Diplomacy: a notional model. United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/149966.pdf</ref> |
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==== |
====V. extremist Islamic propaganda==== |
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:The [[9/11 Commission]] makes the following assessment:''The enemy is not Islam, the great world faith, but a perversion of Islam. The enemy goes beyond al Qaeda to include the radical ideological movement, inspired in part by al Qaeda, that has spawned other terrorist groups and violence. thus our strategy must match our means to two ends: dismantling the al Qaeda network and, in the long term, prevailing over the ideology that contributes to Islamist terrorism."''<ref>Waller, 377</ref> |
:The [[9/11 Commission]] makes the following assessment:''The enemy is not Islam, the great world faith, but a perversion of Islam. The enemy goes beyond al Qaeda to include the radical ideological movement, inspired in part by al Qaeda, that has spawned other terrorist groups and violence. thus our strategy must match our means to two ends: dismantling the al Qaeda network and, in the long term, prevailing over the ideology that contributes to Islamist terrorism."''<ref>Waller, 377</ref> |
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:Aside from the State Department, two other government entities have clear foreign policy roles and, accordingly, engage foreign publics through public diplomacy. These are the [[United States Department of Defense]] and the [[United States Agency for International Development]] |
:Aside from the State Department, two other government entities have clear foreign policy roles and, accordingly, engage foreign publics through public diplomacy. These are the [[United States Department of Defense]] and the [[United States Agency for International Development]] |
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===United States Department of Defense |
===United States Department of Defense – strategic communication=== |
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:'''"Strategic Communications"''' is the D.O.D. version of "public diplomacy." The D.O.D. defines "strategic communication" as: |
:'''"Strategic Communications"''' is the D.O.D. version of "public diplomacy." The D.O.D. defines "strategic communication" as: |
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::''focused United States Government efforts to understand and engage key audiences to create, strengthen,'' |
::''focused United States Government efforts to understand and engage key audiences to create, strengthen,'' |
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:'''Strategic Communications Activities include''': |
:'''Strategic Communications Activities include''': |
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#Internet |
#Internet – as a battlefield of ideas |
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#Human Terrain Teams |
#Human Terrain Teams – providing expert knowledge on foreign societies |
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#The Global Maritime Partnership |
#The Global Maritime Partnership – "deployment of Navy warships and hospital ships to conduct civil-military operations in foreign countries as well as deliver humanitarian assistance."<ref>Nakamura, 29</ref> |
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=== |
===United States Agency for International Development (USAID)=== |
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: USAID plays a significant role in public diplomacy because of its a-political humanitarian bent. As Nakamura writes, "the Agency creates long-standing relationships between the United states and the people of other countries, relationships that are capable of influencing foreign publics to view U.S. policies and actions as beneficial and to cooperate with U.S. government initiatives.<ref>Nakamura</ref> |
: USAID plays a significant role in public diplomacy because of its a-political humanitarian bent. As Nakamura writes, "the Agency creates long-standing relationships between the United states and the people of other countries, relationships that are capable of influencing foreign publics to view U.S. policies and actions as beneficial and to cooperate with U.S. government initiatives.<ref>Nakamura</ref> |
This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (December 2015)
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Public diplomacy is that "form of international Political Advocacy in which the civilians of one country use legitimate means to reach out to the civilians of another country in order to gain popular support for negotiations occurring through diplomatic channels."[1]
1917–1919 – President Wilson created the Committee on Public Information led by advertiser George Creel
1936 – Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy
1938 – The Division of Cultural Relations (State Dept.)
– Interdeparmental Committee for Scientific Cooperation (USIA pamphlet) – response to German and Italian propaganda aimed at Latin America.
1940 – Nelson Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs
1941 – U.S. broadcasting 24/7
1941 – Pearl Harbour, U.S. enters into WWII → U.S. broadcasting goes global
1942
1946 – The Fulbright Act of 1946 – "Mandated a peacetime international exchange program"
1947 – Fulbright Program founded.
1948 – U.S. Information and Educational Exchange Act signed by President Truman
1948 – Congress creates the U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy – to advise and make recommendations on the conduct of public
1949 – the Hoover Commission advised the creation of an independent information agency
1950 – Campaign of Truth (Truman)
Aug. 1, 1953 – Eisenhower founded the Independent United States Information Agency (USIA)
1961 – Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act (Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961) - "consolidated various U.S. international educational and cultural exchange activities.. It expanded other cultural and athletic exchanges, translation of books and periodicals, and U.S. representation in international fairs and expositions. The Act also established government operation of cultural and education centers abroad."[9]
1961–1964 – Edward R. Murrow appointed USIA director. He states, “Truth is the best propaganda.”
1977–1978 – the State Department's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs is combined with USIA to create the United States International Communication Agency (USICA) Carter issues second mandate for USIA/USICA: "to reduce the degree to which misperceptions and misunderstandings complicate relations between the United States and other nations. It is also in our interest—and in the interest of other nations—that Americans have the opportunity to understand the histories, cultures, and problems of others, so that we can come to understand their hopes, perceptions, and aspirations."[10]
1978 – VOA folded into USIA/USICA
1982 – Reagan restored the name to USIA[11]
1987 – Reagan's tear down this wall! speech at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany.
1989 – Year of Miracles:
1990 – amendment to U.S. Information and Educational Exchange Act – authorized USIA director to "make certain products available to the Archivist of the United States for domestic distribution". But only 12 years after the fact.
1994 – United States International Broadcasting Act
1998 – Foreign Affairs Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998
1999 – USIA abolished and full authority given to the State Department's Undersecretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs
2002 – Strategic communication Policy coordinating Committee established.
2007–2008 – Counter-Terrorism Communication Center established – replaced by Global Strategic Engagement Center.[14]
First: The State Department's basic authorities Act of 1956[15]
Second: The United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948 (Smith-Mundt Act)
Third: The Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961 (Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961)
Fourth: The United States International Broadcasting Act of 1994 [19]
Established under section 604 of the United States Information and Exchange Act of 1948. Its purpose is to "appraises U.S. Government activities intended to understand, inform, and influence foreign publics." The current charter for the United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy is available online at http://www.state.gov/r/adcompd/charter/104510.htm [26]
The 2008 report, entitled Getting the People Part Right, addressed the effect of human resources on public diplomacy. The report concluded:
The 2010 report, entitled Assessing U.S. Public Diplomacy: A Notional Model, was a report based on work done at the direction of the U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy by the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs at The University of Texas at Austin. The report addressed the method of measuring the effectiveness of U.S. Public Diplomacy. Its contents may be summed up as follows: the thermometer is broken, it doesn't work. Moreover, the concluding remarks of the introductory letter from the Commission members offers more insight as to the state of public diplomacy than the actual contents of the report:
On February 15, 2011, a minority staff report was submitted to the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. In the letter of transmittal, ranking member Richard Lugar stated: In the same way that our trade with China is out of balance, it is clear to even the casual observer that when it comes to interacting directly with the other nation's public we are in another lop-sided contest. China has a vigorous public diplomacy program, based on a portrayal of an ancient, benign China that is, perhaps, out of touch with modern realities. Nonetheless, we are being overtaken in this area of foreign policy by China, which is able to take advantage of America's open system to spread its message in many different ways, while using its fundamentally closed system to stymie U.S. efforts.