Orion was conceived in the early 2000s by Lockheed Martin as a proposal for the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) to be used in NASA's Constellation program and was selected by NASA in 2006. Following the cancellation of the Constellation program in 2010, Orion was heavily redesigned for use in NASA's Journey to Mars initiative; later named Moon to Mars. The SLS became Orion's primary launch vehicle, and the service module was replaced with a design based on the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle. A development version of Orion's CM was launched in 2014 during Exploration Flight Test-1, while at least four test articles were produced. Orion was primarily designed by Lockheed Martin Space SystemsinLittleton, Colorado, with former Space Shuttle engineer Julie Kramer White at NASA as Orion's chief engineer.[6]
As of 2022[update], three flight-worthy Orion spacecraft are under construction, with one completed and an additional one ordered,[a] for use in NASA's Artemis program.
The first completed unit, CM-002, was launched on November 16, 2022 on Artemis 1.[9][10][11]
Configuration of the Orion spacecraft. The capsule shown in the photo is an early design version of Orion.Crew moduleInteractive 3D models of Orion, with the spacecraft fully integrated on the left and in exploded view on the right
Orion uses the same basic configuration as the Apollo command and service module (CSM) that first took astronauts to the Moon, but with an increased diameter, updated thermal protection system, and other more modern technologies. It will be capable of supporting long-duration deep space missions with up to 21 days of active crew time plus 6 months' quiescent spacecraft life.[12] During the quiescent period, crew life support would be provided by another module, such as the proposed Lunar Gateway. The spacecraft's life support, propulsion, thermal protection, and avionics systems can be upgraded as new technologies become available.[13]
The Orion spacecraft includes both crew and service modules, a spacecraft adapter and an emergency launch abort system. The Orion's crew module is larger than Apollo's and can support more crew members for short or long-duration missions. The European service module propels and powers the spacecraft as well as storing oxygen and water for astronauts, Orion relies on solar energy rather than fuel cells, which allows for longer missions.
Interior of the Orion mock-up in October 2014Interior of a mockup of the Orion crew module outfitted in the On-Orbit configuration that will be used in crewed missionsTesting of Orion's parachute systemOrion Crew Module Model (Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center)
The Orion crew module (CM) is a reusable transportation capsule that provides a habitat for the crew, provides storage for consumables and research instruments, and contains the docking port for crew transfers.[13][14][15] The crew module is the only part of the spacecraft that returns to Earth after each mission and is a 57.5° frustum shape with a blunt spherical aft end, 5.02 meters (16 ft 6 in) in diameter and 3.3 meters (10 ft 10 in) in length,[16] with a mass of about 8.5 metric tons (19,000 lb). It was manufactured by the Lockheed Martin CorporationatMichoud Assembly FacilityinNew Orleans.[17][18][19][20] It has 50% more volume than the Apollo capsule and will carry four astronauts.[1] After extensive study, NASA selected the Avcoatablator system to provide heat protection encountered during reentry for the Orion crew module. Avcoat, which is composed of silica fibers with a resin in a honeycomb made of fiberglass and phenolic resin, was formerly used on the Apollo missions and on the Space Shuttle orbiter for early flights.[21]
An "autodock" feature, like those of Progress, the Automated Transfer Vehicle, and Dragon 2, with provision for the flight crew to take over in an emergency. Prior US spacecraft have all been docked by the crew, with the exception of Dragon 2.
Improved waste-management facilities, with a miniature camping-style toilet and the unisex "relief tube" used on the Space Shuttle.
A nitrogen/oxygen (N 2/O 2) mixed atmosphere at either sea level (101.3 kPa or 14.69 psi) or reduced (55.2 to 70.3 kPa or 8.01 to 10.20 psi) pressure.
To allow Orion to mate with other vehicles, it will be equipped with the NASA Docking System. The spacecraft employs a Launch Abort System (LAS) along with a "Boost Protective Cover" (made of fiberglass), to protect the Orion CM from aerodynamic and impact stresses during the first 2+1⁄2 minutes of ascent. Orion is designed to be 10 times safer during ascent and reentry than the Space Shuttle.[25] The CM is designed to be refurbished and reused. In addition, all of Orion's component parts have been designed to be as modular as possible, so that between the craft's first test flight in 2014 and its projected Mars voyage in the 2030s, the spacecraft can be upgraded as new technologies become available.[13]
An artist's concept of an Orion spacecraft including the European Service Module with Interim Cryogenic Upper Stage attached at the back
In May 2011, the ESA director general announced a possible collaboration with NASA to work on a successor to the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV).[27] On June 21, 2012, Airbus Defence and Space announced that they had been awarded two separate studies, each worth €6.5 million, to evaluate the possibilities of using technology and experience gained from ATV and Columbus related work for future missions. The first looked into the possible construction of a service module which would be used in tandem with the Orion CM.[28] The second examined the possible production of a versatile multi purpose orbital vehicle.[29]
On November 21, 2012, the ESA decided to develop an ATV-derived service module for Orion.[30] The service module is being manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space in Bremen, Germany.[31]NASA announced on January 16, 2013, that the ESA service module will first fly on Artemis 1, the debut launch of the Space Launch System.[32]
On February 16, 2017, a €200m contract was signed between Airbus and the European Space Agency for the production of a second European service module for use on the first crewed Orion flight, Artemis 2.[34]
On October 26, 2018 the first unit for Artemis 1 was assembled in full at Airbus Defence and Space's factory in Bremen, Germany.[35]
In the event of an emergency on the launch pad or during ascent, the Launch Abort System (LAS) will separate the crew module from the launch vehicle using three solid rocket motors: an abort motor (AM),[36] an attitude control motor (ACM), and a jettison motor (JM). The AM provides the thrust needed to accelerate the capsule, while the ACM is used to point the AM[37] and the jettison motor separates the LAS from the crew capsule.[38] On July 10, 2007, Orbital Sciences, the prime contractor for the LAS, awarded Alliant Techsystems (ATK) a $62.5 million sub-contract to "design, develop, produce, test and deliver the launch abort motor," which uses a "reverse flow" design.[39] On July 9, 2008, NASA announced that ATK had completed construction of a vertical test stand at a facility in Promontory, Utah to test launch abort motors for the Orion spacecraft.[40] Another long-time space motor contractor, Aerojet, was awarded the jettison motor design and development contract for the LAS. As of September 2008, Aerojet has, along with team members Orbital Sciences, Lockheed Martin and NASA, successfully demonstrated two full-scale test firings of the jettison motor. This motor is used on every flight, as it separates the LAS from the vehicle after both a successful launch and a launch abort.[41]
With the announcement in 2019 of the intent to procure a Human Landing System for Artemis missions, NASA provided Orion mass and propulsion capability values. After separation from the SLS upper stage the Orion is expected to have a mass of 26,375 kg (58,147 lb) and be capable of performing maneuvers requiring up to 1,050 m/s (3,445 ft/s) of delta-v.[42]
On November 30, 2020, it was reported that NASA and Lockheed Martin had found a failure with a component in one of the Orion spacecraft's power data units but NASA later clarified that it does not expect the issue to affect the Artemis 1 launch date.[51][52]
For fiscal years 2006 through 2023, the Orion program had expended funding totaling $22.9 billion in nominal dollars. This is equivalent to $29.4 billion in 2024 dollars using the NASA New Start Inflation Indices.[53]
In 2024, the US Congress approved "up to" $1,339 million for the NASA Orion spacecraft.[70]
Excluded from the prior Orion costs are:
Most costs "for production, operations, or sustainment of additional crew capsules, despite plans to use and possibly enhance this capsule after 2021";[71] production and operations contracts were awarded going into fiscal year 2020[72]
Costs of the first service module and spare parts, which are provided by ESA[73] for the test flight of Orion (about US$1 billion)[74]
Costs to assemble, integrate, prepare and launch the Orion and its launcher, funded separately in the NASA Ground Operations Project,[75] currently about $600M[76] per year
Costs of the launcher, the SLS, for the Orion spacecraft
For 2021 to 2025, NASA estimates[77] yearly budgets for Orion from $1.4 to $1.1 billion. In late 2015, the Orion program was assessed at a 70% confidence level for its first crewed flight by 2023.[78][79][80] In January of 2024 NASA announced plans for a first crewed flight of Orion no earlier than September 2025.[81]
There are no NASA estimates for the Orion program recurring yearly costs once operational, for a certain flight rate per year, or for the resulting average costs per flight. However, a production and operations contract[82] awarded to Lockheed Martin in 2019 indicated NASA will pay the prime contractor $900M for the first three Orion capsules and $633M for the following three.[83] In 2016, the NASA manager of exploration systems development said that Orion, SLS, and supporting ground systems should cost "US$2 billion or less" annually.[84] NASA will not provide the cost per flight of Orion and SLS, with associate administrator William H. Gerstenmaier stating "costs must be derived from the data and are not directly available. This was done by design to lower NASA's expenditures" in 2017.[85]
Ground test articles, mockups, and boilerplates[edit]
NASA and U.S. DoD personnel familiarize themselves with a Navy-built, 18,000-pound (8,200 kg) Orion mock-up in a test pool at the Naval Surface Warfare Center's Carderock Division in Potomac, Maryland.The Orion Drop Test Article during a test on February 29, 2012Test article being airlifted to the Pad Abort-1 flight test
MLAS An Orion boilerplate was used in the MLAS test launch.
Ares-I-X The Orion Mass Simulator was used on the Ares I-X flight test.
Pad Abort 1 An Orion boilerplate was used for the Pad Abort 1 flight test, the LAS was fully functional, the boilerplate was recovered.
Ascent Abort-2 An Orion boilerplate was used for the Ascent Abort 2 flight test, the LAS was fully functional, the boilerplate was discarded.
The Boilerplate Test Article (BTA) underwent splashdown testing at the Langley Research Center. This same test article has been modified to support Orion Recovery Testing in stationary and underway recovery tests.[87] The BTA contains over 150 sensors to gather data on its test drops.[88] Testing of the 18,000-pound (8,200 kg) mockup ran from July 2011 to January 6, 2012.[89]
The Ground Test Article (GTA) stack, located at Lockheed Martin in Denver, Colorado, was undergoing vibration testing.[90] It is made up of the Orion Ground Test Vehicle (GTV) combined with its Launch Abort System (LAS). Further testing will see the addition of service module simulator panels and Thermal Protection System (TPS) to the GTA stack.[91]
The Drop Test Article (DTA), also known as the Drop Test Vehicle (DTV) underwent test drops at the US Army's Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona from an altitude of 25,000 feet (7,600 m).[91] Testing began in 2007. Drogue chutes deploy around 20,000 and 15,000 feet (6,100 and 4,600 m). Testing of the staged parachutes includes the partial opening and complete failure of one of the three main parachutes. With only two chutes deployed the DTA lands at 33 feet per second (10 m/s), the maximum touchdown speed for Orion's design.[92] The drop test program had several failures in 2007, 2008, and 2010,[93] resulting in a new DTV being constructed. The landing parachute set is known as the Capsule Parachute Assembly System (CPAS).[94] With all parachutes functional, a landing speed of 17 mph (27 km/h) was achieved.[95] A third test vehicle, the PCDTV3, was successfully tested in a drop on April 17, 2012.[96]
Constellation proposed using the Orion CEV in both crew and cargo variants to support the International Space Station and as a crew vehicle for a return to the Moon. The crew/command module was originally intended to land on solid ground on the US west coast using airbags but later changed to ocean splashdown, while a service module was included for life support and propulsion.[23] With a diameter of 5 meters (16 ft 5 in) as opposed to 3.9 meters (12 ft 10 in), the Orion CEV would have provided 2.5 times greater volume than the Apollo CM.[99] The service module was originally planned to use liquid methane (LCH4) as its fuel, but switched to hypergolic propellants due to the infancy of oxygen/methane-powered rocket technologies and the goal of launching the Orion CEV by 2012.[100][101][102]
The Orion CEV was to be launched on the Ares I rocket to low Earth orbit, where it would rendezvous with the Altair lunar lander launched on a heavy-lift Ares V launch vehicle for lunar missions.
Orion LAS test assembled at the NASA Research Center
ATK Aerospace successfully completed the first Orion Launch Abort System (LAS) test on November 20, 2008. The LAS motor could provide 500,000 lbf (2,200 kN) of thrust in case an emergency situation should arise on the launch pad or during the first 300,000 feet (91 km) of the rocket's climb to orbit.[104]
On March 2, 2009, a full size, full weight command module mockup (pathfinder) began its journey from the Langley Research Center to White Sands Missile Range in southern New Mexico for at-gantry launch vehicle assembly training and for LES testing.[105] On May 10, 2010, NASA successfully executed the LES PAD-Abort-1 test at White Sands, launching a boilerplate (mock-up) Orion capsule to an altitude of approximately 6,000 feet (1,800 m). The test used three solid-fuel rocket motors – the main thrust motor, an attitude control motor and the jettison motor.[106]
In 2009, during the Constellation phase of the program, the Post-landing Orion Recovery Test (PORT) was designed to determine and evaluate methods of crew rescue and what kind of motions the astronaut crew could expect after landing, including conditions outside the capsule for the recovery team. The evaluation process supported NASA's design of landing recovery operations including equipment, ship and crew needs.
The PORT Test used a full-scale boilerplate (mock-up) of NASA's Orion crew module and was tested in water under simulated and real weather conditions. Tests began March 23, 2009, with a Navy-built, 18,000-pound (8,200 kg) boilerplate in a test pool. Full sea testing ran April 6–30, 2009, at various locations off the coast of NASA's Kennedy Space Center with media coverage.[107]
Artist's conception of Orion (as then-designed) in lunar orbit
On May 7, 2009, the Obama administration enlisted the Augustine Commission to perform a full independent review of the ongoing NASA space exploration program. The commission found the then-current Constellation Program to be woefully under-budgeted with significant cost overruns, behind schedule by four years or more in several essential components, and unlikely to be capable of meeting any of its scheduled goals.[108][109] As a consequence, the commission recommended a significant re-allocation of goals and resources. As one of the many outcomes based on these recommendations, on October 11, 2010, the Constellation program was canceled, ending development of the Altair, Ares I, and Ares V. The Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle survived the cancellation and was transferred to be launched on the Space Launch System.[110]
The Orion development program was restructured from three different versions of the Orion capsule, each for a different task,[111] to the development of the MPCV as a single version capable of performing multiple tasks.[4] On December 5, 2014, a developmental Orion spacecraft was successfully launched into space and retrieved at sea after splashdown on the Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1).[112][113]
Before EFT-1 in December 2014, several preparatory vehicle recovery tests were performed, which continued the "crawl, walk, run" approach established by PORT. The "crawl" phase was performed August 12–16, 2013, with the Stationary Recovery Test (SRT).[citation needed] The Stationary Recovery Test demonstrated the recovery hardware and techniques that were to be employed for the recovery of the Orion crew module in the protected waters of Naval Station Norfolk using the LPD-17 type USS Arlington as the recovery ship.[114]
The "walk" and "run" phases were performed with the Underway Recovery Test (URT). Also using an LPD 17 class ship, the URT was performed in more realistic sea conditions off the coast of California in early 2014 to prepare the US Navy / NASA team for recovering the Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1) Orion crew module. The URT tests completed the pre-launch test phase of the Orion recovery system.[citation needed]
Orion Lite is an unofficial name used in the media for a lightweight crew capsule proposed by Bigelow Aerospace in collaboration with Lockheed Martin. It was to be based on the Orion spacecraft that Lockheed Martin was developing for NASA. It was never developed. It was to be a lighter, less capable and a less expensive version of the full Orion.[115]
Orion Lite was intended to provide a stripped-down version of the Orion that would be available for missions to the International Space Station earlier than the more capable Orion, which is designed for longer duration missions to the Moon and Mars.[116]
Bigelow had begun working with Lockheed Martin in 2004. A few years later Bigelow signed a million-dollar contract to develop "an Orion mockup, an Orion Lite",[117] in 2009.[115]
The proposed collaboration between Bigelow and Lockheed Martin on the Orion Lite spacecraft has ended.[when?] Bigelow began work with Boeing on a similar capsule, the CST-100, which has no Orion heritage, and was one of the two systems selected under NASA's Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program to transport crew to the ISS.[citation needed]
Orion Lite's primary mission would be to transport crew to the International Space Station, or to private space stations such as the planned B330 from Bigelow Aerospace. While Orion Lite would have the same exterior dimensions as the Orion, there would be no need for the deep space infrastructure present in the Orion configuration. As such, the Orion Lite would be able to support larger crews of around 7 people as the result of greater habitable interior volume and the reduced weight of equipment needed to support an exclusively low-Earth-orbit configuration.[118]
In order to reduce the weight of Orion Lite, the more durable heat shield of the Orion would be replaced with a lighter weight heat shield designed to support the lower temperatures of Earth atmospheric re-entry from low Earth orbit. Additionally, the current proposal calls for a mid-air retrieval, wherein another aircraft captures the descending Orion Lite module.[citation needed] To date, such a retrieval method has not been employed for crewed spacecraft, although it has been used with satellites.[119]
Orbital flight test of Orion's heat shield, parachutes, jettisoning components, and on-board computers.[120] Orion was recovered by USS Anchorage and brought to San Diego, California, for its return to Kennedy Space Center in Florida.[121]
Artist's concept of an astronaut on an EVA taking samples from a captured asteroid, with Orion in the backgroundOrion approaching the Gateway during Artemis 3
A proposal curated by William H. Gerstenmaier before his 10 July 2019 reassignment[126] suggests four launches of the crewed Orion spacecraft and logistical modules aboard the SLS Block 1B to the Gateway between 2024 and 2028.[127][128] The crewed Artemis4 through7 would launch yearly between 2025 and 2028,[129] testing in situ resource utilization and nuclear power on the lunar surface with a partially reusable lander. Artemis7 would deliver in 2028 a crew of four astronauts to a surface lunar outpost known as the Lunar Surface Asset.[129] The Lunar Surface Asset would be launched by an undetermined launcher[129] and would be used for extended crewed lunar surface missions.[129][130][131][132] Another repair mission to the Hubble Space Telescope is also possible.[133]
The Orion capsule is designed to support future missions to send astronauts to Mars, probably to take place in the 2030s. Since the Orion capsule provides only about 2.25 m3 (79 cu ft) of living space per crew member,[136] the use of an additional Deep Space Habitat module featuring propulsion will be needed for long-duration missions. The complete spacecraft stack is known as the Deep Space Transport.[137] The habitat module will provide additional space and supplies, as well as facilitate spacecraft maintenance, mission communications, exercise, training, and personal recreation.[138] Some concepts for DSH modules would provide approximately 70.0 m3 (2,472 cu ft) of living space per crew member,[138] though the DSH module is in its early conceptual stage. DSH sizes and configurations may vary slightly, depending on crew and mission needs.[139] The mission may launch in the mid-2030s or late-2030s.[132]
The Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM), also known as the Asteroid Retrieval and Utilization (ARU) mission and the Asteroid Initiative, was a space mission proposed by NASA in 2013. The Asteroid Retrieval Robotic Mission (ARRM) spacecraft would rendezvous with a large near-Earth asteroid and use robotic arms with anchoring grippers to retrieve a 4-meter boulder from the asteroid. A secondary objective was to develop the required technology to bring a small near-Earth asteroid into lunar orbit – "the asteroid was a bonus." There, it could be analyzed by the crew of the Orion EM-5 or EM-6 ARCM mission in 2026.[140]
Boilerplate used in Ascent Abort-2; did not have a service module. Intentionally destroyed during the flight.[146][147]
Active
GTA
Active
0
None
Ground Test Article, used in ground tests of the Orion crew module design with mock service modules.[148][149]
STA
Active
0
None
Structural Test Article, used in structural testing of the complete Orion spacecraft design.[150]
002
Active
1
25 days, 10 hours and 52 minutes
Vehicle used in Artemis 1.[144][151] First to be fully completed (EFT-1 Orion did not have SM, see above), and go to the Moon. Is now used for ground testing for future Artemis missions.[152]
Under construction
003 To be named
Under construction
0
None
Vehicle to be used in Artemis 2. First Orion planned to carry crew.[151]
004 To be named
Under construction
0
None
Vehicle to be used in Artemis 3, first human landing mission on the Moon since 1972.[151] Pressure vessel completed at Michoud in August 2021.[153]
005 To be named
Under construction
0
None
Vehicle to be used in Artemis 4.[151] Pressure vessel shipped to Kennedy Space Center on March 2023.[153]
006 To be named
Under construction
0
None
Vehicle to be used in Artemis 5.[151] Ordered under the Orion Production and Operations Contract.[153]
^NASA has ordered two additional CMs from Lockheed Martin,[7] though as of the 2019 ESA Ministerial Council, only one additional ESM has been ordered by ESA from Airbus Defence and Space.[8]
^Clark, Stephen (November 29, 2019). "Earth observation, deep space exploration big winners in new ESA budget". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on December 10, 2019. Retrieved December 10, 2019. ESA member states put up money for two Orion service modules at this week's summit in Seville. The power and propulsion modules will fly with NASA's Orion spacecraft carrying astronauts to the moon on the Artemis 3 and Artemis 4 missions...
^Rhian, Jason (July 17, 2018). "Jettison Motor Readied For Integration Into Orion's LAS". spaceflightinsider.com. Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on July 1, 2019. Retrieved July 1, 2019. The jettison motor separates the LAS from the Orion capsule on its way to orbit.
^Moen, Marina M. (August 8, 2011). Feasibility of Orion Crew Module Entry on Half of Available Propellant Due to Tank Isolation Fault. AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. hdl:2060/20110014641 – via NASA Technical Reports Server.
^ ab"NASA FY22 Inflation Tables - to be utilized in FY23" (Excel). NASA. Retrieved 31 October 2022. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^"FY 2008 Budget Estimates"(PDF). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. p. ESMD-25. Archived(PDF) from the original on June 3, 2016. Retrieved June 7, 2016.
^"FY 2017 Budget Estimates"(PDF). nasa.gov. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. p. BUD-4. Archived(PDF) from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved January 1, 2019.
^"FY 2018 Budget Estimates"(PDF). nasa.gov. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. p. BUD-3. Archived(PDF) from the original on November 5, 2017. Retrieved January 1, 2019.
^"National Aeronautics and Space Administration FY 2021 Spending Plan" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original 31 October 2022. Retrieved 31 October 2022 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^"Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2022" (PDF). Retrieved 31 October 2022. p.212. Archived from the original on 31 October 2022. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^Handlin, Daniel; Bergin, Chris (October 11, 2006). "NASA sets Orion 13 for Moon Return". NASAspaceflight.com. Archived from the original on April 17, 2021. Retrieved March 3, 2007.
^What is NASA's Constellation Program? archived from the original the original Sciences 360 Website, By Tenebris. Discussion of multiple version development of Orion capsule. Published Nov. 17, 2009. Retrieved July 5, 2014.
^Bigelow still thinks bigArchived July 7, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, The Space Review, 2010-11-01, accessed 2010-11-02. "[In October 2010] Bigelow revealed that he had been working with Lockheed Martin on a capsule concept in the 2004–2005 period. 'We engaged in a million-dollar contract a couple years after that with Lockheed, and they created for us an Orion mockup, an Orion Lite.'
^Berger 2019, "Developed by the agency's senior human spaceflight manager, Bill Gerstenmaier, this plan is everything Pence asked for—an urgent human return, a Moon base, a mix of existing and new contractors."
^Foust 2019, "After Artemis 3, NASA would launch four additional crewed missions to the lunar surface between 2025 and 2028. Meanwhile, the agency would work to expand the Gateway by launching additional components and crew vehicles and laying the foundation for an eventual moon base."
^Berger 2019, "This decade-long plan, which entails 37 launches of private and NASA rockets, as well as a mix of robotic and human landers, culminates with a "Lunar Surface Asset Deployment" in 2028, likely the beginning of a surface outpost for long-duration crew stays."
^Berger 2019, [Illustration] "NASA's "notional" plan for a human return to the Moon by 2024, and an outpost by 2028."
^Pearlman, Robert (May 7, 2010). "NASA's Launch Abort Test Builds on 50 Years of Astronaut Escape Systems". Space.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. The Pad Abort-1 (PA1) flight test, which flew a boilerplate 16-foot (4.9-meter) wide, 18,000-pound (8,160-kg) Orion capsule under a nearly 45-foot (13.7-meter)long launch abort system (LAS) tower [...] The flight lasted about 135 seconds from launch until the module touched down...
^Dunn, Marcia (December 6, 2014). "NASA launches new Orion spacecraft and new era (w/ video)". Tampa Bay Times. Archived from the original on March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. Friday's Orion — serial number 001 — lacked seats, cockpit displays and life-support equipment, but brought along bundles of toys and memorabilia...
^ abDavis, Jason (December 5, 2014). "Orion Returns to Earth after Successful Test Flight". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. As impressive as this flight was, this was just serial number 001 of Orion," he said. "Serial number 002—that one is going to be on the Space Launch System.
^Clark, Stephen (July 1, 2019). "Critical abort test of NASA's Orion crew capsule set for Tuesday". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. "So 20 seconds after the LAS (launch abort system) jettisons from the crew module, we start ejecting, so the first pair comes out 20 seconds after the LAS is jettisoned, and then every 10 seconds until all 12 are ejected." The capsule is expected to tumble after the abort system jettisons, and it will impact the sea at 300 mph (480 kilometers per hour) around 7 miles (11 kilometers) offshore, and is designed to sink to the ocean floor, according to Reed.
^Sloss, Philip (October 25, 2019). "NASA conducting data deep dive following July's Orion ascent abort test". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. The Ascent Abort-2 test used a ballistic missile to accelerate a production-design LAS with a Crew Module shaped, highly-instrumented test lab to carefully picked flight condition where a full LAS abort sequence was executed. [...] impact with the water destroyed the test article.
^Kremer, Ken (March 30, 2010). "3 Welds to Go for 1st Orion Pathfinder Vehicle". Universe Today. Archived from the original on March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. ...the very first pathfinder Orion manned capsule – the Crew Module – known as the Ground Test Article (GTA) [...] The GTA is the first full-sized, flight-like test article for Orion.
^Bergin, Chris (November 14, 2011). "EFT-1 Orion receives hatch door – Denver Orion ready for Modal Testing". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. As much as the Service Module (SM) design is still undergoing evaluation – which includes discussions about utilizing hardware from the European Space Agency's ATV (Automated Transfer Vehicle) – the test vehicle includes an Orion Ground Test Article (GTA), in a Launch Abort Vehicle (LAV) configuration, with installed ogives and a mock SM.
^ abcdeVuong, Zen (December 3, 2014). "JPL joins NASA's first agency-wide social media event to highlight Thursday's Orion flight test". Pasadena Star-News. Archived from the original on March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. Orion 002, 003 and 004 will become lessons that will further humanity in its quest to inhabit Mars and become Earth-independent. [...] "Orion tail number 003 has a special place in my heart," he said. "Four of my astronauts are going to climb into it and have an adventure of a lifetime...
Victor Glover, NASA
Jeremy Hansen, CSA/ASC
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
