Language family of indigenous peoples in South America
This article is about the Maipurean languages, or Arawakan proper. For the Araucanian language family spoken in the Patagonia, see Araucanian languages.
Maipurean languages in South America (Caribbean and Central America not included): North-Maipurean (pale blue) and South-Maipurean (deeper blue). Spots represent location of extant languages, and shadowed areas show probable earlier locations.
Arawakan (Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper), also known as Maipurean (also Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre), is a language family that developed among ancient indigenous peoples in South America. Branches migrated to Central America and the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions being Ecuador, Uruguay, and Chile. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypothetical Macro-Arawakan stock.
The name Maipure was given to the family by Filippo S. Gilii in 1782, after the Maipure languageofVenezuela, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more important Arawak language a century later. The term Arawak took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broader Macro-Arawakan proposal. At that time, the name Maipurean was resurrected for the core family. See Arawakan vs Maipurean for details.
The Arawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis (ALMH)[1] suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of a trade languageorlingua franca that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002)[2] and Eriksen (2014).[3] Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages.[1] On the other hand, Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of the Austronesian and Austroasiatic language families in Southeast Asia.[4]
Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that are extinct and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all:
An early contrast between Ta-Arawak and Nu-Arawak, depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious; nu- is the ancestral form for the entire family, and ta- is an innovation of one branch of the family.
The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these:
Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are now extinct: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao, Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique.
Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up the Southern Outlier and Western branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu ('Apolista') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up the Maritime branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of the North Amazonian branch of Northern Maipurean.
The following breakdown uses Aikhenvald's nomenclature followed by Kaufman's:
Maipurean
North Arawak = Northern Maipurean
Rio Branco = Kaufman's Wapishanan (2) [with Mapidian under the name "Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect]
Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart from Morique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean.
Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifies Mawayana with Wapishana together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).
Phonological innovations characterizing some of the branches:[7]
Maritime: loss of medial Proto-Arawakan *-n-.
Lokono-Wayuu: first person singular prefix *ta- replacing *nu-. Carvalho also reconstructs the suffix *-ja (possibly a deictic) and *kabɨnɨ 'three' as characteristic of this subgroup.
Campa: lexical innovations such as *iNʧato 'tree', *-taki 'bark', *-toNki 'bone', etc. There are also typological innovations due to contact with Andean languages such as Quechua.
The internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2020) is as follows.[8][9][10] This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001[6]), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016).[5]
12 subgroups consisting of 56 languages (29 living and 27 extinct) († = extinct)
Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[11]
Arawakan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968)
Island languages
Taino / Nitaino - once spoken in the Conquest days on the Greater Antilles Islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. Dialects are:
Taino of Cuba - once spoken on the island of Cuba; in the nineteenth century only in the villages of Jiguaní, Bayano, and Quivicán; now the last descendants speak only Spanish.
Borinquen - once spoken on the island of Puerto Rico.
Wapishana / Matisana / Wapityan / Uapixana - spoken on the Tacutu River, Mahú River, and Surumú River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil, and in the adjoining region in Guyana.
Mapidian / Maotityan - spoken at the sources of the Apiniwau River, Guyana, now perhaps extinct.
Mawakwa - once spoken on the Mavaca River, Venezuela.
Goajira group
Goajira / Uáira - language spoken on the Goajira Peninsula in Colombia and Venezuela with two dialects, Guimpejegual and Gopujegual.
Paraujano / Parancan / Parawogwan / Pará - spoken by a tribe of lake dwellers on Lake Maracaibo, Zulia state, Venezuela.
Alile - once spoken on the Guasape River, state of Zulia, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Onota - once spoken between Lake Maracaibo and the Palmar River in the same region, Zulia state, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Guanebucán - extinct language once spoken on the Hacha River, department of Magdalena, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Cosina / Coquibacoa - extinct language of a little known tribe of the Serranía Cosina, Goajira Peninsula, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Caquetío group
Caquetío - extinct language once spoken on the islands of Curaçao and Aruba near the Venezuelan coast, on the Yaracuy River, Portuguesa River, and Apure River, Venezuela. (only several words)
Ajagua - once spoken on the Tocuyo River near Carera, state of Lara, Venezuela. (only two words and patronyms.)
Quinó - once spoken in the village of Lagunillas, state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Nothing.)
Tororó / Auyama - once spoken in the village of San Cristóbal, state of Táchira. (Febres Cordero 1921, pp. 116–160 passim, only six words.)
Aviamo - once spoken on the Uribante River, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
Tecua - once spoken on the Lengupa River and in the village of Teguas, department of Boyacá, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Yaguai - once spoken on the Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Cocaima - once spoken between the Setenta River and Matiyure River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Chacanta - once spoken on the Mucuchachi River, state of Mérida. (Unattested.)
Caparo - once spoken on the Caparo River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Támud - once spoken northeast of the Sagamoso River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Burgua - once spoken near San Camilo on the Burgua River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Cuite - once spoken on the Cuite River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Queniquea - once spoken in the same hill region in Colombia on the Pereno River. (Unattested.)
Chucuna - once spoken between the Manacacías River and Vichada River, territories of Meta and Vichada, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Yavitero / Pareni / Yavitano - spoken on the Atabapo River in the village of Yavita.
Guinau group
Guinau / Inao / Guniare / Temomeyéme / Quinhau - once spoken at the sources of the Caura River and Merevari River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela, now perhaps extinct.
Baré group
Baré / Ihini / Arihini - spoken on the Casiquiare River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela, and on the upper course of the Negro River, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Uarequena - spoken on the Guainía River, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
Adzáneni / Adyána / Izaneni - spoken at the sources of the Caiarí River and on the Apui River, frontier of Colombia and Brazil.
Carútana / Corecarú / Yauareté-tapuya - spoken on the frontier between Colombia and Brazil on the Içana River.
Katapolítani / Acayaca / Cadaupuritani - spoken on the Içana River in the village of Tunuhy, Brazil.
Siusí / Ualíperi-dákeni / Uereperidákeni - spoken on the lower course of the Caiarí River and Içana River and on the middle course of the Aiari River, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Moriwene / Sucuriyú-tapuya - spoken on the Içana River in the village of Seringa Upita, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Hohodene / Huhúteni - spoken on the Cubate River, state of Amazonas.
Maulieni / Káua-tapuya - spoken on the Aiari River, state of Amazonas.
Ipéca group
Ipéca / Kumada-mínanei / Baniva de rio Içana - spoken on the Içana River near the village of San Pedro, frontier region of Brazil and Colombia.
Payualiene / Payoariene / Pacu-tapuya - spoken in the same frontier region on the Arara-paraná River.
Curipaco - spoken on the Guainía River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
Kárro - spoken in the territory of Amazonas on the Puitana River.
Kapité-Mínanei / Coatí-tapuya - spoken at the sources of the Içana River, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
Tariana group
Tariana / Yavi - spoken in the villages of Ipanoré and Yauareté on the Caiarí River, Vaupés Territory, Colombia.
Iyäine / Kumandene / Yurupary-tapuya - spoken in the same region north of the Tariana tribe. Now only Tucano is spoken. (Unattested.)
Cauyari / Acaroa / Cabuyarí - once spoken on the Cananari River and on the middle course of the Apaporis River, territory of Amazonas, Colombia. Now perhaps extinct.
Arauaqui - extinct language once spoken between the Negro River and Uatuma River. A few descendants now speak only Lingua Geral or Portuguese. (Unattested.)
Dapatarú - once spoken between the Uatuma River and Urubu River and on the island of Saracá, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
Aniba - once spoken on the Aniba River and around Saracá lagoon. (Unattested.)
Caboquena - once spoken on the Urubu River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
Caburichena - once spoken on the right bank of the Negro River. (Unattested.)
Resigaro / Rrah~nihin / Rosigaro - spoken by a few families on the Igaraparaná River near Casa Arana.
Araicú group
Marawa / Maragua - spoken in the nineteenth century between the Juruá River and Jutai River, now in a single village at the mouth of the Juruá River, Amazonas.
Araicú group
Araicú / Waraikú - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Jandiatuba River and on the right bank of the Jutai River, Amazonas.
Uainumá group
Uainumá / Ajuano / Wainumá / Inabishana / Uainamby-tapuya / Uaypi - extinct language once spoken on the Upi River, a tributary of the Içá River, Amazonas.
Mariaté / Muriaté - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the Içá River.
Jumana group
Jumana / Shomana - extinct language once spoken on the Puruê River and Juami River, Amazonas state.
Passé / Pazé - extinct language once spoken between the Negro River, Japurá River, and Içá River. The few descendants now speak only Portuguese.
Cauishana group
Cauishana / Kayuishana / Noll-hína - now spoken by a few families on the Tocantins River and on Lake Mapari, Amazonas.
Pariana - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Marauiá River. (Unattested.)
Pre-Andine group
Campa / Anti / Atzíri / Thampa / Kuruparia - spoken on the Urubamba River and Ucayali River, department of Cuzco, Peru.
Uariteré - spoken on the Pimenta Bueno River, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.)
Chané group
Chané / Izoceño - formerly spoken on the Itiyuro River, Salta province, Argentina, but now the tribe speaks only a language of the Tupi stock and the old language serves only for religious ceremonies. (only a few words.)
Caripurá / Karipuere - spoken in Amapá territory on the Urucauá River.
Palicur / Parikurú - once spoken on the middle course of the Calçoene River and on the upper course of the Casipore River, now on the Urucauá River in Amapá territory.
Caranariú - once spoken on the Urucauá River, now extinct. (Unattested.)
Tocoyene - once spoken in Amapá territory on the Uanarí River. (Unattested.)
Macapá - once spoken on the Camopi River and Yaroupi River, French Guiana, later on the upper course of the Pará River, state of Pará, Brazil; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Tucujú - once spoken on the Jarí River, territory of Amapá, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Mapruan - once spoken on the Oiac River, territory of Amapá. (Unattested.)
Aruan group
Aruan / Aroã - originally spoken on the north coast of Marajó Island, Pará, later on the Uaçá River, Amapá territory. A few descendants now speak only a French creole dialect.
Sacaca - extinct language once spoken in the eastern part of Marajó Island.
Moríque group
Moríque / Mayoruna - spoken on the border of Brazil and Peru, on the Javarí River.
Chicluna - extinct language once spoken in the same region east of the Aguano tribe. (Unattested.)
Aguano / Awáno - extinct language of a tribe that lived on the lower course of the Huallaga River. The descendants, in the villages of San Lorenzo, San Xavier, and Santa Cruz, now speak only Quechua. (Unattested.)
Maparina - once spoken in the same region on the lower course of the Ucayali River and at the old mission of Santiago. (Unattested.)
Cutinana - once spoken on the Samiria River, Loreto. (Unattested.)
Tibilo - once spoken in San Lorenzo village, Loreto region. (Unattested.)
Lorenzo group
Amoishe / Amlsha / Amuescha / Amage / Lorenzo - once spoken on the Paucartambo River and Colorado River, department of Cuzco, Peru; now mainly Quechua is spoken.
Chunatahua - once spoken at the mouth of the Chinchao River, department of Huánuco, Peru. (Unattested.)
Panatahua - spoken in the same region on the right bank of the Huallaga River between Coyumba and Monzón, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Chusco - once spoken in the same region as Panatahua near Huánuco. (Unattested.)
In 1783, the Italian priest Filippo Salvatore Gilii recognized the unity of the Maipure language of the Orinoco and Moxos of Bolivia; he named their family Maipure. It was renamed Arawak by Von den Steinen (1886) and Brinten (1891) after Arawak in the Guianas, one of the major languages of the family. The modern equivalents are MaipureanorMaipuran and ArawakorArawakan.
The term Arawakan is now used in two senses. South American scholars use Aruák for the family demonstrated by Gilij and subsequent linguists. In North America, however, scholars have used the term to include a hypothesis adding the Guajiboan and Arawan families. In North America, scholars use the name Maipurean to distinguish the core family, which is sometimes called core Arawak(an)orArawak(an) proper instead.[12]
Kaufman (1990: 40) relates the following:
[The Arawakan] name is the one normally applied to what is here called Maipurean. Maipurean used to be thought to be a major subgroup of Arawakan, but all the living Arawakan languages, at least, seem to need to be subgrouped with languages already found within Maipurean as commonly defined. The sorting out of the labels Maipurean and Arawakan will have to await a more sophisticated classification of the languages in question than is possible at the present state of comparative studies.
The languages called Arawakan or Maipurean were originally recognized as a separate group in the late nineteenth century. Almost all the languages now called Arawakan share a first-person singular prefix nu-, but Arawak proper has ta-. Other commonalities include a second-person singular pi-, relative ka-, and negative ma-.
The Arawak language family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of Maypure, has been called by Von den Steinen "Nu-Arawak" from the prenominal prefix "nu-" for the first person. This is common to all the Arawak tribes scattered along the coasts from Suriname to Guyana.
Upper Paraguay has Arawakan-language tribes: the Quinquinaos, the Layanas, etc. (This is the Moho-Mbaure group of L. Quevedo). In the islands of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, the Aruan people spoke an Arawak dialect. The Guajira Peninsula (north of Venezuela) is occupied by the Wayuu tribe, also Arawakan speakers. In 1890–95, De Brette estimated a population of 3,000 persons in the Guajira peninsula.[13]
C. H. de Goeje's published vocabulary of 1928 outlines the Lokono/Arawak (Suriname and Guyana) 1400 items, comprising mostly morphemes (stems, affixes) and morpheme partials (single sounds), and only rarely compounded, derived, or otherwise complex sequences; and from Nancy P. Hickerson's British Guiana manuscript vocabulary of 500 items. However, most entries which reflect acculturation are direct borrowings from one or another of three model languages (Spanish, Dutch, English). Of the 1400 entries in de Goeje, 106 reflect European contact; 98 of these are loans. Nouns which occur with the verbalizing suffix described above number 9 out of the 98 loans.[14]
Though a great deal of variation can be found from language to language, the following is a general composite statement of the consonants and vowels typically found in Arawak languages, according to Aikhenvald (1999):
Arawakan languages are polysynthetic and mostly head-marking. They have fairly complex verb morphology. Noun morphology is much less complex and tends to be similar across the family. Arawakan languages are mostly suffixing, with just a few prefixes.[15]
Arawakan languages tend to distinguish alienable and inalienable possession. A feature found throughout the Arawakan family is a suffix (whose reconstructed Proto-Arawakan form is /*-tsi/) that allows the inalienable (and obligatorily possessed) body-part nouns to remain unpossessed.[16] This suffix essentially converts inalienable body-part nouns into alienable nouns. It can only be added to body-part nouns and not to kinship nouns (which are also treated as inalienable). An example from the Pareci language is given below:[16]
Many Arawakan languages have a system of classifier morphemes that mark the semantic category of the head noun of a noun phrase on most other elements of the noun phrase.[17] The example below is from the Tariana language, in which classifier suffixes mark the semantic category of the head noun on all elements of a noun phrase other than the head noun (including adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives) and on the verb of the clause:
Most Arawakan languages have split-intransitive alignment systems of subject and object cross-referencing on the verb.[18] The agentive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with prefixes, whereas the patientive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with suffixes. The following example from Baniwa of Içana shows a typical Arawakan split-intransitive alignment:[19]
ri-kapa-ni
3SG.NFEM.AG-see-3SG.NFEM.PAT
ri-kapa-ni
3SG.NFEM.AG-see-3SG.NFEM.PAT
'He sees him/it.'
ri-emhani
3SG.NFEM.AG-walk
ri-emhani
3SG.NFEM.AG-walk
'He walks.'
hape-ka-ni
be.cold-DECL-3SG.NFEM.PAT
hape-ka-ni
be.cold-DECL-3SG.NFEM.PAT
'He/it is cold.'
The prefixes and suffixes used for subject and object cross-referencing on the verb are stable throughout the Arawakan languages, and can therefore be reconstructed for Proto-Arawakan. The table below shows the likely forms of Proto-Arawakan:[20]
Arawak-speaking peoples migrated to islands in the Caribbean some 2,500 years ago,[22] settling the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. It is possible that some poorly attested extinct languages in North America, such as the languages of the Cusabo and Congaree in South Carolina, were members of this family.[23]
Taíno, commonly called Island Arawak, was spoken on the islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. A few Taino words are still used by English, Spanish, or Haitian Creole-speaking descendants in these islands. The Taíno language was scantily attested but its classification within the Arawakan family is uncontroversial. Its closest relative among the better attested Arawakan languages seems to be the Wayuu language, spoken in Colombia and Venezuela. Scholars have suggested that the Wayuu are descended from Taíno refugees, but the theory seems impossible to prove or disprove.[citation needed]
Garífuna (or Black Carib) is another Arawakan language originating on the islands. It developed as the result of forced migration among people of mixed Arawak, Carib, and African descent.[24] It is estimated to have about 195,800 speakers in Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and Belize combined.[25]
Today the Arawakan languages with the most speakers are among the more recent Ta-Arawakan (Ta-Maipurean) groups: Wayuu [Goajiro], with about 300,000 speakers; and Garifuna, with about 100,000 speakers. The Campa group is next; Asháninca or Campa proper has 15–18,000 speakers; and Ashéninca 18–25,000. After that probably comes Terêna, with 10,000 speakers; and Yanesha' [Amuesha] with 6–8,000.[citation needed]
^Santos-Granero, F. 2002. The Arawakan matrix: ethos, language, and history in native South America. In Comparative Arawakan Histories: Rethinking Language Family and Culture Area in Amazonia, ed. J Hill, F Santos-Granero, pp. 25–50. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
^Eriksen L, Danielsen S. 2014. The Arawakan matrix. In The Native Language of South America: Origins, Development, Typology, ed. L O'Connor, P Muysken, pp. 152–76. New York: Cambridge University Press.
^Aikhenvald, A. (2002). Language contact in Amazonia. Oxford University Press. Accessed from DiACLArchived 2023-03-07 at the Wayback Machine, 9 February 2020.
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Ott, W.; Burke de Ott, R. (1983). Diccionario Ignaciano y Castellano: con apuntes gramaticales. Cochabamba: Inst. Lingüístico de Verano.
Parker, S. (1995). Datos de la lengua Iñapari. (Documento de Trabajo, 27). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Parker, S. (2010). Chamicuro data: exhaustive list. (SIL Language and Culture Documentation and Description, 12). SIL International.
Payne, D. L. (1991). A classification of Maipuran (Arawakian) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In: D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullun (orgs.), Handbook of Amazonian languages, 355-499. The Hague: Mouton.
Ramirez, H. (2001a). Dicionário Baniwa-Portugues. Manaus: Universidade do Amazonas.
Ramirez, H. (2001b). Línguas Arawak da Amazônia Setentrional. Manaus: EDUA.
Shaver, H. (1996). Diccionario nomatsiguenga-castellano, castellano-nomatsiguenga (Serie Linguística Peruana, 41). Pucallpa: Ministerio de Educación & Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Snell, B. (1973). Pequeño diccionario machiguenga-castellano. Yarinacocha: SIL.
Solís, G.; Snell, B. E. (2005). Tata onkantakera niagantsipage anianeegiku (Diccionario escolar Machiguenga). Lima, Perú: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Souza, I. (2008). Koenukunoe emo'u: A língua dos índios Kinikinau. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. (Doctoral dissertation).
Trevor R. A. (1979). Vocabulario Resígaro (Documento de Trabajo, 16). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Tripp, M. D. (1998). Diccionario Yanesha' (Amuesha)-Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 47). Lima: Ministerio de Educación / Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Wapishana Language Project. (2000). Scholars's dictionary and grammar of the Wapishana language. Porto Velho: SIL International.
Durbin, M.; Seijas, H. (1973). A Note on Panche, Pijao, Pantagora (Palenque), Colima and Muzo. International Journal of American Linguistics, 39:47-51.
Data sets
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018, November 27). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon et al.'s "Diversity of Arawakan Languages" from 2019 (Version v1.0.1). Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1564336
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Arawakan and Tukanoan contacts in Northwest Amazonia prehistory" from 2017 (Version v1.1) [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1322713
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Annotated Swadesh Lists for Arawakan Languages" from 2017 (Version v1.0.1) [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1318200
Reconstructions
Matteson, Esther (1972). "Proto Arawakan". In Matteson, Esther (ed.). Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages. Mouton. pp. 160–242.
Noble, G. Kingsley (1965). Proto-Arawakan and its descendants. Publications of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. Vol. 38. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. OCLC344482.
Valenti, Donna Marie (1986). A Reconstruction of the Proto-Arawakan Consonantal System (PhD thesis). New York University.
Definitions from Wiktionary
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