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Zouxian is the phenomenon of Chinese migrants entering the United States through its southern border with Mexico.[1][2] The phenomenon became more prominent in the early 2020s.[3] In 2021, at the Darién gap, the Panamanian police counted 200 Chinese migrants; in contrast, in the first half of 2022, close to 9,000 Chinese migrants made the crossing.[2]
Chinese immigration to the United States first emerged in the mid-19th Century, largely in the Western U.S., brought on by domestic political instability and economic woes.[4] As of 2004, over four million ethnic Chinese citizens were living in Canada and the United States, comprising the largest and third largest minority group, respectively.[5] This early wave of immigration contributed significantly to the growth of Chinese ethnic enclaves and the establishment of ‘Chinatown’ communities within Los Angeles and New York,[6] which has led to the United States emerging as the preferred destination for Chinese immigrants.[7]
While the Chinese diaspora had already established a strong community within the United States, relations between the United States and The People’s Republic of China were only normalised in 1979.[8] While this subsequently granted a legal entry point for those emigrating from China, the number of immigrants allowed to enter the U.S. is subject to immigration quotas.[9] These quotas prioritise Chinese citizens with financial and familial ties to the United States and are still restrictive, leaving many with no legal opportunity to enter the country.[10] This first became an issue in the 1980s, with political and economic liberalisation in China leading to a sharp increase in chain migration as Chinese families sought to reunite with family members and build a life in established communities.[11] As a result of this overburdened and exclusionary system, people smuggling to the United States via South America and Latin America arose as a popular alternative to legal immigration methods.
The Chinese diaspora in Latin and South America, like the United States, has existed since the 19th Century owing to labour shortages in the Americas.[12] Mexico, in particular, encouraged Chinese immigration, signing a commercial treaty in 1899 that allowed Chinese citizens to run enterprises in Mexico – some of which would become involved in people smuggling.[13] This has greatly affected the popularity and effectiveness of Mexico as a transit state for illegal immigration to the United States, where Chinese shell companies in Mexico can issue fake work visas for immigrants to allow for easy access to the U.S. border.[14]
Chinese people smuggling developed mainly from, and continues to operate through, a decentralised platform utilising intermediaries and independent businesses to engage in their operations.[15] This dispersed approach allows for flexibility in smuggling networks and helps in evading law enforcement and legal consequences. One quirk of this approach is the incorporation of Mexican people smugglers and human traffickers as subcontractors to guide Chinese immigrants through the U.S. border.[16] Where payment through coyotes has often manifested in indentured servitude, Chinese people smuggling has historically adopted a guarantor system utilising family located in the United States to ensure full payment, tying in with the cultural traditions of immigrants in wealthy states providing for their families abroad.[17]
Since the COVID-19 outbreak, Chinese citizens have more frequently discussed leaving China on China’s internet.[18] Some of these discussions have even discussed leaving the Eastern hemisphere entirely and emigrating to the United States.
Even after China has lifted its COVID restriction, the inclination towards “Zouxian” persisted. According to the U.S. Border Patrol encounters, between January and September 2023, there were 21,870 Chinese illegal immigration reports, which was 13% higher than in 2022.[19] Whether the phenomenon of “Zouxian” will form a new pattern for Chinese undocumented immigration to the U.S. largely depends on the further estimation of the effect of returning to U.S.C. Title 8 on the rate of approval for Chinese asylum seekers and more precise disclosure of the life risk of jungle crossing.[20]
The difficulty in reaching the United States legally by obtaining a visa has meant that some Chinese migrants have attempted to get there through other means. For most, flying to Ecuador, where Chinese citizens are not required to purchase a visa, has been the only option.[2] The incredibly inflated costs of making the journey from Ecuador to the United States indicate that whilst some migrants come from working-class backgrounds, many are middle-class migrants hoping to leave China.[21]
Upon reaching Ecuador, migrants begin a long and arduous journey by various modes of transport, usually crossing eight countries in Latin and Central America.[21] The past decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in Chinese criminal groups operating in Latin America, specialising in four activities: trafficking fentanyl, laundering money, illegal wildlife trade, and migrant smuggling.[20] For most Chinese migrants, contacting a snakehead (people smuggler) within these criminal organisations has become an essential part of attempting the journey. Snakeheads employ local guides to assist migrants to traverse the perilous crossing, where hazards include uneven terrains, illness, and flash floods.[2] In addition to the natural hazards, the risks of trusting a snakehead not to abandon them or demand more money midway through the journey are profound.[2] Consequently, to discuss the reliability of a snakehead and to communicate more generally about the route, migrants utilise social media platforms such as Telegram to share information with each other.[22]
The perils of making the journey are severe, and some do not survive the journey[18] as they encounter hunger and robbery or kidnapping by local gangs.[23] However, undeterred by the threat of exploitation, injury, and death, Chinese migrants continue to risk everything in their attempts to make this journey, with the ultimate goal of entering the United States, getting a job, and eventually gaining legal status in the USA. [24]
Once reaching the border, the immigrants face little opposition to seeking asylum, with the refusal rate of asylum seekers from China into the U.S. being 12%.[25] This is completely contrasted by the level of Visa application refusals being approximately 30%, contributing to the statistic that U.S. Visa refusals are 90% below pre-pandemic levels.[26] When in the U.S., many move to Chinese Districts in large cities such as San Francisco and New York.[18] Through the use of social media, friends, and family connections, many are able to find jobs that are cash-in-hand, forgoing the need for a green card or Visa.[27]
The increasing asylum-seeking through “Zouxian” is linked closely with the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Economic stagnation and frustrations over China’s political reform have eroded the social confidence of some Chinese people, particularly in the lower-class hierarchy.
A key driver to “Zouxian” resulted from people’s dissatisfaction with China’s authoritarian governance. Due to the implementation of the “Zero-COVID” policy, Chinese households experienced widespread lockdowns, compulsory mass testing, and concentrated treatment of patients, which resulted in social problems like food shortages, family separations, and unequal healthcare access.[28] Ultimately, following the catastrophic fire in Urumqi, accumulated public resentment outburst on October 25th, 2022, in the form of street protests, calling for an end to COVID restrictions, free elections and the resignation of Xi Jinping.[29] A common expression among the runners was their discontent toward the absence of free speech and religious, which became intensified due to the COVID-19 pandemic’s constraints.[28] Some runners claimed to face different degrees of governmental oppression for their speeches during Covid regulation, including university expulsion,[30] police interrogation[18] and imprisonment.[31] Many runners attributed their determination to “Zouxian” to their COVID-19 political witness and experiences.[32]
Another catalyst for “Zouxian” was China’s economic slowdown caused by the COVID-19 outbreak. Data from June 2023 suggest that the real income growth remained below the inflation rate, with the youth unemployment rate reaching a new high of 20.4%. The subdued private investment continued from 2022, and the property market overall has depressed despite some improvement in large cities.[33] The runners unanimously expressed their despair of an economic recovery.[34] Young runners complained about the asymmetrically heavy workload versus poor salary, voicing concerns that despite the unfavourable working conditions, the labour force market remained highly contested in the post-COVID era.[35] Another recurring demographic is the small business owners, who incurred the high revenue deduction from COVID restrictions and thus became pessimistic about the future business opportunities in China.[26] Most of the runners are aware that they are unlikely to obtain well-paying positions in the short run as asylum seekers. However, they believe the current toil will be worth paying if the next generation can grow with greater prosperity.[30][36]
In recent years, social media has played a pivotal role in various movements in China,[37] and it is no exception for Zouxian. Chinese undocumented immigration through the U.S. Southwest border is not a COVID-exclusive phenomenon.[38] However, traversing the Darién Gap to reach Panama has been a COVID-inspired expedient. Travel restrictions during the pandemic generated difficulty in obtaining a travelling visa for most Chinese. Consequently, the China-Ecuador visa-free agreement gave rise to the rationale of making Ecuador the landing area for the runners.[39] Although “Zouxian” is a perilous journey, the successful case sharing and instruction transmission on media platforms, namely Telegram, TikTok, Twitter and YouTube, played a crucial role in alleviating the fear and bolstering the confidence of the runners.[26]
“Zouxian” has been a direct contradiction to China’s idealist domestic and International image, a direct contrast to the “Chinese Dream”, which has been the guiding principle of Xi Jinping’s party since 2012.[21] The disillusion of citizens towards this principle is self-evident in the motives behind running. The response from the Chinese government has been to attempt to strengthen domestic opportunity and economic agency. They have attempted to do this via ambitious investments in projects such as the “Belt and Road” initiative. The Chinese government have attempted to provide ample alternatives to the American powerhouse.[21] Moreover, they have U-turned on unpopular domestic policies. However, these have made a limited dent in this particular case, as there continues to be significant migration due to continued economic concern; people are seemingly “voting with their feet”.[21]
The response from the United States has been one of concern; it has prompted significant issues, including alliances between Latin American and Chinese gangs.[40] With the Chinese Mafia’s business now estimated to be over $750 million, the risk of fentanyl importation is of paramount concern. In response, the U.S. has asked China for help, but as a result of bad faith between the two nations, China has declined.[41] Moreover, not only is the U.S. concerned about the threat of criminal gangs and drug importation, but they also consider the increased migration as a national security risk. The Department of Homeland Security recently released a statement indicating that China could exploit the border crisis in South America and push individuals whom the U.S. find concerning through.[42] Particularly as most immigrants making the journey are single adults who could have the capacity to be concerning targets.[43]
