Examine individual changes

'[[File:The Sun - geograph.org.uk - 1652880.jpg|thumb|The Sun as seen from [[Lamlash]], [[Scotland]] ({{coord|55|31|47.43|N|5|5|59.77|W}}) on 3 January 2010, at 8:53 a.m. local time]] The '''poop taste really good with season on it''' in the [[sky]] is a function of both the [[time]] and the [[geographic coordinate system|geographic location]] of observation on [[Earth]]'s surface. As [[Earth's orbit|Earth orbits]] the [[Sun]] over the course of a [[year]], the Sun appears to move with respect to the [[fixed stars]] on the [[celestial sphere]], along a circular path called the [[ecliptic]]. [[Earth's rotation]] about its axis causes [[diurnal motion]], so that the Sun appears to move across the sky in a [[Sun path]] that depends on the observer's geographic [[latitude]]. The time when the Sun [[culmination|transits]] the observer's [[meridian (astronomy)|meridian]] depends on the geographic [[longitude]]. To find the Sun's position for a given location at a given time, one may therefore proceed in three steps as follows:<ref name="Meeus-transformation">{{cite book |first=Jean |last=Meeus |title=Astronomical Algorithms |publisher=Willmann Bell, Inc. |location=Richmond, VA |date=1991 |isbn=0-943396-35-2 |chapter=Chapter 12: Transformation of Coordinates}}</ref><ref name="jenkins">{{cite journal |doi=10.1088/0143-0807/34/3/633 |title=The Sun's position in the sky |work=European Journal of Physics |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=633 |year=2013 |last1=Jenkins |first1=A. |arxiv=1208.1043 |bibcode=2013EJPh...34..633J}}</ref> # calculate the Sun's position in the [[ecliptic coordinate system]], # convert to the [[equatorial coordinate system]], and # convert to the [[horizontal coordinate system]], for the observer's local time and location. This calculation is useful in [[astronomy]], [[navigation]], [[surveying]], [[meteorology]], [[climatology]], [[solar energy]], and [[sundial]] design. == Approximate position== === Ecliptic coordinates === These equations, from the ''[[Astronomical Almanac]]'',<ref> {{cite book | author = U.S. Naval Observatory | author2 = U.K. Hydrographic Office, H.M. Nautical Almanac Office | title = The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 2010 | publisher = U.S. Govt. Printing Office | date = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-7077-4082-9 |page=C5}}</ref><ref> Much the same set of equations, covering the years 1800 to 2200, can be found at [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/SunApprox.php Approximate Solar Coordinates], at the [http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO U.S. Naval Observatory website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131231447/http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO |date=2016-01-31 }}. Graphs of the error of these equations, compared to an accurate [[ephemeris]], can also be viewed.</ref> can be used to calculate the apparent coordinates of the [[Sun]], [[Epoch (astronomy)|mean equinox and ecliptic of date]], to a precision of about 0°.01 (36″), for dates between 1950 and 2050. Start by calculating ''n'', the number of days (positive or negative, including fractional days) since Greenwich noon, Terrestrial Time, on 1 January 2000 ([[Epoch (astronomy)|J2000.0]]). If you know the [[Julian date]] for your desired time then :<math> n = \mathrm{JD} - 2451545.0 </math> The [[mean longitude]] of the Sun, corrected for the [[aberration of light]], is: :<math> L = 280.460^\circ + 0.9856474^\circ n </math> The [[mean anomaly]] of the Sun (actually, of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun, but it is convenient to pretend the Sun orbits the Earth), is: :<math> g = 357.528^\circ + 0.9856003^\circ n </math> Put <math>L</math> and <math>g</math> in the range 0° to 360° by adding or subtracting [[Multiple (mathematics)|multiples]] of 360° as needed. Finally, the [[Ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptic longitude]] of the Sun is: :<math> \lambda = L + 1.915^\circ \sin g + 0.020^\circ \sin 2g</math> The [[Ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptic latitude]] of the Sun is nearly: :<math> \beta = 0 </math>, as the [[Ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptic latitude]] of the Sun never exceeds 0.00033°,<ref> Meeus (1991), p. 152</ref> and the distance of the Sun from the Earth, in [[astronomical unit]]s, is: :<math> R = 1.00014 - 0.01671 \cos g - 0.00014 \cos 2g </math>. === Equatorial coordinates === <math>\lambda</math>, <math>\beta</math> and <math>R</math> form a complete position of the [[Sun]] in the [[ecliptic coordinate system]]. This can be converted to the [[equatorial coordinate system]] by calculating the [[Axial tilt#Obliquity of the ecliptic .28Earth.27s axial tilt.29|obliquity of the ecliptic]], <math>\epsilon</math>, and continuing: <!-- , separates from epsilon in some page wraps --> [[Right ascension]], :<math> \alpha = \arctan(\cos \epsilon \tan \lambda)</math>, where <math>\alpha</math> is in the same [[Cartesian coordinate system#Quadrants and octants|quadrant]] as <math>\lambda</math>, To get RA at the right quadrant on computer programs use double argument Arctan function such as ATAN2(y,x) :<math> \alpha = \arctan2(\cos \epsilon \sin \lambda , \cos \lambda)</math> and [[declination]], :<math> \delta = \arcsin(\sin \epsilon \sin \lambda)</math>. === Horizontal coordinates === {{Details|Horizontal coordinate system}} === Rectangular equatorial coordinates === In [[Right hand rule|right-handed]] rectangular equatorial coordinates (where the <math>X</math> axis is in the direction of the [[Equinox#Celestial coordinate systems|vernal point]], and the <math>Y</math> axis is 90° to the east, in the [[Plane (geometry)|plane]] of the [[celestial equator]], and the <math>Z</math> axis is directed toward the [[Celestial pole|north celestial pole]]<ref> {{cite book | author = U.S. Naval Observatory Nautical Almanac Office | editor = P. Kenneth Seidelmann | title = Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac | publisher = University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA | date = 1992 | isbn = 0-935702-68-7 |page=12}}</ref> ), in [[astronomical unit]]s: :<math> X = R \cos \lambda </math> :<math> Y = R \cos \epsilon \sin \lambda </math> :<math> Z = R \sin \epsilon \sin \lambda </math> === Obliquity of the ecliptic === Where the [[Axial tilt#Obliquity of the ecliptic .28Earth.27s axial tilt.29|obliquity of the ecliptic]] is not obtained elsewhere, it can be approximated: :<math> \epsilon = 23.439^\circ - 0.0000004^\circ n </math> for use with the above equations. ==Declination of the Sun as seen from Earth==<!-- This section is linked from [[Horizontal coordinate system]] --> [[Image:Solar declination.svg|thumb|370px|right|The path of the Sun over the celestial sphere through the course of the day for an observer at 56°N latitude. The Sun's path changes with its declination during the year. The intersections of the curves with the horizontal axis show [[azimuth]]s in degrees from North where the Sun rises and sets.]] ===Overview=== The Sun appears to move northward during the northern [[spring (season)|spring]], contacting the [[celestial equator]] on the [[March equinox]]. Its [[declination]] reaches a maximum equal to the angle of Earth's [[axial tilt]] (23.44°)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/static/files/2015/Astronomical_Constants_2015.pdf |page=K6–K7 |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2015 (PDF) |date=2014 |publisher=US Naval Observatory }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/static/files/2015/Astronomical_Constants_2015.txt |page=K6–K7 |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2015 (TXT) |date=2014 |publisher=US Naval Observatory }}</ref> on the [[June solstice]], then decreases until reaching its minimum (−23.44°) on the [[December solstice]], when its value is the negative of the axial tilt. This variation produces the [[season]]s. A [[line chart|line graph]] of the Sun's declination during a year resembles a [[sine wave]] with an [[amplitude]] of 23.44°, but one lobe of the wave is several days longer than the other, among other differences. The following phenomena would occur if Earth is a perfect [[spheroid|sphere]], in a [[circular orbit]] around the Sun, and if its axis is tilted 90°, so that the axis itself is on the [[orbital plane]] (similar to [[Uranus]]). At one date in the year, the Sun would be [[zenith|directly overhead]] at the [[North Pole]], so its declination would be +90°. For the next few months, the [[subsolar point]] would move toward the [[South Pole]] at constant speed, crossing the [[circle of latitude|circles of latitude]] at a constant rate, so that the solar declination would decrease ''linearly'' with time. Eventually, the Sun would be directly above the South Pole, with a declination of −90°; then it would start to move northward at a constant speed. Thus, the graph of solar declination, as seen from this highly tilted Earth, would resemble a [[triangle wave]] rather than a sine wave, [[zigzag]]ging between plus and minus 90°, with linear segments between the maxima and minima. If the 90° axial tilt is decreased, then the absolute maximum and minimum values of the declination would decrease, to equal the axial tilt. Also, the shapes of the maxima and minima on the graph would become less acute ("pointy"), being curved to resemble the maxima and minima of a sine wave. However, even when the axial tilt equals that of the actual Earth, the maxima and minima remain more acute than those of a sine wave. In reality, [[Earth's orbit]] is [[elliptic orbit|elliptical]]. Earth moves more rapidly around the Sun near [[perihelion]], in early January, than near [[aphelion]], in early July. This makes processes like the variation of the solar declination happen faster in January than in July. On the graph, this makes the minima more acute than the maxima. Also, since perihelion and aphelion do not happen on the exact dates as the solstices, the maxima and minima are slightly asymmetrical. The rates of change before and after are not quite equal. The graph of apparent solar declination is therefore different in several ways from a sine wave. Calculating it accurately involves some complexity, as shown below. ===Calculations=== The declination of the [[Sun]], δ_☉, is the angle between the rays of the Sun and the plane of the Earth's equator. The Earth's [[axial tilt]] (called the ''obliquity of the ecliptic'' by astronomers) is the angle between the Earth's axis and a line perpendicular to the Earth's orbit. The Earth's axial tilt changes slowly over thousands of years but its current value of about ε = 23°26' is nearly constant, so the change in solar declination during one year is nearly the same as during the next year. At the [[solstice]]s, the angle between the rays of the Sun and the plane of the Earth's equator reaches its maximum value of 23°26'. Therefore, δ_☉ = +23°26' at the northern summer solstice and δ_☉ = −23°26' at the southern summer solstice. At the moment of each [[equinox]], the center of the Sun appears to pass through the [[celestial equator]], and δ_☉ is 0°. The Sun's declination at any given moment is calculated by: :<math>\delta_\odot = \arcsin \left [ \sin \left ( -23.44^\circ \right ) \cdot \sin \left ( EL \right ) \right ]</math> where EL is the [[ecliptic longitude]] (essentially, the Earth's position in its orbit). Since the Earth's [[orbital eccentricity]] is small, its orbit can be approximated as a circle which causes up to 1° of error. The circle approximation means the EL would be 90° ahead of the solstices in Earth's orbit (at the equinoxes), so that sin(EL) can be written as sin(90+NDS)=cos(NDS) where NDS is the number of days after the December solstice. By also using the approximation that arcsin[sin(d)·cos(NDS)] is close to d·cos(NDS), the following frequently used formula is obtained: :<math>\delta_\odot = - 23.44^\circ \cdot \cos \left [ \frac{360^\circ}{365} \cdot \left ( N + 10 \right ) \right ]</math> where N is the day of the year beginning with N=0 at midnight [[Universal Time]] (UT) as January 1 begins (i.e. the days part of the [[ordinal date]] −1). The number 10, in (N+10), is the approximate number of days after the December solstice to January 1. This equation overestimates the declination near the September equinox by up to +1.5°. The sine function approximation by itself leads to an error of up to 0.26° and has been discouraged for use in solar energy applications.<ref name="jenkins" /> The 1971 Spencer formula<ref>{{cite journal |title=Fourier series representation of the position of the sun |author=J. W. Spencer |url=http://www.mail-archive.com/sundial@uni-koeln.de/msg01050.html |date=1971}}</ref> (based on a [[Fourier series]]) is also discouraged for having an error of up to 0.28°.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sproul|first=Alistair B.|title=Derivation of the solar geometric relationships using vector analysis|url=http://www.physics.arizona.edu/~cronin/Solar/References/Irradiance%20Models%20and%20Data/SPR07.pdf|accessdate=28 February 2012}}</ref> An additional error of up to 0.5° can occur in all equations around the equinoxes if not using a decimal place when selecting N to adjust for the time after UT midnight for the beginning of that day. So the above equation can have up to 2.0° of error, about four times the Sun's angular width, depending on how it is used. The declination can be more accurately calculated by not making the two approximations, using the parameters of the Earth's orbit to more accurately estimate EL:<ref>{{cite web|title=SunAlign |url=http://www.green-life-innovators.org/tiki-index.php?page=Sunalign |accessdate=28 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309041230/http://www.green-life-innovators.org/tiki-index.php?page=Sunalign |archivedate=9 March 2012 }}</ref> :<math>\delta_\odot = \arcsin \left [ \sin \left ( -23.44^\circ \right ) \cdot \cos \left ( \frac{360^\circ}{365.24} \left (N + 10 \right ) + \frac{360^\circ}{\pi} \cdot 0.0167 \sin \left ( \frac{360^\circ}{365.24} \left ( N - 2 \right ) \right ) \right ) \right ]</math> which can be simplified by evaluating constants to: :<math>\delta_\odot = - \arcsin \left [ 0.39779 \cos \left ( 0.98565^\circ \left (N + 10 \right ) + 1.914^\circ \sin \left ( 0.98565^\circ \left ( N - 2 \right ) \right ) \right ) \right ]</math> N is the number of days since midnight UT as January 1 begins (i.e. the days part of the [[ordinal date]] −1) and can include decimals to adjust for local times later or earlier in the day. The number 2, in (N-2), is the approximate number of days after January 1 to the Earth's [[perihelion]]. The number 0.0167 is the current value of the [[Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] of the Earth's orbit. The eccentricity varies very slowly over time, but for dates fairly close to the present, it can be considered to be constant. The largest errors in this equation are less than ± 0.2°, but are less than ± 0.03° for a given year if the number 10 is adjusted up or down in fractional days as determined by how far the previous year's December solstice occurred before or after noon on December 22. These accuracies are compared to NOAA's advanced calculations<ref>{{cite web|title=NOAA Solar Calculator|url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/solcalc|publisher=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]]|accessdate=28 February 2012}}</ref><ref name=noaacalc>{{cite web|title=Solar Calculation Details|url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/solcalc/calcdetails.html|publisher=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]]|accessdate=28 February 2012}}</ref> which are based on the 1999 Jean Meeus algorithm that is accurate to within 0.01°.<ref>{{cite web|title=Astronomical Algorithms|url=http://www.jgiesen.de/elevaz/basics/meeus.htm|accessdate=28 February 2012}}</ref> (The above formula is related to a reasonably simple and accurate calculation of the [[Equation of Time]], which is described [[Equation of time#Alternative calculation|here]].) More complicated algorithms<ref>{{cite journal|title=Computing the Solar Vector|journal=Solar Energy|date=2001|volume=70|issue=5|pages=431–441|url=http://www.assembla.com/spaces/sun_follower/documents/d0PIA0oe0r347_eJe5avMc/download/10022519534118276.pdf|doi=10.1016/s0038-092x(00)00156-0|last1=Blanco-Muriel|first1=Manuel|last2=Alarcón-Padilla|first2=Diego C|last3=López-Moratalla|first3=Teodoro|last4=Lara-Coira|first4=Martín|bibcode=2001SoEn...70..431B}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Solar Position Algorithm for Solar Radiation Applications|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/34302.pdf|accessdate=28 February 2012|author=Ibrahim Reda|author2=Afshin Andreas|last-author-amp=yes}}</ref> correct for changes to the ecliptic longitude by using terms in addition to the 1st-order eccentricity correction above. They also correct the 23.44° obliquity which changes very slightly with time. Corrections may also include the effects of the moon in offsetting the Earth's position from the center of the pair's orbit around the Sun. After obtaining the declination relative to the center of the Earth, a further correction for [[parallax]] is applied, which depends on the observer's distance away from the center of the Earth. This correction is less than 0.0025°. The error in calculating the position of the center of the Sun can be less than 0.00015°. For comparison, the Sun's width is about 0.5°. ===Atmospheric refraction=== The declination calculations described above do not include the effects of the [[Atmospheric refraction|refraction]] of light in the atmosphere, which causes the apparent angle of elevation of the Sun as seen by an observer to be higher than the actual angle of elevation, especially at low Sun elevations.<ref name="jenkins" /> For example, when the Sun is at an elevation of 10°, it appears to be at 10.1°. The Sun's declination can be used, along with its [[right ascension]], to calculate its azimuth and also its true elevation, which can then be corrected for refraction to give its apparent position.<ref name="jenkins" /><ref name=noaacalc/><ref>{{cite web|title=Atmospheric Refraction Approximation|url=http://www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/atmosrefr.gif|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|accessdate=28 February 2012}}</ref> ==Equation of time== [[Image:Equation of time.svg|thumb|right|210px|The equation of time — above the axis a sundial will appear fast relative to a clock showing local mean time, and below the axis a sundial will appear slow.]] {{Main|Equation of time}} In addition to the annual north-south oscillation of the Sun's apparent position, corresponding to the variation of its declination described above, there is also a smaller but more complex oscillation in the east-west direction. This is caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis, and also by changes in the speed of its orbital motion around the Sun produced by the elliptical shape of the orbit. The principal effects of this east-west oscillation are variations in the timing of events such as sunrise and sunset, and in the reading of a [[sundial]] compared with a [[clock]] showing [[local mean time]]. As the graph shows, a sundial can be up to about 16 minutes fast or slow, compared with a clock. Since the Earth rotates at a mean speed of one degree every four minutes, relative to the Sun, this 16-minute displacement corresponds to a shift eastward or westward of about four degrees in the apparent position of the Sun, compared with its mean position. A westward shift causes the sundial to be ahead of the clock. Since the main effect of this oscillation concerns time, it is called the ''equation of time'', using the word "equation" in a somewhat archaic sense meaning "correction". The oscillation is measured in units of time, minutes and seconds, corresponding to the amount that a sundial would be ahead of a clock. The equation of time can be positive or negative. ==Analemma== [[File:analemma.png|thumb|right|100px|An [[analemma]] with solar [[declination]] and [[equation of time]] to the same scale]] {{main|Analemma}} An [[analemma]] is a diagram that shows the annual variation of the Sun's position on the [[celestial sphere]], relative to its mean position, as seen from a fixed location on Earth. (The word ''analemma'' is also occasionally, but rarely, used in other contexts.) It can be considered as an image of the Sun's apparent motion during a [[tropical year|year]], which resembles a figure-8. An analemma can be pictured by superimposing photographs taken at the same time of day, a few days apart for a [[year]]. An analemma can also be considered as a graph of the [[#Declination of the Sun as seen from Earth|Sun's declination]], usually plotted vertically, against the [[equation of time]], plotted horizontally. Usually, the scales are chosen so that equal distances on the diagram represent equal angles in both directions on the celestial sphere. Thus 4 minutes (more precisely 3 minutes, 56 seconds), in the equation of time, are represented by the same distance as 1° in the [[declination]], since [[Earth's rotation|Earth rotates]] at a mean speed of 1° every 4 minutes, relative to the Sun. An analemma is drawn as it would be seen in the sky by an observer looking upward. If [[north]] is shown at the top, then [[west]] is to the ''right''. This is usually done even when the analemma is marked on a geographical [[globe]], on which the continents, etc., are shown with west to the left. Some analemmas are marked to show the position of the Sun on the graph on various dates, a few days apart, throughout the year. This enables the analemma to be used to make simple analog computations of quantities such as the times and [[azimuth]]s of [[sunrise]] and [[sunset]]. Analemmas without date markings are used to correct the time indicated by [[sundial]]s.<ref>[[Sundial#Noon marks]]</ref> ==See also== {{Div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Ecliptic]] * [[Effect of Sun angle on climate]] * [[Newcomb's Tables of the Sun]] * [[Solar azimuth angle]] * [[Solar elevation angle]] * [[Solar irradiance]] * [[Solar time]] * [[Sun path]] * [[Sunrise equation]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} == External links == * [http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/codesandalgorithms/spa/ Solar Position Algorithm], at National Renewable Energy Laboratory's [http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/ Renewable Resource Data Center] website. * [http://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/2-properties-sunlight/sun-position-calculator Sun Position Calculator], at [http://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom pveducation.org]. An interactive calculator showing the Sun's path in the sky. * [http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/solcalc/ NOAA Solar Calculator], at the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory's [http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ Global Monitoring Division] website. * [http://www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/azel.html NOAA's declination and sun position calculator] * [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons HORIZONS System], at the [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/index.cfm JPL] website. Very accurate positions of Solar System objects based on the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory Development Ephemeris|JPL DE series]] ephemerides. * [http://www.imcce.fr/en/ephemerides/formulaire/form_ephepos.php General ephemerides of the solar system bodies], at the [http://www.imcce.fr/langues/en/ IMCCE] website. Positions of Solar System objects based on the INPOP series ephemerides. *[http://www.meteoexploration.com/R/insol/index.html Solar position in R. Insol package.] [[Category:Sun]] [[Category:Dynamics of the Solar System]]'