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'{{short description|Space travel by humans}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2020}}
{{Spaceflight sidebar}}
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 250
| image1 = Aldrin Apollo 11 original.jpg
| image2 = FirstSpaceWalk.png
| image3 = Ed White First American Spacewalker - GPN-2000-001180.jpg
| image4 = ISS-32 American EVA b3 Aki Hoshide.jpg
| image5 = Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg
| caption1 = [[Apollo 11]] astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon, 1969
| caption2 = [[Voskhod 2]] cosmonaut [[Alexei Leonov]], first in open space, 1965
| caption3 = [[Gemini 4]] astronaut [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]] in open space, 1965
| caption4 = [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] astronaut [[Akihiko Hoshide]] taking a [[space selfie]] in 2012
| caption5 = [[International Space Station]] crewmember [[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] views the Earth, 2010
| total_width =
| alt1 =
}}
'''Human spaceflight''' (also referred to as '''manned spaceflight''' or '''crewed spaceflight''') is [[spaceflight]] with a crew or passengers aboard a [[spacecraft]], often with the spacecraft being operated directly by the onboard human crew. Spacecraft can also be [[telerobotic|remotely operated]] from ground stations on Earth, or [[Autonomous robot|autonomously]], without any direct human involvement. People trained for spaceflight are called [[astronaut]]s (American or other), ''cosmonauts'' (Russian), or ''taikonauts'' (Chinese); and non-professionals are referred to as [[spaceflight participant]]s or ''spacefarers''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mars|first=Kelli|date=2018-03-27|title=5 Hazards of Human Spaceflight|url=http://www.nasa.gov/hrp/5-hazards-of-human-spaceflight|access-date=2022-02-09|website=NASA}}</ref>
The first human in space was [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]], who launched on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]] as part of the Soviet Union's [[Vostok program]]. This was towards the beginning of the [[Space Race]]. On 5 May 1961, [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space, as part of [[Project Mercury]]. Humans traveled to [[the Moon]] nine times between 1968 and 1972 as part of the United States' [[Apollo program]], and have had a continuous presence in space for {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}} on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS).<ref>{{cite web |title=Counting the Many Ways the International Space Station Benefits Humanity |date=5 April 2019 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity |access-date=4 May 2019}}</ref> As of 2021, humans have not traveled beyond [[low Earth orbit]] since the [[Apollo 17]] [[List of missions to the Moon|lunar mission]] in December 1972.
Currently, the United States, Russia, and China are the only countries with [[List of human spaceflight programs|public or commercial human spaceflight-capable programs]]. On 15 October 2003, the first Chinese taikonaut, [[Yang Liwei]], went to space as part of [[Shenzhou 5]]. [[List of private spaceflight companies|Non-governmental spaceflight companies]] have been working to develop human space programs of their own, e.g. for [[space tourism]] or commercial [[Space research|in-space research]]. The first private human spaceflight launch was a [[suborbital flight]] on [[SpaceShipOne]] on June 21, 2004. The first commercial [[Orbital spaceflight|orbital]] crew launch was by [[SpaceX]] in May 2020, transporting, under United States government contract, [[NASA]] astronauts to the [[ISS]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=SpaceX Astronauts Reach Space Station After Milestone Voyage|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-30/spacex-set-to-retry-historic-rocket-launch-after-weather-delay|access-date=2020-06-16|website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref>
== History ==
{{Main|History of spaceflight}}
=== Cold War era ===
{{Main|Space Race}}
[[File:Vostok spacecraft replica.jpg|thumb|180px|Replica of the [[Vostok programme|Vostok]] space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit]]
[[File:Sigma7-1.jpg|thumb|[[Project Mercury|Mercury]] space capsule, which carried the first Americans into orbit]]
[[File:X-15 in flight.jpg|thumb|[[North American X-15]], hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft, which reached the edge of space]]
[[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|[[Neil Armstrong]], one of the first two people to land on the Moon and the first to walk on the lunar surface, July 1969.]]
Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR). These nations developed [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s for the delivery of [[nuclear weapon]]s, producing rockets large enough to be adapted to carry the first [[artificial satellite]]s into [[low Earth orbit]].
After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on [[Project Mercury]], with the aim of launching men into orbit. The USSR was secretly pursuing the [[Vostok programme|Vostok program]] to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]], who, on 12 April 1961, was launched aboard [[Vostok 1]] on a [[Vostok 3KA]] rocket and completed a single orbit. On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first [[astronaut]], [[Alan Shepard]], on a suborbital flight aboard ''[[Freedom 7]]'' on a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Mercury-Redstone rocket]]. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually [[attitude control|controlled his spacecraft's attitude]]. On 20 February 1962, [[John Glenn]] became the first American in orbit, aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'' on a [[Atlas LV-3B|Mercury-Atlas rocket]]. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok [[space capsule|capsule]]s, including the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] aboard [[Vostok 6]], on 16 June 1963. Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit. The US also made two [[North American X-15]] flights ([[X-15 Flight 90|90]] and [[X-15 Flight 91|91]], piloted by [[Joseph A. Walker]]) that exceeded the [[Kármán line]], the {{convert|100|km}} altitude used by the [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI) to denote the edge of space.
In 1961, US President [[John F. Kennedy]] raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Kennedy, John F. |date=25 May 1961 |title=Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |medium=Motion picture (excerpt) |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |access-date=1 August 2013 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |location=Boston, MA |id=Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref> That same year, the US began the [[Apollo program]] of launching three-man capsules atop the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family of launch vehicles]] to accomplish this; and, in 1962, began [[Project Gemini]], which, in 1965 and 1966, flew 10 missions with two-man crews launched by [[Titan II GLV|Titan II rockets]], Gemini's objective being to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used during the Moon mission.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Loff |first1=Sarah |title=Gemini: Stepping Stone to the Moon |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/#.VKi1GsaWt78 |website=Gemini: Bridge to the Moon |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221151510/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/ |archive-date=21 December 2014 |location=Washington, DC |date=21 October 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule by adapting it to a two or three-person [[Voskhod programme|Voskhod]] capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first [[spacewalk]], performed by [[Alexei Leonov]] on [[Voskhod 2]] on 8 March 1965. However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not achieve the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks, solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by compensating for the lack of gravity, demonstrating the ability of humans to endure two weeks in space, and performing the first [[space rendezvous]] and [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]] of spacecraft.
The US succeeded in developing the [[Saturn V]] rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] into 10 orbits around the Moon in [[Apollo 8]] in December 1968. In July 1969, [[Apollo 11]] accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]. Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|electric powered vehicles]] on the surface. The crew of [[Apollo 13]]—[[Jim Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]]—survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, orbited the Moon without landing, and returned safely to Earth.
[[File:Soyuz TMA-7 spacecraft2edit1.jpg|thumb|[[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]], most serial spacecraft]]
[[File:Salyut 1 and Soyuz drawing.png|thumb|[[Salyut 1]], first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraft]]
Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued [[Soviet crewed lunar programs|crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs]]. They successfully developed the three-person [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] necessary for a human landing, discontinuing their lunar programs in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|title = Challenge To Apollo The Soviet Union and The Space Race, 1945–1974|last = Siddiqi|first = Asif|page = 832|publisher = NASA|url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408}}</ref> Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of [[space station]]s, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of [[Salyut program|Salyut]] sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.
==== Post-Apollo era ====
[[File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|Artist's rendering of an [[Apollo CSM]] is about to dock with a [[Soyuz spacecraft]].]]
In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, [[Spiro Agnew]], to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious [[Space Transportation System]] based on a [[Space Shuttle design process|reusable Space Shuttle]], which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger [[RP-1|kerosene]]-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable [[space tug]]; and [[NERVA|nuclear]] interplanetary ferry, leading to a [[human mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars]] as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. [[Space Shuttle|Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back]] to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly back booster with two reusable [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]]s, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable [[Space Shuttle external tank|external propellant tank]] to feed its hydrogen-fueled [[Space Shuttle main engine|main engine]]s. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.
[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|[[Space Shuttle orbiter]], first crewed orbital spaceplane]]
In 1973, the US launched the [[Skylab]] sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard Apollo spacecraft. During that time, President [[Richard Nixon]] and Soviet general secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev]] were negotiating an easing of Cold War tensions known as [[détente]]. As part of this, they negotiated the [[Apollo-Soyuz]] program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with [[Soyuz 19]] in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely symbolic.
The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, which was dubbed ''[[Space Station Freedom|Freedom]]''. The USSR launched three [[Almaz]] military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''[[Mir]]'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of {{convert|354|km|nmi|abbr=off|sp=us}}, at an [[orbital inclination]] of 51.6°. It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001.
The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Space Station Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]''. A fifth shuttle, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|an accident during launch]] that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a [[European Space Agency]] sortie space station called [[Spacelab]] in the Shuttle payload bay.<ref name=StoryShuttle>{{cite book |title=The Story of the Space Shuttle |author=David Michael Harland |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] Praxis |date=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 444] |isbn=978-1-85233-793-3 |author-link=David M. Harland |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 }}</ref>
[[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiter, Soviet equivalent of the Space Shuttle orbiter]]
The USSR copied the US's reusable [[Space Shuttle orbiter]], which they called ''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiter or simply ''Buran'', which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable [[Energia]] rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the Space Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter it used smaller rocket engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.
=== US / Russian cooperation ===
[[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|right|International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and Russia]]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the [[Roscosmos State Corporation]]. The [[Shuttle-Mir Program]] included American Space Shuttles visiting the ''Mir'' space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard ''Mir''.
In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station ''Freedom'' into the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). Construction of the station began in 1998. The station orbits at an altitude of {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us}} and an orbital inclination of 51.65°. Several of the Space Shuttle's 135 orbital flights were to help assemble, supply, and crew the ISS. Russia has built half of the International Space Station and has continued its cooperation with the US.
=== China ===
{{Main|China Manned Space Program}}
[[File:Maquette d'un vaisseau Shenzhou.jpg|thumb|right|[[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou]], first non-USSR and non-USA spacecraft]]
China was the third nation in the world, after the USSR and USA, to send humans into space. During the [[Space Race]] between the two superpowers, which culminated with [[Apollo 11]] landing humans on the Moon, [[Mao Zedong]] and [[Zhou Enlai]] decided on 14 July 1967 that China should not be left behind, and initiated their own crewed space program: the top-secret Project 714, which aimed to put two people into space by 1973 with the [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang]] spacecraft. Nineteen [[PLAAF]] pilots were selected for this goal in March 1971. The Shuguang-1 spacecraft, to be launched with the [[CZ-2A]] rocket, was designed to carry a crew of two. The program was officially cancelled on 13 May 1972 for economic reasons.
In 1992, under [[China Manned Space Program]] (CMS), also known as "Project 921", authorization and funding was given for the first phase of a third, successful attempt at crewed spaceflight. To achieve independent human spaceflight capability, China developed [[Shenzhou spacecraft]] and [[Long March 2F]] rocket dedicated for human spaceflight in the next few years, along with critical infrastructures like new launch site and flight control center being built. The first uncrewed spacecraft, ''[[Shenzhou 1]]'', was launched on 20 November 1999 and recovered the next day, marking the first step of the realization of China's human spaceflight capability. Three more uncrewed missions were conducted in the next few years in order to verify the key technologies. On 15 October 2003 ''[[Shenzhou 5]]'', China's first crewed spaceflight mission, put ''[[Yang Liwei]]'' in orbit for 21 hours and returned safely back to [[Inner Mongolia]], making China the third nation to launch a human into orbit independently.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shenzhou V |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouv/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>
The goal of the second phase of CMS was to make technology breakthroughs in [[extravehicular activities]] (EVA, or spacewalk) as well as [[space rendezvous]] and [[Docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]] to support short-term human activities in space.<ref name="aboutCMS">{{cite web |title=About CMS |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/aboutcms/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> On 25 September 2008 during the flight of ''[[Shenzhou 7]]'', ''[[Zhai Zhigang]]'' and ''[[Liu Boming (astronaut)|Liu Boming]]'' completed China's first EVA.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shenzhou VII |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouvii/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> In 2011, China launched the [[Tiangong 1]] target spacecraft and ''[[Shenzhou 8]]'' uncrewed spacecraft. The two spacecraft completed China's first automatic rendezvous and docking on 3 November 2011.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shenzhou VIII |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouviii/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> About 9 months later, ''Tiangong 1'' completed the first manual rendezvous and docking with ''[[Shenzhou 9]]'', which carried China's first female astronaut ''[[Liu Yang (astronaut)|Liu Yang]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shenzhou IX |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouix/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>
In September 2016, ''[[Tiangong 2]]'' was launched into the orbit. It was a space laboratory with more advanced functions and equipment than ''Tiangong 1''. A month later, ''[[Shenzhou 11]]'' was launched and docked with ''Tiangong 2''. Two astronauts entered ''Tiangong 2'' and stationed for about 30 days and verified the viability of astronauts' medium-term stay in space.<ref name="spacelab">{{cite web |title=Space Laboratory Missions |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/space_laboratory_missions/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> In April 2017, China's first cargo spacecraft, ''[[Tianzhou 1]]'' docked with ''Tiangong 2'' and completed multiple in-orbit propellant refueling tests, which marked the successful completion of the second phase of CMS.<ref name="spacelab"/>
The third phase of CMS bagan in 2020. The goal of this phase is to build China's own space station, [[Tiangong Space Station|''Tiangong'']].<ref>{{cite web |title=China launches new Long March-5B rocket for space station program |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202005/t20200506_46488.html |website=China Manned Space |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617054112/http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202005/t20200506_46488.html |archive-date=17 June 2021 |date=5 May 2020}}</ref> The first module of ''Tiangong'', the [[Tianhe core module]], was launched into orbit by China's most powerful rocket [[Long March 5B]] on 29 April 2021.<ref name="third step">{{cite web |title=Core Module Tianhe Launch a Complete Success -- Construction of China Space Station in Full Swing |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202105/t20210528_48002.html |website=China Manned Space |access-date=26 July 2021 |date=30 April 2021}}</ref> It was later visited by multiple cargo and crewed spacecraft and demonstrated China's capability of sustaining Chinese astronauts' long-term stay in space.
According to CMS announcement, all missions of Tiangong Space Station are scheduled to be carried out by the end of 2022.<ref name="CSSplan">{{cite web |title=空间站天和核心舱飞行任务新闻发布会召开 |url=http://www.cmse.gov.cn/ztbd/xwfbh/202106/t20210622_48281.html |website=China Manned Space |access-date=2021-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713065620/http://www.cmse.gov.cn/ztbd/xwfbh/202106/t20210622_48281.html |archive-date=2021-07-13 |date=2021-04-29 |url-status=live |language=zh}}</ref> Once the construction is completed, ''Tiangong'' will enter the application and development phase, which is poised to last for no less than 10 years.<ref name="CSSplan"/>
=== Abandoned programs of other nations ===
The [[European Space Agency]] began development of the [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]] shuttle [[spaceplane]] in 1987, to be launched on the [[Ariane 5]] expendable launch vehicle. It was intended to dock with the European [[Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer|Columbus space station]]. The projects were canceled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built. The Columbus space station was reconfigured as the [[Columbus (ISS module)|European module of the same name]] on the International Space Station.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}
Japan ([[NASDA]]) began development of the [[HOPE-X]] experimental shuttle spaceplane in the 1980s, to be launched on its [[H-IIA]] expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reductions, and the project's cancellation in 2003 in favor of participation in the International Space Station program through the [[Kibo (ISS module)|''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module]] and [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] cargo spacecraft. As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the [[Fuji (spacecraft)|Fuji crew capsule]] for independent or ISS flights, but the project did not proceed to the contracting stage.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}
From 1993 to 1997, the {{Interlanguage link multi|Japanese Rocket Society|ja|3=日本ロケット協会|vertical-align=sup}}, [[Kawasaki Heavy Industries]], and [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]] worked on the proposed [[Kankoh-maru]] [[vertical takeoff and landing|vertical-takeoff-and-landing]] [[single-stage-to-orbit]] reusable launch system. In 2005, this system was proposed for space tourism.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}
According to a press release from the [[Iraqi News Agency]] dated 5 December 1989, there was only one test of the [[Al-Abid]] space launcher, which [[Iraq]] intended to use to develop its own crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hardships that followed.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}
=== United States "Shuttle gap" ===
[[File:STS-135 begins takeoff (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[STS-135]] (July 2011), the final human spaceflight of the United States until 2018]]
[[File:Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo "Unity" rollout 19Feb2016, FAITH hangar, Mojave, California.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[VSS Unity|VSS ''Unity'']] [[VSS Unity VP-03|Flight VP-03]] December 2018, the first human spaceflight from the United States since [[STS-135]] ]]
Under the Bush administration, the [[Constellation program]] included plans for retiring the Space Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the [[2011 United States federal budget]], the Obama administration canceled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<ref>[http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html Congressional watchdog finds NASA's new rocket is in trouble] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129102151/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html |date=29 November 2011 }}. Orlando Sentinel blog summary of official reports. 3 November 2008</ref> As part of the [[Artemis program]], NASA is developing the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to be launched by the [[Space Launch System]]. Under the [[Commercial Crew Development]] plan, NASA relies on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low Earth orbit, such as [[SpaceX Dragon 2]], the [[Boeing Starliner]] or [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]]'s [[Dream Chaser]]. The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch into space of [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Unity VP-03|Flight VP-03]] on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of [[Apollo program|Apollo]] in 1975 and the [[STS-1|first Space Shuttle flight]] in 1981, and is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.
=== Commercial private spaceflight ===
[[File:SpaceShipOne Flight 15P photo D Ramey Logan.jpg|thumb|[[SpaceShipOne]], first private sub-orbital spaceplane]]
[[File:Crew Dragon at the ISS for Demo Mission 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Crew Dragon]], first private orbital spacecraft]]
Since the early 2000s, a variety of [[private spaceflight]] ventures have been undertaken. As of May 2021, [[SpaceX]] has launched humans to orbit, while [[Virgin Galactic]] has launched crew to a height above {{cvt|80|km}} on a suborbital trajectory.<ref name="spaceshiptwoflight">{{cite web |last=Malik |first= Tariq |title=Virgin Galactic's 4th Powered Test Flight of SpaceShipTwo Unity in Twitter Posts |url=https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html |date=13 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427085514/https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html |archive-date=27 April 2021 |website=[[Space.com]] |access-date=13 May 2021}}</ref> Several other companies—including [[Blue Origin]] and [[Sierra Nevada Corporation|Sierra Nevada]]—develop crewed spacecraft. All four companies plan to fly commercial passengers in the emerging [[space tourism]] market.
[[SpaceX]] has developed [[Crew Dragon]] flying on [[Falcon 9]]. It first launched astronauts to orbit and to the ISS in May 2020 as part of the [[Crew Dragon Demo-2|Demo-2]] mission. Developed as part of NASA's [[Commercial Crew Development]] program, the capsule is also available for flights with other customers. A first tourist mission, [[Inspiration4]], launched in September 2021.<ref name=Inspiration4>{{cite web |last1=Atkinson |first1=Ian |title=SpaceX launches Inspiration4, first all-private orbital mission |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/09/spacex-launch-inspiration4/ |website=NASASpaceflight.com |date=15 September 2021 |access-date=16 September 2021}}</ref>
[[Boeing Defense, Space & Security|Boeing]] is developing the [[Boeing Starliner|Starliner]] capsule as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, which is launched on a [[United Launch Alliance]] [[Atlas V]] launch vehicle.<ref name=nasaAnnounce20140906>{{cite web |title=American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil |last=Bolden |first=Charlie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/ |website=NASA.gov |access-date=16 September 2014}}</ref> Starliner made an uncrewed flight in December 2019. A second uncrewed flight attempt was scrubbed in August 2021, with a NASA official saying it would likely not launch until 2022.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Stephen |title=NASA official says Starliner demo mission not likely to launch until next year |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2021/09/22/nasa-official-says-starliner-demo-mission-not-likely-to-launch-until-next-year/ |website=Spaceflight Now |access-date=23 September 2021}}</ref> A crewed flight is not expected before the second half of 2022.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |title=Boeing to ground Starliner indefinitely until valve issue solved |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/08/boeing-to-ground-starliner-indefinitely-until-valve-issue-solved/ |website=Ars Technica |date=13 August 2021 |access-date=16 September 2021}}</ref> Similar to SpaceX, development funding has been provided by a mix of [[government funding|government]] and [[private capital|private]] funds.<ref name=sn20140921>{{cite news |last1=Foust|first1=Jeff |title=NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140921132432/http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 September 2014 |access-date=21 September 2014 |work=Space News |date=19 September 2014 |quote="We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given", Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. "Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that".}}</ref><ref name=NASApress20140916>{{cite web |title=RELEASE 14-256 NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international |website=www.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |access-date=29 October 2014}}</ref>
[[Virgin Galactic]] is developing [[SpaceshipTwo]], a commercial [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] spacecraft aimed at the [[space tourism]] market. It reached space in December 2018.<ref name="spaceshiptwoflight"/>
[[Blue Origin]] is in a multi-year [[flight test|test]] program of their [[New Shepard]] vehicle and has carried out 16 uncrewed test flights as of September 2021, and one crewed flight carrying founder [[Jeff Bezos]], his brother [[Mark Bezos]], aviator [[Wally Funk]], and 18-year old [[Oliver Daemen]] on July 20, 2021.
== Passenger travel via spacecraft ==
Over the decades, a number of spacecraft have been proposed for spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by [[airliner]] after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to [[space transport|transport]] large numbers of passengers to destinations in space, or on Earth via [[suborbital spaceflight]]s. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the [[test flight]] phase of their development process.
One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the [[SpaceX Starship]], which, in addition to replacing the [[Falcon 9]] and [[Falcon Heavy]] [[launch vehicle]]s in the legacy Earth-orbit [[Space launch market competition|market]] after 2020, has been proposed by SpaceX for long-distance commercial travel on Earth, flying 100+ people suborbitally between two points in under one hour, also known as "Earth-to-Earth".<ref name=rollingstone20171115>{{cite magazine|last1=Strauss|first1=Neil|title=Elon Musk: The Architect of Tomorrow|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747|access-date=15 November 2017|magazine=Rolling Stone|date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=sxEarthToEarth201709>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0 Starship Earth to Earth], SpaceX, 28 September 2017, accessed 23 December 2017.</ref><ref name=sn20171015c>{{cite news |last=Foust|first=Jeff |url=http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |title=Musk offers more technical details on BFR system |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=15 October 2017 |access-date=15 October 2017 |quote=[the] spaceship portion of the BFR, which would transport people on point-to-point suborbital flights or on missions to the moon or Mars, will be tested on Earth first in a series of short hops. ... a full-scale Ship doing short hops of a few hundred kilometers altitude and lateral distance ... fairly easy on the vehicle, as no heat shield is needed, we can have a large amount of reserve propellant and don't need the high area ratio, deep space Raptor engines.}}</ref>
Small [[spaceplane]] or small [[space capsule|capsule]] suborbital spacecraft have been under development for the past decade or so; {{asof|2017|lc=y}}, at least one of each type is under development. Both [[Virgin Galactic]] and [[Blue Origin]] have craft in active [[new product development|development]]: the [[SpaceShipTwo]] spaceplane and the [[New Shepard]] capsule, respectively. Both would carry approximately a half-dozen passengers up to space for a brief time of zero gravity before returning to the launch location. [[XCOR Aerospace]] had been developing the [[Lynx (spacecraft)|Lynx single-passenger spaceplane]] since the 2000s,<ref>(2012) [http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ SXC - Buying your tickets into space!] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306043002/http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ |date=6 March 2013 }} SXC web page, Retrieved 5 April 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Staff writers | title = Space Expedition Corporation Announces Wet Lease of XCOR Lynx Suborbital | work = Space Media Network Promotions | publisher = Space-Travel.com | date = 6 October 2010 | url = http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Space_Experience_Curacao_Announces_Wet_Lease_of_XCOR_Lynx_Suborbital_999.html | access-date = 6 October 2010 }}</ref> but development was halted in 2017.<ref name=sn20171109>{{cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |title=XCOR Aerospace Files for Bankruptcy |url=http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/ |date=9 November 2017 |work=[[SpaceNews]] |access-date=13 May 2021}}</ref>
== Human representation and participation ==
{{See also|Space law|Human presence in space|Space colonization|Human outpost}}
Participation and representation of humanity in space has been an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration.<ref name="Durrani"/> Some rights of non-spacefaring countries have been secured through international [[space law]], declaring space the "[[Common heritage of mankind|province of all mankind]]", though the sharing of space by all humanity is sometimes criticized as [[imperialism|imperialist]] and lacking.<ref name="Durrani">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/ |title=Is Spaceflight Colonialism? |author=Haris Durrani |access-date=2 October 2020 |date=19 July 2019}}</ref> In addition to the lack of international inclusion, the inclusion of women and [[people of color]] has also been lacking. To make spaceflight more inclusive, organizations such as the ''Justspace Alliance''<ref name="Durrani"/> and [[IAU]]-featured ''Inclusive Astronomy''<ref>[https://www.inclusiveastronomy.org Website of the IAU100 ''Inclusive Astronomy'' project]</ref> have been formed in recent years.
===Women===
{{Main|Women in space}}
The first woman to ever enter space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]]. She flew in 1963, but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space. At the time, all astronauts were required to be military test pilots; women were not able to enter this career, which is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sinelschikova|first=Yekaterina|date=2020-12-03|title=Why NASA astronauts would not pass the Soviet and Russian selection process|url=https://www.rbth.com/science-and-tech/333087-nasa-soviet-space-selection|access-date=2021-05-23|website=www.rbth.com|language=en-US}}</ref> After the rules were changed, [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the second woman to enter space; she was also from the [[Soviet Union]]. [[Sally Ride]] became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program.
Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. The first all-female space walk occurred in 2018, by [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]]. These two women had both participated in separate space walks with NASA. The first mission to the Moon with a woman aboard is planned for 2024.
Despite these developments, women are still underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs, and limit the space missions they are able to go on, are, for example:
* agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, due to suppositions that women are at greater potential risk for cancer.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.space.com/22252-women-astronauts-radiation-risk.html | title = Female Astronauts Face Discrimination from Space Radiation Concerns, Astronauts Say | first = Miriam | last = Kramer | date = 27 August 2013 | access-date = 7 January 2017 | work = Space.com | publisher = Purch}}</ref>
* a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts.<ref name="clothing">{{cite magazine |last=Sokolowski |first=Susan L.|title= Female astronauts: How performance products like space suits and bras are designed to pave the way for women's accomplishments|url=https://theconversation.com/female-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346 |date=5 April 2019 | magazine =The Conversation |access-date=10 May 2020 }}</ref>
== Milestones ==
=== By achievement ===
; 12 April 1961
: [[Yuri Gagarin]] was the first human in space and the first in Earth orbit, on [[Vostok 1]].
; 17 July 1962 or 19 July 1963
: Either [[Robert Michael White|Robert M. White]] or [[Joseph A. Walker]] (depending on the definition of the [[space border]]) was the first to pilot a [[spaceplane]], the [[North American X-15]], on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker).
; 18 March 1965
: [[Alexei Leonov]] was first to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]].
; 15 December 1965
: [[Walter M. Schirra]] and [[Thomas P. Stafford|Tom Stafford]] were first to perform a [[space rendezvous]], piloting their [[Gemini 6A]] spacecraft to achieve [[Orbital station-keeping|station-keeping]] one foot (30 cm) from [[Gemini 7]] for over 5 hours.
; 16 March 1966
: [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]] were first to [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|rendezvous and dock]], piloting their [[Gemini 8]] spacecraft to dock with an uncrewed [[Agena Target Vehicle]].
; 21–27 December 1968
: [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] were first to travel beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and first to orbit the Moon, on the [[Apollo 8]] mission, which orbited the Moon ten times before returning to Earth.
; 26 May 1969
: Apollo 10 reaches the fastest speed ever traveled by a human: 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph), or roughly 1/27,000 of [[lightspeed]].
; 20 July 1969
: Neil Armstrong and [[Buzz Aldrin]] were first to land on the Moon, during [[Apollo 11]].
; Longest time in space
: [[Valeri Polyakov]] performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days, 17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds). [[Gennady Padalka]] has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days.
; Longest-duration crewed space station
:The [[International Space Station]] has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present ({{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}}). This record was previously held by [[Mir]], from [[Soyuz TM-8]] on 5 September 1989 to the [[Soyuz TM-29]] on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,644 days (almost 10 years).
=== By nationality or sex ===
; 12 April 1961
: [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first Soviet and the first human to reach space, on [[Vostok 1]].
; 5 May 1961
: [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American to reach space, on ''[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]]''.
; 20 February 1962
: [[John Glenn]] became the first American to orbit the Earth.
; 16 June 1963
: [[Valentina Tereshkova]] became the first woman to go into space and to orbit the Earth.
; 2 March 1978
: [[Vladimír Remek]], a [[Czechoslovakia]]n, became the first non-American and non-Soviet in space, as part of the [[Interkosmos]] program.
; 2 April 1984
: [[Rakesh Sharma]], became the first Indian citizen to reach Earth's orbit.
; 25 July 1984
: [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the first woman to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]].
; 15 October 2003
: [[Yang Liwei]] became the first Chinese in space and to orbit the Earth, on [[Shenzhou 5]].
; 18 October 2019
: [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]] conducted the first woman-only [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/10/18/nasa-astronauts-wrap-up-historic-all-woman-spacewalk/ | title=NASA Astronauts Wrap Up Historic All-Woman Spacewalk | date=18 October 2019 | first=Mark | last=Garcia | publisher=NASA | access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref>
[[Sally Ride]] became the first American woman in space, in 1983. [[Eileen Collins]] was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission [[STS-93]] in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft.
For many years, only the USSR (later Russia) and the United States were the only countries whose astronauts flew in space. That ended with the 1978 flight of Vladimir Remek. {{As of|2010}}, citizens from 38 nations (including [[space tourism|space tourists]]) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft.
== Space programs ==
{{Main list|List of human spaceflight programs}}
{{redirect|Astronaut corps|subdivision of NASA|NASA Astronaut Corps}}
Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the Soviet Union–Russian Federation, the United States, [[Mainland China]], and by American [[private spaceflight]] companies.
{{human spaceflight capability}}
===Current programs===
{{Space_station_size_comparison}}
The following space vehicles and [[spaceport]]s are currently used for launching human spaceflights:
* [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz program]] (Russia): spacecraft on [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz launch vehicle]], from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]]; 146 crewed orbital flights since 1967, including two in-flight aborts which failed to reach orbit, {{As of|alt=as of the end of April 2021|2021|April}}.
* [[China Manned Space Program]] (China): [[Shenzhou spacecraft]] on [[Long March (rocket family)|Long March launch vehicle]], from [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]]; eight crewed orbital flights since 2003, {{As of|alt=as of October 2021|2021|October}}.
* [[SpaceShipTwo]] (US): Air launched from [[Scaled Composites White Knight Two|White Knight Two]] carrier aircraft. The first two flights were from the [[Mojave Air and Space Port]], with subsequent flights from [[Spaceport America]]. Four crewed suborbital flights since 2018, as of the end of July 2021.
* [[Crew Dragon]] (US): Launched from [[Kennedy Space Center]] on a [[Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9]] rocket. Four crewed orbital flights as of September 2021, both privately funded and as part of the [[Commercial Crew Program]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Test of SpaceX Crew Dragon|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-america-in-historic-test-flight-of-spacex-crew-dragon|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2020-05-30|website=NASA|access-date=2020-05-31}}</ref><ref name=Inspiration4/>
*[[New Shepard]] (US): Launched from a facility near [[Van Horn, Texas]]. Three crewed suborbital launches as of December 2021.
The following [[space stations]] are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation:
* [[International Space Station]] (US, Russia, Europe, Japan, Canada) assembled in orbit: altitude {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}, 51.65° orbital inclination; crews transported by Soyuz or Crew Dragon spacecraft
* [[Tiangong Space Station]] (China) assembled in orbit: 41.5° orbital inclination;<ref>{{cite web |last1=McDowell |first1=Jonathan |title=Jonathan's Space Report No. 792 |url=https://planet4589.org/space/jsr/back/news.792.txt |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> crews transported by Shenzhou spacecraft
Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, which generally has a crew of 7 except during crew transitions, and those aboard Tiangong, which has a crew of 3.
[[NASA]] and [[ESA]] use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions", though because of gender specificity this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/styleguide.html |title=Style Guide |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=6 January 2016}}</ref>
===Planned future programs===
Under the [[Indian Human Spaceflight Programme|Indian Human Spaceflight Program]], India was planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle [[Gaganyaan]] before August 2022, but it has been delayed to 2023, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Scientists Discuss Indian Manned Space Mission|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/update/07-nov-2006/scientists-discuss-indian-manned-space-mission|publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation|date=2006-11-07}}</ref><ref name="Kadursrinivas 2017">{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Mukund Kadursrinivas |last2=Murthi |first2=Sridhara, K. R. |last3=Prasad M. Y. S. |title=The Decision for Indian Human Spaceflight Programme – Political Perspectives, National Relevance and Technological Challenges |url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1359/1/2017-MK-Rao-IAC-17-B3-1-9-IndianHumanSpaceFlightFullPaper.pdf |publisher= International Astronautical Federation}}</ref> The initial objective is to carry a crew of two or three to [[low Earth orbit]] (LEO) for a 3-to-7-day flight in a [[ISRO Orbital Vehicle|spacecraft]] on a [[GSLV Mk III]] rocket and return them safely for a water landing at a predefined landing zone. On 15 August 2018, [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]], declared India will independently send humans into space before the 75th [[Independence Day (India)|anniversary of independence]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/independence-day-2018-live-updates-we-will-put-an-indian-on-space-before-2022-says-narendra-modi-at-red-fort-4967431.html|title=Independence Day 2018 Live Updates: 'We will put an Indian on space before 2022,' says Narendra Modi at Red Fort|website=Firstpost.com|date=15 August 2018|access-date=2020-06-21}}</ref> In 2019, ISRO revealed plans for a [[Indian Space Station|space station]] by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission. The program envisages the development of a fully-autonomous orbital vehicle capable of carrying 2 or 3 crew members to an about {{cvt|300|km}} low Earth orbit and bringing them safely back home.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 June 2020|title=ISRO Stalls Launch of Uncrewed Gaganyaan Mission and Chandrayaan-3 Due to COVID-19|url=https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2020-06-11-isro-stalls-launch-uncrewed-gaganyaan-mission-chandrayaan-3-due-covid-19|access-date=2020-06-13|website=The Weather Channel|language=en-US}}</ref>
Since 2008, the [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] has developed the [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] cargo-spacecraft-based crewed spacecraft and [[Kibo (ISS module)|''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module]]–based small space laboratory.
[[NASA]] is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s. The first step will begin with [[Artemis 1]] in 2022, sending an uncrewed [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to a [[distant retrograde orbit]] around the Moon and returning it to Earth after a 25-day mission.
SpaceX is developing [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]], a fully reusable two stage system, with near-Earth and cislunar applications and an ultimate goal of landing on Mars. The upper stage of the Starship system, also called Starship, has had 9 atmospheric test flights as of September 2021. A [[Starship HLS|modified version]] of Starship is being developed for the [[Artemis program]].
Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs using natively developed equipment and technology, including Japan ([[JAXA]]), [[Iran]] ([[Iranian Space Agency|ISA]]), and [[North Korea]] ([[National Aerospace Development Administration|NADA]]). The plans for the [[Iranian crewed spacecraft]] are for a small spacecraft and space laboratory. [[North Korea]]'s [[National Aerospace Development Administration|space program]] has plans for crewed spacecraft and small shuttle systems.
=== National spacefaring attempts ===
: ''This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with [[List of space travelers by nationality|nations with citizens who have traveled into space]], including space tourists, flown or intending to fly by a foreign country's or non-domestic private company's space systems – who are not counted in this list toward their country's national spacefaring attempts.''
<!--
: Successfully executed programs are in '''bold'''.
: [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|Suborbital]] spaceflights are in ''italics''.
-->
{| class="wikitable"| border=2 cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;"
|- style="background:#f9f9b0;"
! Nation/Organization
! Space agency
! Term(s) for space traveler
! First launched astronaut
! Date
! Spacecraft
! Launcher
! Type
|-
| {{Flag|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics}}<br />(1922–1991)
| [[Soviet space program]]<br />([[OKB-1|OKB-1 Design Bureau]])
| космонавт (same word in:) {{in lang|ru|uk}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut<br />Ғарышкер{{in lang|kk}}
| [[Yuri Gagarin]]
| 12 April 1961
| [[Vostok spacecraft]]
| [[Vostok rocket|Vostok]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{US}}
| [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]]
| astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
| [[Alan Shepard]] (suborbital)
| 5 May 1961
| [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]]
| [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone]]
| Suborbital
|-
| {{US}}
| [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]]
| astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
| [[John Glenn]] (orbital)
| 20 February 1962
| [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]]
| [[Atlas LV-3B]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}
| —
| 1973 (abandoned)
| [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang]]
| [[Long March 2A]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}
| —
| 1981 (abandoned)
| [[Fanhui Shi Weixing|Piloted FSW]]
| [[Long March 2]]
| Orbital
|-
| [[File:ESA logo simple.svg|20px]] [[European Space Agency]]
| [[CNES]] / [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]]
| ''spationaute'' {{in lang|fr}}<br />astronaut
| —
| 1992 (abandoned)
| [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]]
| [[Ariane V]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{Flag|Russia}}<br />
| [[Roscosmos]] <br />
| космонавт {{in lang|ru}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut
| [[Alexander Viktorenko]], [[Alexander Kaleri]]
| 17 March 1992
| [[Soyuz TM-14]] to MIR
| [[Soyuz-U2]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{Flagicon|Iraq|1991}} [[Ba'athist Iraq]]<br />(1968–2003){{NoteTag|According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz]] space launcher, [[Iraq]] intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.}}
| —
| {{nativename|ar|رجل فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rajul faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|رائد فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rāʼid faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|ملاح فضائي }}<br />''mallāḥ faḍāʼiy''
| —
| 2001 (abandoned)
| —
| [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz 2 or 3]]
| {{n/a}}
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| —
| 2003 (abandoned)
| [[HOPE-X|HOPE]]
| [[H-II]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[China Manned Space Agency|China Manned Space Agency (CMSA)]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}<br />taikonaut ({{zh|labels=no|c=太空人 |p=tàikōng rén}})
| [[Yang Liwei]]
| 15 October 2003
| [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]]
| [[Long March 2F]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| {{Interlanguage link multi|Japanese Rocket Society|ja|3=日本ロケット協会|vertical-align=sup}}, [[Kawasaki Heavy Industries]] and [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| —
| 2000s (abandoned)
| [[Kankoh-maru]]
| [[Kankoh-maru]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[JAXA|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| —
| 2003 (abandoned)
| [[Fuji (spacecraft)|Fuji]]
| [[H-II]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| [[Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)]]
| Vyomanaut <br /> {{in lang|sa}}
| —
| 2023<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-manned-mission-not-before-2023-minister/articleshow/81013233.cms|title=Gaganyaan manned mission not before 2023: Minister |work=the Times of India|date=2021-02-17|author=Surendra Singh}}</ref>
| [[Gaganyaan]]
| [[Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III|GSLV Mk III]]
| Orbital
<ref>{{cite news |url = https://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/technology/four-years-is-tight-but-can-achieve-the-human-spaceflight-isros-k-sivan/65411891 |title = Four years is tight, but can achieve the human spaceflight: ISRO's K Sivan - ETtech |author = ETtech.com |newspaper = The Economic Times |language = en |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-will-put-man-in-space-for-seven-days-isro-chairman-118081500485_1.html |title= India will put man in space for seven days: ISRO Chairman |author = IANS |date = 15 August 2018 |work = Business Standard India |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref>
|-
| [[File:ESA logo simple.svg|20px]] [[European Space Agency]]
| [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]]
| astronaut
| —
| 2020 (concept approved in 2009; but full development not begun)<ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8139347.stm |work=BBC News |title=Europe targets manned spaceship |date=7 July 2009 |access-date=27 March 2010 |first=Jonathan |last=Amos }}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/05/22/223941/apollo-like-capsule-chosen-for-crew-space-transportation.html Apollo-like capsule chosen for Crew Space Transportation System], 22 May 2008</ref><ref>[http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ATV/infokit/english/Complete_Infokit_ATVreentry.pdf "Jules Verne" Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Re-entry]. Information Kit (PDF). Updated September 2008. European Space Agency. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7749761.stm |work = BBC News |title = Europe's 10bn-euro space vision |date=26 November 2008 |access-date = 27 March 2010 |first = Jonathan |last = Amos }}</ref>
| [[CSTS]], [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ARV phase-2]]
| [[Ariane V]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[JAXA|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| —
| TBD
| [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-based spacecraft]]
| [[H3 (rocket)|H3]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Iran}}
| [[Iranian Space Agency|Iranian Space Agency (ISA)]]
| —
| —
| 2019 (on hold)
| [[Iranian crewed spacecraft|ISA spacecraft]]
| TBD
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|North Korea}}
| [[National Aerospace Development Administration|National Aerospace Development Administration (NADA)]]
| —
| —
| 2020s
| [[National Aerospace Development Administration#Future projects|NADA spacecraft]]
| [[Unha|Unha 9]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Denmark}}
| [[Copenhagen Suborbitals]]
| astronaut
| —
| 2020s
| [[HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe|Tycho Brahe]]
| [[HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe|SPICA]]
| Suborbital
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Please, DO NOT INCLUDE Equador. Its human spaceflight program http://exa.ec/ESAA-PECE_files/frame.htm with first suborbital mission ESAA-01 is not based on indigenous technology. It will be one of the first paid client's missions aboard on foreign airplane-launched spacecraft [[Space Adventures Explorer|M55X+Explorer system]] that now is under development by Russian NPOM-Almaz company (former Myasishchev Bureau) according to order of British-US commercial space touristic company [[Space Adventures]].
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{{Human spaceflight timeline}}
{{Space station crew timeline}}
== Safety concerns ==
There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the hostile space environment, and those due to possible equipment malfunctions. Addressing these issues is of great importance for NASA and other space agencies before conducting the first extended crewed missions to destinations such as Mars.<ref name="williams202104">{{cite web |url=https://www.universetoday.com/149835/every-challenge-astronauts-will-face-on-a-flight-to-mars/ |title=Every Challenge Astronauts Will Face on a flight to Mars |last=Williams |first=Matt |date=Feb 4, 2021 |website=Universe Today |access-date=Feb 5, 2021}}</ref>
=== Environmental hazards ===
{{See also|Bioastronautics|Space habitat|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Locomotion in Space}}
Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.
==== Life support ====
{{Main| Life support system}}
The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the [[life support system]] of the spacecraft.
{{See also|Astronautical hygiene}}
==== Medical issues ====
{{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Sleep in space|Space medicine}}
Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment, or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on limited resources and medical advice from the ground.
The possibility of [[blindness]] and of [[Bone Loss|bone loss]] have been associated with human [[space flight]].<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=27 January 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=27 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite magazine |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities |url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=23 July 2012 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=23 July 2012 }}</ref>
On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the brains of [[astronauts]] and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last1=Cherry |first1=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |issue=12 |page=e53275 |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |pmid=23300905 |date=2012 |pmc=3534034|bibcode=2012PLoSO...753275C |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |access-date=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |author-link=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |access-date=7 January 2013 }}</ref>
In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[space exploration]], which included the potential hazards of a [[human mission to Mars]].<ref name="AP-20151029">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |title=Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html |date=29 October 2015 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=30 October 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20151029oig">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003) |url=https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY16/IG-16-003.pdf |date=29 October 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |access-date=29 October 2015 }}</ref>
On 2 November 2017, scientists reported, based on [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI studies]], that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|trips in space]]. Astronauts on longer space trips were affected by greater brain changes.<ref name="NEJM-20171102">{{cite journal |author=Roberts, Donna R. |display-authors=etal |title=Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI |date=2 November 2017 |journal=[[New England Journal of Medicine]] |volume=377 |issue=18 |pages=1746–1753 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 |pmid=29091569 |s2cid=205102116 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="QTZ-20171103">{{cite web |last=Foley |first=Katherine Ellen |title=Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls |url=https://qz.com/1119668/space-travel-changes-astronauts-brains/ |date=3 November 2017 |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |access-date=3 November 2017 }}</ref>
Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) of five ''[[Enterobacter|Enterobacter bugandensis]]'' bacterial strains, none [[pathogen]]ic to humans, that [[microorganism]]s on ISS should be carefully monitored to assure a healthy environment for [[astronaut]]s.<ref name="EA-20181122">{{cite web |author=BioMed Central |title=ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/bc-ims112018.php |date=22 November 2018 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=25 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name="BMC-20181123">{{cite journal |author=Singh, Nitin K. |display-authors=etal |title=Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains |date=23 November 2018 |journal=[[BMC Microbiology]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=175 |doi=10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2 |pmid=30466389 |pmc=6251167 }}</ref>
In March 2019, NASA reported that latent [[virus]]es in humans may be activated during space missions, possibly adding more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.<ref name="EA-20190315">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Dormant viruses activate during spaceflight -- NASA investigates - The stress of spaceflight gives viruses a holiday from immune surveillance, putting future deep-space missions in jeopardy |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/f-dva031519.php |date=15 March 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=16 March 2019 }}</ref>
On 25 September 2021, [[CNN]] reported that an alarm had sounded during the [[Inspiration4]] Earth-orbital journey on the [[SpaceX Dragon 2]]. The alarm signal was found to be associated with an apparent toilet malfunction.<ref name="CNN-20210925">{{cite news |last=Wattles |first=Jackie |title=An alarm went off on SpaceX's all-tourist space flight. The problem was the toilet |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/09/25/tech/spacex-toilet-waste-management-system-scn/index.html |date=25 September 2021 |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=25 September 2021 }}</ref>
===== Microgravity =====
{{See also|Weightlessness}}
[[File:Space fluid shift.gif|thumb|The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).]]
Medical data from astronauts in low Earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of [[bone]] density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these [[deconditioning]] effects can impair astronauts' performance or increase their risk of injury.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |title=Exploration Systems Human Research Program – Exercise Countermeasures |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |archive-date=11 October 2008 }}</ref>
In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back [[muscle]]s or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes the muscles to weaken and get smaller. Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days. The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/64249main_ffs_factsheets_hbp_atrophy.pdf|title = NASA Information: Muscle Atrophy|access-date = 20 November 2015|website = NASA}}</ref> Upon returning to Earth from [[long-duration spaceflight|long-duration]] flights, astronauts are considerably weakened and are not allowed{{by whom|date=October 2020}}<!-- is this rule USSR, USA, India, China, ... or do we have a source that indicates this is a truth for all astronauts in all nations states? --> to drive a car for twenty-one days.<ref>{{cite web|title = Earth Living Is Tough for Astronaut Used to Space|url = http://www.space.com/21413-hadfield-astronaut-health-return-earth.html|website = Space.com|date = 3 June 2013|access-date = 21 November 2015}}</ref>
Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get [[motion sickness]], and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, they have to readjust and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking, and turning. Importantly, those motor disturbances only get worse the longer the exposure to weightlessness.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=3830060&page=1 | last=Watson | first=Traci | date=11 November 2007 | title=Readjusting to gravity anti-fun for astronauts | publisher=ABC News | access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref> These changes can affect the ability to perform tasks required for approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may occur while landing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eddy|first1=D. R.|last2=Schiflett|first2=S. G.|last3=Schlegel|first3=R. E.|last4=Shehab|first4=R. L.|date=August 1998|title=Cognitive performance aboard the life and microgravity spacelab|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11541924|journal=Acta Astronautica|volume=43|issue=3–6|pages=193–210|doi=10.1016/s0094-5765(98)00154-4|issn=0094-5765|pmid=11541924|bibcode=1998AcAau..43..193E}}</ref>
In addition, after long [[space flight]] missions, male astronauts may experience severe [[visual system|eyesight]] problems, which may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a [[crewed mission]] to the planet [[Mars]].<ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal|author=Mader, T. H. |display-authors=etal |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|date=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)|Ophthalmology]] |volume=118 |issue=10|pages=2058–2069 |doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=nasapub }}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu |first=Tibi |title=Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=9 November 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |access-date=9 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">[http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN News (CNN-TV, 02/09/2012) – Video (02:14) – Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems]. Cnn.com (9 February 2012). Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests |url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=13 March 2012 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |access-date=14 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. |display-authors=etal |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging |journal=[[Radiology (journal)|Radiology]] |volume=263 |issue=3 |pages=819–27 |doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |pmid=22416248 |date=13 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite magazine |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=https://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=12 February 2014 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=12 February 2014 }}</ref> Long space flights can also alter a space traveler's eye movements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Robert |last2=Macknik |first2=Stephen |last3=Martinez-Conde |first3=Susana |title=Microsaccades in applied environments: Real-world applications of fixational eye movement measurements |journal=Journal of Eye Movement Research |date=2020 |volume=12 |issue=6 |doi=10.16910/jemr.12.6.15 |pmid=33828760 |pmc=7962687 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===== Radiation =====
{{See also|Health threat from cosmic rays}}
[[File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png|thumb|right|Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the [[Radiation assessment detector|RAD]] on the [[Mars Science Laboratory|MSL]] (2011–2013).<ref name="SCI-20130531a">{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Richard |title=Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier |date=31 May 2013 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=340 |issue=6136 |page=1031 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6136.1031 |pmid=23723213 |bibcode=2013Sci...340.1031K}}</ref>]]
Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by [[solar particle event]]s (SPEs) associated with [[solar flare]]s. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a solar storm similar to that of the most powerful in recorded history, the [[Carrington Event]], have been estimated to be able to cause [[acute radiation sickness]] and possibly even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142 |title= Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts|work=New Scientist |date=21 March 2005 |first=Stephen |last=Battersby}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Citation does not differentiate between solar flares and solar particle events.|date=December 2021}} Another storm that could have inflicted a lethal radiation dose on astronauts outside Earth's protective [[magnetosphere]] occurred during the [[Space Age]], shortly after [[Apollo 16]] landed and before [[Apollo 17]] launched.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Lockwood |first = Mike |author2 = M. Hapgood |title = The Rough Guide to the Moon and Mars |journal = Astron. Geophys. |volume = 48 |issue = 6 |pages = 11–17 |date = 2007 |doi = 10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48611.x |bibcode = 2007A&G....48f..11L |doi-access = free }}</ref> This [[solar storm of August 1972]] would likely have caused acute illness, at least.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Parsons |first = Jennifer L. |author2 = L. W. Townsend |title = Interplanetary Crew Dose Rates for the August 1972 Solar Particle Event |journal = Radiat. Res. |volume = 153 |issue = 6 |pages = 729–733 |date = 2000 |doi = 10.1667/0033-7587(2000)153[0729:ICDRFT]2.0.CO;2 |pmid = 10825747 |bibcode = 2000RadR..153..729P }}</ref>
Another type of radiation, galactic [[cosmic ray]]s, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-309-10264-3|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760 |title=Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration |publisher=NAP |date=2006}}</ref>
There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases,<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1189/jlb.0309167 |title=Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit|date=2009|last1=Gueguinou|first1=N.|last2=Huin-Schohn|first2=C.|last3=Bascove|first3=M.|last4=Bueb|first4=J.-L.|last5=Tschirhart|first5=E.|last6=Legrand-Frossi|first6=C.|last7=Frippiat|first7=J.-P.|journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1027–1038|pmid=19690292|doi-access=free}}</ref> resulting in a weakened [[immune system]] and the activation of dormant [[virus]]es in the body. [[Radiation]] can cause both short- and long-term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells from which blood and immune-system cells are created. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
===== Isolation =====
{{Further|Effect of spaceflight on the human body#Psychological effects|Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight}}
During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined in small spaces. [[Depression (mood)|Depression]], anxiety, [[cabin fever]], and other psychological problems may occur more than for an average person and could impact the crew's safety and mission success.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flynn|first=Christopher F.|date=1 June 2005|title=An Operational Approach to Long-Duration Mission Behavioral Health and Performance Factors|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/asma/asem/2005/00000076/A00106s1/art00007|journal=Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine|volume=76|issue=6|pages=B42–B51|pmid=15943194}}</ref> NASA spends millions of dollars on psychological treatments for astronauts and former astronauts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Space psychology and psychiatry |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |last1=Kanas |first1=Nick |last2=Manzey |first2=Dietrich |isbn=9781402067709 |edition=2nd |location=Dordrecht |oclc=233972618}}</ref> To date, there is no way to prevent or reduce mental problems caused by extended periods of stay in space.
Due to these mental disorders, the efficiency of astronauts' work is impaired; and sometimes they are brought back to Earth, incurring the expense of their mission being aborted.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/05/hallucinations-isolation-astronauts-mental-health-space-missions|title=Isolation and hallucinations: the mental health challenges faced by astronauts |last=Bell|first=Vaughan|date=5 October 2014|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-02-01|language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that resulted in a fear of fluid leakage; but after a thorough investigation, it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction. It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinated the smell.
It is possible that the mental health of astronauts can be affected by the changes in the sensory systems while in prolonged space travel.
===== Sensory systems =====
During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in an extreme environment. This, and the fact that little change is taking place in the environment, will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts' seven senses.
* [[Hearing]] – In the space station and spacecraft there are no noises from the outside, as there is no medium that can transmit sound waves. Although there are other team members who can talk to each other, their voices become familiar and do not stimulate the sense of hearing as much. Mechanical noises become familiar, as well.
* [[Sight]] – Because of weightlessness, the body's liquids attain an equilibrium that is different from what it is on the Earth. For this reason, an astronaut's face swells and presses on the eyes; and therefore their vision is impaired. The landscape surrounding the astronauts is constant, which lessens visual stimulations. Due to cosmic rays, astronauts may see flashes.
* [[Sense of smell|Smell]] – The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.
* [[Taste]] – The sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is dulled, the sense of taste is also. The astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten. The food comes only once every few months, when supplies arrive, and there is little or no variety.
* [[Somatosensory system|Touch]] – There are almost no stimulating changes in physical contact. There is almost no human physical contact during the journey.
* The [[vestibular system]] (motion and equilibrium system) – Due to the lack of gravity, all the movements required of the astronauts are changed, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change.
* The [[Proprioception|proprioception system]] (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) – As a result of weightlessness, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles; and there is less stimulus to this system.
=== Equipment hazards ===
Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, and consequently requires the use of high [[energy density]] propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.
==== Launch ====
{{See also| Launch escape system}}
[[File:Sts33-e204.jpg|thumb|There was no practical way for the {{OV|99}}'s crew to safely abort before the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|vehicle's violent disintegration]].]]
Since rockets have the potential for fire or explosive destruction, [[space capsule]]s generally employ some sort of [[launch escape system]], consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the [[launch vehicle]] (employed on [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]], and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]], the escape tower being discarded at some point after launch, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines), or else [[ejection seat]]s (employed on [[Vostok spacecraft|Vostok]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landings.
Such a launch escape system is not always practical for multiple-crew-member vehicles (particularly [[spaceplane]]s), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person [[Voskhod (spacecraft)|Voskhod]], the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps. The [[Space Shuttle]] carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights; but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued.
There have been only two in-flight launch aborts of a crewed flight. The first occurred on [[Soyuz 7K-T No.39|Soyuz 18a]] on 5 April 1975. The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited and the vehicle strayed off course. The crew finally managed to separate the spacecraft, firing its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket, both cosmonauts landing safely. The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of [[Soyuz MS-10]]. Again, both crew members survived.
In the first use of a launch escape system on the launchpad, before the start of a crewed flight, happened during the planned [[Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L|Soyuz T-10a]] launch on 26 September 1983, which was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff. Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely.
The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]] seal, which caused the failure of the [[Space Shuttle external tank|external fuel tank]], resulting in explosion of the fuel and separation of the boosters. All seven crew members were killed.
==== Extravehicular activity ====
Despite the ever-present risks related to mechanical failures while working in open space, no [[extravehicular activity|spacewalking astronaut]] has ever been lost. There is a requirement for spacewalking astronauts to use tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors. If those fail, a spacewalking astronaut would most probably float away impelled by forces that were acting on the astronaut at the time of breaking loose. Such an astronaut would possibly be spinning, as kicking and flailing would be of no use. At the right angle and velocity, the astronaut might even re-enter the [[Earth's atmosphere]] and burn up. [[NASA]] has protocols for such situations: astronauts would be wearing an emergency jetpack that would automatically counter any tumbling. NASA's plan states that astronauts should then take manual control of the jetpack and fly back to safety.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
However, if the jetpack's {{convert|3|lb}} of fuel runs out, and if there is no other astronaut in close proximity to help, or if the air lock is irreparably damaged, the [[space exposure|outcome would certainly be fatal]]. At this time, there is no spacecraft to save an astronaut floating in space, as the only one with a rescue-ready air-locked compartment — [[Space Shuttle retirement|the Space Shuttle]] — retired {{age|July 2011|{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}}} years ago. There is approximately a litre of water available via straw in an astronaut's helmet. The astronaut<!-- use gender-neutral language, see [[MOS:GENDER]] --> would wait roughly 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sofge |first1=Eric |title=What Happens If An Astronaut Floats Off In Space? |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-09/what-happens-if-astronaut-floats-space/ |website=Popular Science|date=30 September 2013 }}</ref>
==== Reentry and landing ====
{{See also| Atmospheric reentry}}
The single pilot of [[Soyuz 1]], [[Vladimir Komarov]], was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash.
On 1 February 2003, the crew of seven aboard the {{OV|102}} were [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|killed on reentry]] after completing a [[STS-107|successful mission in space]]. A wing-leading-edge [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] foam insulation that had broken off and struck the wing during launch. Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to the breakup of the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|orbiter vehicle]].
==== Artificial atmosphere ====
There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen and an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen–oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for [[extravehicular activity]].
The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of [[decompression sickness]] (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment. There have been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen.
* In 1960, [[McDonnell Aircraft]] test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin–space suit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his space suit feed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Giblin |first=Kelly A. |date=Spring 1998 |title =Fire in the Cockpit! |journal=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |volume=13 |issue=4 |publisher=American Heritage Publishing |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120153024/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archive-date=20 November 2008 |access-date=23 March 2011}}</ref> This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft.
* In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the {{OV|102}} at the [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010605212352/http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/chrono.html 1981 KSC Chronology Part 1 – pages 84, 85, 100; Part 2 – pages 181, 194, 195], NASA</ref>
* In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the [[Ariane 5]] launch pad at [[Guiana Space Centre]].<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_17_1995_p_EN.html "Fatal accident at the Guiana Space Centre"], ''ESA Portal'', 5 May 1993</ref>
A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of [[Apollo 1]] during a ground test at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34|Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34]] on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure, increased by the fire, prevented removal of the [[plug door]] hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three astronauts—[[Gus Grissom]], [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]], and [[Roger Chaffee]]—were killed.<ref name="SP4029">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |access-date=12 July 2013 |series=NASA History Series |orig-year=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-050631-4 |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 1 – The Fire: 27 January 1967 |chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm}}</ref> This led NASA to use a nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space.
==== Reliability ====
{{See also| Reliability engineering}}
The March 1966 [[Gemini 8]] mission was aborted in orbit when an [[attitude control system]] thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin that threatened the lives of [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]]. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a [[static electricity]] discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit.
The third lunar landing expedition, [[Apollo 13]], in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew—[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]]—were threatened after the failure of a [[cryogenic]] [[liquid oxygen]] tank en route to the Moon. The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the gradual loss of its remaining oxygen over a period of 130 minutes. This in turn caused loss of electrical power provided by [[fuel cell]]s to the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]]. The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar landing craft]] as a "life boat". The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes: the tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing, necessitating the use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test; which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication.
The crew of [[Soyuz 11]] were killed on 30 June 1971 by a combination of mechanical malfunctions; the crew were [[asphyxia]]ted due to cabin decompression following separation of their descent capsule from the service module. A cabin ventilation valve had been jolted open at an altitude of {{convert|168|km}} by the stronger-than-expected shock of explosive separation bolts, which were designed to fire sequentially, but in fact had fired simultaneously. The loss of pressure became fatal within about 30 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|title=The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project|access-date=20 October 2007|publisher=NASA|year=1974|author=NASA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|archive-date=23 August 2007}}</ref>
=== Fatality risk ===
{{Further|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents}}
{{As of|2015|December}}, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Date
!Mission
!Accident cause
!Deaths
!Cause of death
|-
| 27 January 1967
| [[Apollo 1]]
| Electrical fire in cabin, spread quickly by {{convert|16.7|psi|bar|abbr=on}} pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove [[plug door]] hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot
| style="text-align: center;" | 3
| [[Cardiac arrest]] from [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning
|-
| 15 November 1967
| [[X-15 Flight 3-65-97]]
| The accident board found that the cockpit instrumentation had been functioning properly, and concluded that pilot [[Michael J. Adams]] had lost control of the X-15 as a result of a combination of distraction, misinterpretation of his instrumentation display, and possible [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]]. The electrical disturbance early in the flight degraded the overall effectiveness of the aircraft's control system and further added to pilot workload.
| style="text-align: center;"| 1
| Vehicle breakup
|-
| 24 April 1967
| [[Soyuz 1]]
| Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and entanglement of reserve parachute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitating emergency abort
| style="text-align: center;"| 1
| [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash landing
|-
| 30 June 1971
| [[Soyuz 11]]
| Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry
| style="text-align: center;"| 3
| [[Asphyxia]]
|-
| 28 January 1986
| [[STS-51L]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']]
| Failure of [[O-ring]] inter-segment seal in one [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Booster]] in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]]; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces
| style="text-align: center;"| 7
| Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |title=Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |archive-date=3 January 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| 1 February 2003
| [[STS-107]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']]
| Damaged [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by piece of [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]] foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of wing, loss of control and disintegration of orbiter
| style="text-align: center;"| 7
| Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<ref>{{cite web |title=Columbia Crew Survival Investigation Report |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf |website=NASA.gov |publisher=NASA}}</ref>
|-
| 31 October 2014
| [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Enterprise crash|VSS ''Enterprise'' powered drop-test]]
| Copilot error: premature deployment of "[[Feathering (reentry)|feathering]]" descent air-braking system caused disintegration of vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died
| style="text-align: center;"| 1
| [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash
|}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
* [[List of human spaceflight programs]]
* [[List of human spaceflights]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 1961–1970|1961-1970]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 1971–1980|1971-1980]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 1981–1990|1981-1990]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 1991–2000|1991-2000]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 2001–2010|2001-2010]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 2011–present|2011-2020]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 2021–present|2021-present]]
* [[List of spaceflight records]]
* [[List of crewed spacecraft]]
* [[Animals in space]]
* [[Monkeys and apes in space]]
* [[Crewed Mars rover]]
* [[Commercial astronaut]]
* [[Mars to Stay]]
* [[NewSpace]]
* [[Space medicine]]
* [[Tourism on the Moon]]
* [[Women in space]]
== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* Darling, David. ''The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity''. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, {{ISBN|0-471-05649-9}}.
* Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-7091-0666-2}}.
* Larson, Wiley J. (ed.). ''Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design''. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, {{ISBN|0-07-236811-X}}.
*
* Pyle, Rod. ''Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International Partners are Creating a New Space Age'' (2019), overview of space exploration [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1944648453/ excerpt]
* Spencer, Brett. "The Book and th
* Reneau, Allyson (ed.). ''Moon First and Mars Second: A Practical Approach to Human Space Exploration'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Moon-First-Mars-Second-SpringerBriefs/dp/3030542297/ excerpt]
* Smith, Michael G., Michelle Kelley, and Mathias Basner. "A brief history of spaceflight from 1961 to 2020: An analysis of missions and astronaut demographics." ''Acta Astronautica'' 175 (2020): 290–299.
== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/ NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070802015842/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight Human Spaceflight Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
* [http://www.nasaconstellation.com Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190404044029/http://spaceflighthistory.com/ U.S. Spaceflight History]
{{Future spaceflights}}
{{Crewed spacecraft}}
{{Public sector space agencies}}
{{Spaceflight}}
{{NASA space program}}
{{Russian space program}}
{{Inspace}}
{{Space exploration lists and timelines}}
{{Solar System}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Human Spaceflight}}
[[Category:Human spaceflight| ]]
[[Category:Spaceflight]]
[[Category:Space policy]]
[[Category:Life in space]]
[[Category:1961 introductions]]'
|
New page wikitext, after the edit ($1) (new_wikitext) |
'{{short description|Space travel by humans}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2020}}
{{Spaceflight sidebar}}
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 250
| image1 = Aldrin Apollo 11 original.jpg
| image2 = FirstSpaceWalk.png
| image3 = Ed White First American Spacewalker - GPN-2000-001180.jpg
| image4 = ISS-32 American EVA b3 Aki Hoshide.jpg
| image5 = Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg
| caption1 = [[Apollo 11]] astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon, 1969
| caption2 = [[Voskhod 2]] cosmonaut [[Alexei Leonov]], first in open space, 1965
| caption3 = [[Gemini 4]] astronaut [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]] in open space, 1965
| caption4 = [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] astronaut [[Akihiko Hoshide]] taking a [[space selfie]] in 2012
| caption5 = [[International Space Station]] crewmember [[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] views the Earth, 2010
| total_width =
| alt1 =
}}
'''Human spaceflight''' (also referred to as '''manned spaceflight''' or '''crewed spaceflight''') is [[spaceflight]] with a crew or passengers aboard a [[spacecraft]], often with the spacecraft being operated directly by the onboard human crew. Spacecraft can also be [[telerobotic|remotely operated]] from ground stations on Earth, or [[Autonomous robot|autonomously]], without any direct human involvement. People trained for spaceflight are called [[astronaut]]s (American or other), ''cosmonauts'' (Russian), or ''taikonauts'' (Chinese); and non-professionals are referred to as [[spaceflight participant]]s or ''spacefarers''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mars|first=Kelli|date=2018-03-27|title=5 Hazards of Human Spaceflight|url=http://www.nasa.gov/hrp/5-hazards-of-human-spaceflight|access-date=2022-02-09|website=NASA}}</ref>
The first human in space was [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]], who launched on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]] as part of the Soviet Union's [[Vostok program]]. This was towards the beginning of the [[Space Race]]. On 5 May 1961, [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space, as part of [[Project Mercury]]. Humans traveled to [[the Moon]] nine times between 1968 and 1972 as part of the United States' [[Apollo program]], and have had a continuous presence in space for {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}} on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS).<ref>{{cite web |title=Counting the Many Ways the International Space Station Benefits Humanity |date=5 April 2019 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity |access-date=4 May 2019}}</ref> As of 2021, humans have not traveled beyond [[low Earth orbit]] since the [[Apollo 17]] [[List of missions to the Moon|lunar mission]] in December 1972.
Currently, the United States, Russia, and China are the only countries with [[List of human spaceflight programs|public or commercial human spaceflight-capable programs]]. On 15 October 2003, the first Chinese taikonaut, [[Yang Liwei]], went to space as part of [[Shenzhou 5]]. [[List of private spaceflight companies|Non-governmental spaceflight companies]] have been working to develop human space programs of their own, e.g. for [[space tourism]] or commercial [[Space research|in-space research]]. The first private human spaceflight launch was a [[suborbital flight]] on [[SpaceShipOne]] on June 21, 2004. The first commercial [[Orbital spaceflight|orbital]] crew launch was by [[SpaceX]] in May 2020, transporting, under United States government contract, [[NASA]] astronauts to the [[ISS]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=SpaceX Astronauts Reach Space Station After Milestone Voyage|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-30/spacex-set-to-retry-historic-rocket-launch-after-weather-delay|access-date=2020-06-16|website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref>
== History ==
{{Main|History of spaceflight}}
[[Malaysia]]
After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on Proje.ct Mercury, with the aim of launching men into orbit. The USSR was secretly pursuing the Vostok program to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who, on 12 April 1961, was launched aboard Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket and completed a single orbit. On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight aboard ''Freedom 7'' on a Mercury-Redstone rocket. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecraft's attitude. On 20 February 1962, John Glenn became the first American in orbit, aboard ''Friendship 7'' on a Mercury-Atlas rocket. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6, on 16 June 1963. Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit. The US also made two North American X-15 flights (90 and 91, piloted by Joseph A. Walker) that exceeded the Kármán line, the {{convert|100|km}} altitude used by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) to denote the edge of space.
In 1961, US President John F. Kennedy raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s. That same year, the US began the Apollo program of launching three-man capsules atop the Saturn family of launch vehicles to accomplish this; and, in 1962, began Project Gemini, which, in 1965 and 1966, flew 10 missions with two-man crews launched by Titan II rockets, Gemini's objective being to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used during the Moon mission.
Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule by adapting it to a two or three-person Voskhod capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, performed by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2 on 8 March 1965. However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not achieve the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks, solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by compensating for the lack of gravity, demonstrating the ability of humans to endure two weeks in space, and performing the first space rendezvous and docking of spacecraft.
The US succeeded in developing the Saturn V rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders into 10 orbits around the Moon in Apollo 8 in December 1968. In July 1969, Apollo 11 accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot Michael Collins. Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove electric powered vehicles on the surface. The crew of Apollo 13—
[[Jim Lovell|ell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]]—survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, orbited the Moon without landing, and returned safely to Earth.[[File:Salyut 1 and Soyuz drawing.png|thumb|Salyut 1, first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraft]]
Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs. They successfully developed the three-person Soyuz spacecraft for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the N1 rocket necessary for a human landing, discontinuing their lunar programs in 1974. Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of space stations, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.
==== Post-Apollo era ====
[[File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|Artist's rendering of an Apollo CSM is about to dock with a Soyuz spacecraft.]]
In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious Space Transportation System based on a reusable Space Shuttle, which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger kerosene-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the o launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable space tug; and nuclear interplanetary ferry, leading to a human expedition to Mars as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly back booster with two reusable solid rocket boosters, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable external propellant tank to feed its hydrogen-fueled main engines. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.
[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|Space Shuttle orbiter, first crewed orbital spaceplane]]
In 1973, the US launched the Skylab sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard Apollo spacecraft. During that time, President Richard Nixon and Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev were negotiating an easing of Cold War tensions known as détente. As part of this, they negotiated the Apollo-Soyuz program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with Soyuz 19 in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely symbolic.
The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, which was dubbed ''Freedom''. The USSR launched three Almaz military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''Mir'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of , at an orbital inclination of 51.6°. It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001.
The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Space Station Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''Columbia'', ''Challenger'', ''Discovery'', and ''Atlantis''. A fifth shuttle, ''Endeavour'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in an accident during launch that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a European Space Agency sortie space station called Spacelab in the Shuttle payload bay.
[[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|''Buran''-class orbiter, Soviet equivalent of the Space Shuttle orbiter]]
The USSR copied the US's reusable Space Shuttle orbiter, which they called ''Buran''-class orbiter or simply ''Buran'', which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable Energia rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the Space Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter it used smaller rocket engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.
=== US / Russian cooperation ===
[[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|right|International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and Russia]]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the [[Roscosmos State Corporation]]. The [[Shuttle-Mir Program]] included American Space Shuttles visiting the ''Mir'' space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard ''Mir''.
In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station ''Freedom'' into the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). Construction of the station began in 1998. The station orbits at an altitude of {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us}} and an orbital inclination of 51.65°. Several of the Space Shuttle's 135 orbital flights were to help assemble, supply, and crew the ISS. Russia has built half of the International Space Station and has continued its cooperation with the US.
=== China ===
{{Main|China Manned Space Program}}
[[File:Maquette d'un vaisseau Shenzhou.jpg|thumb|right|[[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou]], first non-USSR and non-USA spacecraft]]
China was the third nation in the world, after the USSR and USA, to send humans into space. During the [[Space Race]] between the two superpowers, which culminated with [[Apollo 11]] landing humans on the Moon, [[Mao Zedong]] and [[Zhou Enlai]] decided on 14 July 1967 that China should not be left behind, and initiated their own crewed space program: the top-secret Project 714, which aimed to put two people into space by 1973 with the [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang]] spacecraft. Nineteen [[PLAAF]] pilots were selected for this goal in March 1971. The Shuguang-1 spacecraft, to be launched with the [[CZ-2A]] rocket, was designed to carry a crew of two. The program was officially cancelled on 13 May 1972 for economic reasons.
In 1992, under [[China Manned Space Program]] (CMS), also known as "Project 921", authorization and funding was given for the first phase of a third, successful attempt at crewed spaceflight. To achieve independent human spaceflight capability, China developed [[Shenzhou spacecraft]] and [[Long March 2F]] rocket dedicated for human spaceflight in the next few years, along with critical infrastructures like new launch site and flight control center being built. The first uncrewed spacecraft, ''[[Shenzhou 1]]'', was launched on 20 November 1999 and recovered the next day, marking the first step of the realization of China's human spaceflight capability. Three more uncrewed missions were conducted in the next few years in order to verify the key technologies. On 15 October 2003 ''[[Shenzhou 5]]'', China's first crewed spaceflight mission, put ''[[Yang Liwei]]'' in orbit for 21 hours and returned safely back to [[Inner Mongolia]], making China the third nation to launch a human into orbit independently.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shenzhou V |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouv/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>
The goal of the second phase of CMS was to make technology breakthroughs in [[extravehicular activities]] (EVA, or spacewalk) as well as [[space rendezvous]] and [[Docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]] to support short-term human activities in space.<ref name="aboutCMS">{{cite web |title=About CMS |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/aboutcms/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> On 25 September 2008 during the flight of ''[[Shenzhou 7]]'', ''[[Zhai Zhigang]]'' and ''[[Liu Boming (astronaut)|Liu Boming]]'' completed China's first EVA.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shenzhou VII |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouvii/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> In 2011, China launched the [[Tiangong 1]] target spacecraft and ''[[Shenzhou 8]]'' uncrewed spacecraft. The two spacecraft completed China's first automatic rendezvous and docking on 3 November 2011.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shenzhou VIII |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouviii/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> About 9 months later, ''Tiangong 1'' completed the first manual rendezvous and docking with ''[[Shenzhou 9]]'', which carried China's first female astronaut ''[[Liu Yang (astronaut)|Liu Yang]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shenzhou IX |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouix/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>
In September 2016, ''[[Tiangong 2]]'' was launched into the orbit. It was a space laboratory with more advanced functions and equipment than ''Tiangong 1''. A month later, ''[[Shenzhou 11]]'' was launched and docked with ''Tiangong 2''. Two astronauts entered ''Tiangong 2'' and stationed for about 30 days and verified the viability of astronauts' medium-term stay in space.<ref name="spacelab">{{cite web |title=Space Laboratory Missions |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/space_laboratory_missions/ |website=China Manned Space |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> In April 2017, China's first cargo spacecraft, ''[[Tianzhou 1]]'' docked with ''Tiangong 2'' and completed multiple in-orbit propellant refueling tests, which marked the successful completion of the second phase of CMS.<ref name="spacelab"/>
The third phase of CMS bagan in 2020. The goal of this phase is to build China's own space station, [[Tiangong Space Station|''Tiangong'']].<ref>{{cite web |title=China launches new Long March-5B rocket for space station program |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202005/t20200506_46488.html |website=China Manned Space |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617054112/http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202005/t20200506_46488.html |archive-date=17 June 2021 |date=5 May 2020}}</ref> The first module of ''Tiangong'', the [[Tianhe core module]], was launched into orbit by China's most powerful rocket [[Long March 5B]] on 29 April 2021.<ref name="third step">{{cite web |title=Core Module Tianhe Launch a Complete Success -- Construction of China Space Station in Full Swing |url=http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202105/t20210528_48002.html |website=China Manned Space |access-date=26 July 2021 |date=30 April 2021}}</ref> It was later visited by multiple cargo and crewed spacecraft and demonstrated China's capability of sustaining Chinese astronauts' long-term stay in space.
According to CMS announcement, all missions of Tiangong Space Station are scheduled to be carried out by the end of 2022.<ref name="CSSplan">{{cite web |title=空间站天和核心舱飞行任务新闻发布会召开 |url=http://www.cmse.gov.cn/ztbd/xwfbh/202106/t20210622_48281.html |website=China Manned Space |access-date=2021-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713065620/http://www.cmse.gov.cn/ztbd/xwfbh/202106/t20210622_48281.html |archive-date=2021-07-13 |date=2021-04-29 |url-status=live |language=zh}}</ref> Once the construction is completed, ''Tiangong'' will enter the application and development phase, which is poised to last for no less than 10 years.<ref name="CSSplan"/>
=== Abandoned programs of other nations ===
The [[European Space Agency]] began development of the [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]] shuttle [[spaceplane]] in 1987, to be launched on the [[Ariane 5]] expendable launch vehicle. It was intended to dock with the European [[Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer|Columbus space station]]. The projects were canceled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built. The Columbus space station was reconfigured as the [[Columbus (ISS module)|European module of the same name]] on the International Space Station.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}
Japan ([[NASDA]]) began development of the [[HOPE-X]] experimental shuttle spaceplane in the 1980s, to be launched on its [[H-IIA]] expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reductions, and the project's cancellation in 2003 in favor of participation in the International Space Station program through the [[Kibo (ISS module)|''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module]] and [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] cargo spacecraft. As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the [[Fuji (spacecraft)|Fuji crew capsule]] for independent or ISS flights, but the project did not proceed to the contracting stage.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}
From 1993 to 1997, the {{Interlanguage link multi|Japanese Rocket Society|ja|3=日本ロケット協会|vertical-align=sup}}, [[Kawasaki Heavy Industries]], and [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]] worked on the proposed [[Kankoh-maru]] [[vertical takeoff and landing|vertical-takeoff-and-landing]] [[single-stage-to-orbit]] reusable launch system. In 2005, this system was proposed for space tourism.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}
According to a press release from the [[Iraqi News Agency]] dated 5 December 1989, there was only one test of the [[Al-Abid]] space launcher, which [[Iraq]] intended to use to develop its own crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hardships that followed.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}
=== United States "Shuttle gap" ===
[[File:STS-135 begins takeoff (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[STS-135]] (July 2011), the final human spaceflight of the United States until 2018]]
[[File:Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo "Unity" rollout 19Feb2016, FAITH hangar, Mojave, California.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[VSS Unity|VSS ''Unity'']] [[VSS Unity VP-03|Flight VP-03]] December 2018, the first human spaceflight from the United States since [[STS-135]] ]]
Under the Bush administration, the [[Constellation program]] included plans for retiring the Space Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the [[2011 United States federal budget]], the Obama administration canceled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<ref>[http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html Congressional watchdog finds NASA's new rocket is in trouble] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129102151/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html |date=29 November 2011 }}. Orlando Sentinel blog summary of official reports. 3 November 2008</ref> As part of the [[Artemis program]], NASA is developing the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to be launched by the [[Space Launch System]]. Under the [[Commercial Crew Development]] plan, NASA relies on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low Earth orbit, such as [[SpaceX Dragon 2]], the [[Boeing Starliner]] or [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]]'s [[Dream Chaser]]. The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch into space of [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Unity VP-03|Flight VP-03]] on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of [[Apollo program|Apollo]] in 1975 and the [[STS-1|first Space Shuttle flight]] in 1981, and is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.
=== Commercial private spaceflight ===
[[File:SpaceShipOne Flight 15P photo D Ramey Logan.jpg|thumb|[[SpaceShipOne]], first private sub-orbital spaceplane]]
[[File:Crew Dragon at the ISS for Demo Mission 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Crew Dragon]], first private orbital spacecraft]]
Since the early 2000s, a variety of [[private spaceflight]] ventures have been undertaken. As of May 2021, [[SpaceX]] has launched humans to orbit, while [[Virgin Galactic]] has launched crew to a height above {{cvt|80|km}} on a suborbital trajectory.<ref name="spaceshiptwoflight">{{cite web |last=Malik |first= Tariq |title=Virgin Galactic's 4th Powered Test Flight of SpaceShipTwo Unity in Twitter Posts |url=https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html |date=13 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427085514/https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html |archive-date=27 April 2021 |website=[[Space.com]] |access-date=13 May 2021}}</ref> Several other companies—including [[Blue Origin]] and [[Sierra Nevada Corporation|Sierra Nevada]]—develop crewed spacecraft. All four companies plan to fly commercial passengers in the emerging [[space tourism]] market.
[[SpaceX]] has developed [[Crew Dragon]] flying on [[Falcon 9]]. It first launched astronauts to orbit and to the ISS in May 2020 as part of the [[Crew Dragon Demo-2|Demo-2]] mission. Developed as part of NASA's [[Commercial Crew Development]] program, the capsule is also available for flights with other customers. A first tourist mission, [[Inspiration4]], launched in September 2021.<ref name=Inspiration4>{{cite web |last1=Atkinson |first1=Ian |title=SpaceX launches Inspiration4, first all-private orbital mission |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/09/spacex-launch-inspiration4/ |website=NASASpaceflight.com |date=15 September 2021 |access-date=16 September 2021}}</ref>
[[Boeing Defense, Space & Security|Boeing]] is developing the [[Boeing Starliner|Starliner]] capsule as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, which is launched on a [[United Launch Alliance]] [[Atlas V]] launch vehicle.<ref name=nasaAnnounce20140906>{{cite web |title=American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil |last=Bolden |first=Charlie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/ |website=NASA.gov |access-date=16 September 2014}}</ref> Starliner made an uncrewed flight in December 2019. A second uncrewed flight attempt was scrubbed in August 2021, with a NASA official saying it would likely not launch until 2022.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Stephen |title=NASA official says Starliner demo mission not likely to launch until next year |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2021/09/22/nasa-official-says-starliner-demo-mission-not-likely-to-launch-until-next-year/ |website=Spaceflight Now |access-date=23 September 2021}}</ref> A crewed flight is not expected before the second half of 2022.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |title=Boeing to ground Starliner indefinitely until valve issue solved |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/08/boeing-to-ground-starliner-indefinitely-until-valve-issue-solved/ |website=Ars Technica |date=13 August 2021 |access-date=16 September 2021}}</ref> Similar to SpaceX, development funding has been provided by a mix of [[government funding|government]] and [[private capital|private]] funds.<ref name=sn20140921>{{cite news |last1=Foust|first1=Jeff |title=NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140921132432/http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 September 2014 |access-date=21 September 2014 |work=Space News |date=19 September 2014 |quote="We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given", Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. "Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that".}}</ref><ref name=NASApress20140916>{{cite web |title=RELEASE 14-256 NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international |website=www.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |access-date=29 October 2014}}</ref>
[[Virgin Galactic]] is developing [[SpaceshipTwo]], a commercial [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] spacecraft aimed at the [[space tourism]] market. It reached space in December 2018.<ref name="spaceshiptwoflight"/>
[[Blue Origin]] is in a multi-year [[flight test|test]] program of their [[New Shepard]] vehicle and has carried out 16 uncrewed test flights as of September 2021, and one crewed flight carrying founder [[Jeff Bezos]], his brother [[Mark Bezos]], aviator [[Wally Funk]], and 18-year old [[Oliver Daemen]] on July 20, 2021.
== Passenger travel via spacecraft ==
Over the decades, a number of spacecraft have been proposed for spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by [[airliner]] after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to [[space transport|transport]] large numbers of passengers to destinations in space, or on Earth via [[suborbital spaceflight]]s. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the [[test flight]] phase of their development process.
One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the [[SpaceX Starship]], which, in addition to replacing the [[Falcon 9]] and [[Falcon Heavy]] [[launch vehicle]]s in the legacy Earth-orbit [[Space launch market competition|market]] after 2020, has been proposed by SpaceX for long-distance commercial travel on Earth, flying 100+ people suborbitally between two points in under one hour, also known as "Earth-to-Earth".<ref name=rollingstone20171115>{{cite magazine|last1=Strauss|first1=Neil|title=Elon Musk: The Architect of Tomorrow|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747|access-date=15 November 2017|magazine=Rolling Stone|date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=sxEarthToEarth201709>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0 Starship Earth to Earth], SpaceX, 28 September 2017, accessed 23 December 2017.</ref><ref name=sn20171015c>{{cite news |last=Foust|first=Jeff |url=http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |title=Musk offers more technical details on BFR system |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=15 October 2017 |access-date=15 October 2017 |quote=[the] spaceship portion of the BFR, which would transport people on point-to-point suborbital flights or on missions to the moon or Mars, will be tested on Earth first in a series of short hops. ... a full-scale Ship doing short hops of a few hundred kilometers altitude and lateral distance ... fairly easy on the vehicle, as no heat shield is needed, we can have a large amount of reserve propellant and don't need the high area ratio, deep space Raptor engines.}}</ref>
Small [[spaceplane]] or small [[space capsule|capsule]] suborbital spacecraft have been under development for the past decade or so; {{asof|2017|lc=y}}, at least one of each type is under development. Both [[Virgin Galactic]] and [[Blue Origin]] have craft in active [[new product development|development]]: the [[SpaceShipTwo]] spaceplane and the [[New Shepard]] capsule, respectively. Both would carry approximately a half-dozen passengers up to space for a brief time of zero gravity before returning to the launch location. [[XCOR Aerospace]] had been developing the [[Lynx (spacecraft)|Lynx single-passenger spaceplane]] since the 2000s,<ref>(2012) [http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ SXC - Buying your tickets into space!] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306043002/http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ |date=6 March 2013 }} SXC web page, Retrieved 5 April 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Staff writers | title = Space Expedition Corporation Announces Wet Lease of XCOR Lynx Suborbital | work = Space Media Network Promotions | publisher = Space-Travel.com | date = 6 October 2010 | url = http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Space_Experience_Curacao_Announces_Wet_Lease_of_XCOR_Lynx_Suborbital_999.html | access-date = 6 October 2010 }}</ref> but development was halted in 2017.<ref name=sn20171109>{{cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |title=XCOR Aerospace Files for Bankruptcy |url=http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/ |date=9 November 2017 |work=[[SpaceNews]] |access-date=13 May 2021}}</ref>
== Human representation and participation ==
{{See also|Space law|Human presence in space|Space colonization|Human outpost}}
Participation and representation of humanity in space has been an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration.<ref name="Durrani"/> Some rights of non-spacefaring countries have been secured through international [[space law]], declaring space the "[[Common heritage of mankind|province of all mankind]]", though the sharing of space by all humanity is sometimes criticized as [[imperialism|imperialist]] and lacking.<ref name="Durrani">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/ |title=Is Spaceflight Colonialism? |author=Haris Durrani |access-date=2 October 2020 |date=19 July 2019}}</ref> In addition to the lack of international inclusion, the inclusion of women and [[people of color]] has also been lacking. To make spaceflight more inclusive, organizations such as the ''Justspace Alliance''<ref name="Durrani"/> and [[IAU]]-featured ''Inclusive Astronomy''<ref>[https://www.inclusiveastronomy.org Website of the IAU100 ''Inclusive Astronomy'' project]</ref> have been formed in recent years.
===Women===
{{Main|Women in space}}
The first woman to ever enter space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]]. She flew in 1963, but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space. At the time, all astronauts were required to be military test pilots; women were not able to enter this career, which is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sinelschikova|first=Yekaterina|date=2020-12-03|title=Why NASA astronauts would not pass the Soviet and Russian selection process|url=https://www.rbth.com/science-and-tech/333087-nasa-soviet-space-selection|access-date=2021-05-23|website=www.rbth.com|language=en-US}}</ref> After the rules were changed, [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the second woman to enter space; she was also from the [[Soviet Union]]. [[Sally Ride]] became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program.
Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. The first all-female space walk occurred in 2018, by [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]]. These two women had both participated in separate space walks with NASA. The first mission to the Moon with a woman aboard is planned for 2024.
Despite these developments, women are still underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs, and limit the space missions they are able to go on, are, for example:
* agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, due to suppositions that women are at greater potential risk for cancer.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.space.com/22252-women-astronauts-radiation-risk.html | title = Female Astronauts Face Discrimination from Space Radiation Concerns, Astronauts Say | first = Miriam | last = Kramer | date = 27 August 2013 | access-date = 7 January 2017 | work = Space.com | publisher = Purch}}</ref>
* a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts.<ref name="clothing">{{cite magazine |last=Sokolowski |first=Susan L.|title= Female astronauts: How performance products like space suits and bras are designed to pave the way for women's accomplishments|url=https://theconversation.com/female-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346 |date=5 April 2019 | magazine =The Conversation |access-date=10 May 2020 }}</ref>
== Milestones ==
=== By achievement ===
; 12 April 1961
: [[Yuri Gagarin]] was the first human in space and the first in Earth orbit, on [[Vostok 1]].
; 17 July 1962 or 19 July 1963
: Either [[Robert Michael White|Robert M. White]] or [[Joseph A. Walker]] (depending on the definition of the [[space border]]) was the first to pilot a [[spaceplane]], the [[North American X-15]], on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker).
; 18 March 1965
: [[Alexei Leonov]] was first to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]].
; 15 December 1965
: [[Walter M. Schirra]] and [[Thomas P. Stafford|Tom Stafford]] were first to perform a [[space rendezvous]], piloting their [[Gemini 6A]] spacecraft to achieve [[Orbital station-keeping|station-keeping]] one foot (30 cm) from [[Gemini 7]] for over 5 hours.
; 16 March 1966
: [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]] were first to [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|rendezvous and dock]], piloting their [[Gemini 8]] spacecraft to dock with an uncrewed [[Agena Target Vehicle]].
; 21–27 December 1968
: [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] were first to travel beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and first to orbit the Moon, on the [[Apollo 8]] mission, which orbited the Moon ten times before returning to Earth.
; 26 May 1969
: Apollo 10 reaches the fastest speed ever traveled by a human: 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph), or roughly 1/27,000 of [[lightspeed]].
; 20 July 1969
: Neil Armstrong and [[Buzz Aldrin]] were first to land on the Moon, during [[Apollo 11]].
; Longest time in space
: [[Valeri Polyakov]] performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days, 17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds). [[Gennady Padalka]] has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days.
; Longest-duration crewed space station
:The [[International Space Station]] has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present ({{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}}). This record was previously held by [[Mir]], from [[Soyuz TM-8]] on 5 September 1989 to the [[Soyuz TM-29]] on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,644 days (almost 10 years).
=== By nationality or sex ===
; 12 April 1961
: [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first Soviet and the first human to reach space, on [[Vostok 1]].
; 5 May 1961
: [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American to reach space, on ''[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]]''.
; 20 February 1962
: [[John Glenn]] became the first American to orbit the Earth.
; 16 June 1963
: [[Valentina Tereshkova]] became the first woman to go into space and to orbit the Earth.
; 2 March 1978
: [[Vladimír Remek]], a [[Czechoslovakia]]n, became the first non-American and non-Soviet in space, as part of the [[Interkosmos]] program.
; 2 April 1984
: [[Rakesh Sharma]], became the first Indian citizen to reach Earth's orbit.
; 25 July 1984
: [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the first woman to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]].
; 15 October 2003
: [[Yang Liwei]] became the first Chinese in space and to orbit the Earth, on [[Shenzhou 5]].
; 18 October 2019
: [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]] conducted the first woman-only [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/10/18/nasa-astronauts-wrap-up-historic-all-woman-spacewalk/ | title=NASA Astronauts Wrap Up Historic All-Woman Spacewalk | date=18 October 2019 | first=Mark | last=Garcia | publisher=NASA | access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref>
[[Sally Ride]] became the first American woman in space, in 1983. [[Eileen Collins]] was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission [[STS-93]] in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft.
For many years, only the USSR (later Russia) and the United States were the only countries whose astronauts flew in space. That ended with the 1978 flight of Vladimir Remek. {{As of|2010}}, citizens from 38 nations (including [[space tourism|space tourists]]) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft.
== Space programs ==
{{Main list|List of human spaceflight programs}}
{{redirect|Astronaut corps|subdivision of NASA|NASA Astronaut Corps}}
Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the Soviet Union–Russian Federation, the United States, [[Mainland China]], and by American [[private spaceflight]] companies.
{{human spaceflight capability}}
===Current programs===
{{Space_station_size_comparison}}
The following space vehicles and [[spaceport]]s are currently used for launching human spaceflights:
* [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz program]] (Russia): spacecraft on [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz launch vehicle]], from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]]; 146 crewed orbital flights since 1967, including two in-flight aborts which failed to reach orbit, {{As of|alt=as of the end of April 2021|2021|April}}.
* [[China Manned Space Program]] (China): [[Shenzhou spacecraft]] on [[Long March (rocket family)|Long March launch vehicle]], from [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]]; eight crewed orbital flights since 2003, {{As of|alt=as of October 2021|2021|October}}.
* [[SpaceShipTwo]] (US): Air launched from [[Scaled Composites White Knight Two|White Knight Two]] carrier aircraft. The first two flights were from the [[Mojave Air and Space Port]], with subsequent flights from [[Spaceport America]]. Four crewed suborbital flights since 2018, as of the end of July 2021.
* [[Crew Dragon]] (US): Launched from [[Kennedy Space Center]] on a [[Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9]] rocket. Four crewed orbital flights as of September 2021, both privately funded and as part of the [[Commercial Crew Program]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Test of SpaceX Crew Dragon|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-america-in-historic-test-flight-of-spacex-crew-dragon|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2020-05-30|website=NASA|access-date=2020-05-31}}</ref><ref name=Inspiration4/>
*[[New Shepard]] (US): Launched from a facility near [[Van Horn, Texas]]. Three crewed suborbital launches as of December 2021.
The following [[space stations]] are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation:
* [[International Space Station]] (US, Russia, Europe, Japan, Canada) assembled in orbit: altitude {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}, 51.65° orbital inclination; crews transported by Soyuz or Crew Dragon spacecraft
* [[Tiangong Space Station]] (China) assembled in orbit: 41.5° orbital inclination;<ref>{{cite web |last1=McDowell |first1=Jonathan |title=Jonathan's Space Report No. 792 |url=https://planet4589.org/space/jsr/back/news.792.txt |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> crews transported by Shenzhou spacecraft
Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, which generally has a crew of 7 except during crew transitions, and those aboard Tiangong, which has a crew of 3.
[[NASA]] and [[ESA]] use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions", though because of gender specificity this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/styleguide.html |title=Style Guide |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=6 January 2016}}</ref>
===Planned future programs===
Under the [[Indian Human Spaceflight Programme|Indian Human Spaceflight Program]], India was planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle [[Gaganyaan]] before August 2022, but it has been delayed to 2023, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Scientists Discuss Indian Manned Space Mission|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/update/07-nov-2006/scientists-discuss-indian-manned-space-mission|publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation|date=2006-11-07}}</ref><ref name="Kadursrinivas 2017">{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Mukund Kadursrinivas |last2=Murthi |first2=Sridhara, K. R. |last3=Prasad M. Y. S. |title=The Decision for Indian Human Spaceflight Programme – Political Perspectives, National Relevance and Technological Challenges |url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1359/1/2017-MK-Rao-IAC-17-B3-1-9-IndianHumanSpaceFlightFullPaper.pdf |publisher= International Astronautical Federation}}</ref> The initial objective is to carry a crew of two or three to [[low Earth orbit]] (LEO) for a 3-to-7-day flight in a [[ISRO Orbital Vehicle|spacecraft]] on a [[GSLV Mk III]] rocket and return them safely for a water landing at a predefined landing zone. On 15 August 2018, [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]], declared India will independently send humans into space before the 75th [[Independence Day (India)|anniversary of independence]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/independence-day-2018-live-updates-we-will-put-an-indian-on-space-before-2022-says-narendra-modi-at-red-fort-4967431.html|title=Independence Day 2018 Live Updates: 'We will put an Indian on space before 2022,' says Narendra Modi at Red Fort|website=Firstpost.com|date=15 August 2018|access-date=2020-06-21}}</ref> In 2019, ISRO revealed plans for a [[Indian Space Station|space station]] by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission. The program envisages the development of a fully-autonomous orbital vehicle capable of carrying 2 or 3 crew members to an about {{cvt|300|km}} low Earth orbit and bringing them safely back home.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 June 2020|title=ISRO Stalls Launch of Uncrewed Gaganyaan Mission and Chandrayaan-3 Due to COVID-19|url=https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2020-06-11-isro-stalls-launch-uncrewed-gaganyaan-mission-chandrayaan-3-due-covid-19|access-date=2020-06-13|website=The Weather Channel|language=en-US}}</ref>
Since 2008, the [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] has developed the [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] cargo-spacecraft-based crewed spacecraft and [[Kibo (ISS module)|''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module]]–based small space laboratory.
[[NASA]] is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s. The first step will begin with [[Artemis 1]] in 2022, sending an uncrewed [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to a [[distant retrograde orbit]] around the Moon and returning it to Earth after a 25-day mission.
SpaceX is developing [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]], a fully reusable two stage system, with near-Earth and cislunar applications and an ultimate goal of landing on Mars. The upper stage of the Starship system, also called Starship, has had 9 atmospheric test flights as of September 2021. A [[Starship HLS|modified version]] of Starship is being developed for the [[Artemis program]].
Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs using natively developed equipment and technology, including Japan ([[JAXA]]), [[Iran]] ([[Iranian Space Agency|ISA]]), and [[North Korea]] ([[National Aerospace Development Administration|NADA]]). The plans for the [[Iranian crewed spacecraft]] are for a small spacecraft and space laboratory. [[North Korea]]'s [[National Aerospace Development Administration|space program]] has plans for crewed spacecraft and small shuttle systems.
=== National spacefaring attempts ===
: ''This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with [[List of space travelers by nationality|nations with citizens who have traveled into space]], including space tourists, flown or intending to fly by a foreign country's or non-domestic private company's space systems – who are not counted in this list toward their country's national spacefaring attempts.''
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: Successfully executed programs are in '''bold'''.
: [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|Suborbital]] spaceflights are in ''italics''.
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{| class="wikitable"| border=2 cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;"
|- style="background:#f9f9b0;"
! Nation/Organization
! Space agency
! Term(s) for space traveler
! First launched astronaut
! Date
! Spacecraft
! Launcher
! Type
|-
| {{Flag|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics}}<br />(1922–1991)
| [[Soviet space program]]<br />([[OKB-1|OKB-1 Design Bureau]])
| космонавт (same word in:) {{in lang|ru|uk}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut<br />Ғарышкер{{in lang|kk}}
| [[Yuri Gagarin]]
| 12 April 1961
| [[Vostok spacecraft]]
| [[Vostok rocket|Vostok]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{US}}
| [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]]
| astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
| [[Alan Shepard]] (suborbital)
| 5 May 1961
| [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]]
| [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone]]
| Suborbital
|-
| {{US}}
| [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]]
| astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
| [[John Glenn]] (orbital)
| 20 February 1962
| [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]]
| [[Atlas LV-3B]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}
| —
| 1973 (abandoned)
| [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang]]
| [[Long March 2A]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}
| —
| 1981 (abandoned)
| [[Fanhui Shi Weixing|Piloted FSW]]
| [[Long March 2]]
| Orbital
|-
| [[File:ESA logo simple.svg|20px]] [[European Space Agency]]
| [[CNES]] / [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]]
| ''spationaute'' {{in lang|fr}}<br />astronaut
| —
| 1992 (abandoned)
| [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]]
| [[Ariane V]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{Flag|Russia}}<br />
| [[Roscosmos]] <br />
| космонавт {{in lang|ru}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut
| [[Alexander Viktorenko]], [[Alexander Kaleri]]
| 17 March 1992
| [[Soyuz TM-14]] to MIR
| [[Soyuz-U2]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{Flagicon|Iraq|1991}} [[Ba'athist Iraq]]<br />(1968–2003){{NoteTag|According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz]] space launcher, [[Iraq]] intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.}}
| —
| {{nativename|ar|رجل فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rajul faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|رائد فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rāʼid faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|ملاح فضائي }}<br />''mallāḥ faḍāʼiy''
| —
| 2001 (abandoned)
| —
| [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz 2 or 3]]
| {{n/a}}
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| —
| 2003 (abandoned)
| [[HOPE-X|HOPE]]
| [[H-II]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[China Manned Space Agency|China Manned Space Agency (CMSA)]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}<br />taikonaut ({{zh|labels=no|c=太空人 |p=tàikōng rén}})
| [[Yang Liwei]]
| 15 October 2003
| [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]]
| [[Long March 2F]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| {{Interlanguage link multi|Japanese Rocket Society|ja|3=日本ロケット協会|vertical-align=sup}}, [[Kawasaki Heavy Industries]] and [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| —
| 2000s (abandoned)
| [[Kankoh-maru]]
| [[Kankoh-maru]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[JAXA|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| —
| 2003 (abandoned)
| [[Fuji (spacecraft)|Fuji]]
| [[H-II]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| [[Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)]]
| Vyomanaut <br /> {{in lang|sa}}
| —
| 2023<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-manned-mission-not-before-2023-minister/articleshow/81013233.cms|title=Gaganyaan manned mission not before 2023: Minister |work=the Times of India|date=2021-02-17|author=Surendra Singh}}</ref>
| [[Gaganyaan]]
| [[Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III|GSLV Mk III]]
| Orbital
<ref>{{cite news |url = https://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/technology/four-years-is-tight-but-can-achieve-the-human-spaceflight-isros-k-sivan/65411891 |title = Four years is tight, but can achieve the human spaceflight: ISRO's K Sivan - ETtech |author = ETtech.com |newspaper = The Economic Times |language = en |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-will-put-man-in-space-for-seven-days-isro-chairman-118081500485_1.html |title= India will put man in space for seven days: ISRO Chairman |author = IANS |date = 15 August 2018 |work = Business Standard India |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref>
|-
| [[File:ESA logo simple.svg|20px]] [[European Space Agency]]
| [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]]
| astronaut
| —
| 2020 (concept approved in 2009; but full development not begun)<ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8139347.stm |work=BBC News |title=Europe targets manned spaceship |date=7 July 2009 |access-date=27 March 2010 |first=Jonathan |last=Amos }}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/05/22/223941/apollo-like-capsule-chosen-for-crew-space-transportation.html Apollo-like capsule chosen for Crew Space Transportation System], 22 May 2008</ref><ref>[http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ATV/infokit/english/Complete_Infokit_ATVreentry.pdf "Jules Verne" Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Re-entry]. Information Kit (PDF). Updated September 2008. European Space Agency. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7749761.stm |work = BBC News |title = Europe's 10bn-euro space vision |date=26 November 2008 |access-date = 27 March 2010 |first = Jonathan |last = Amos }}</ref>
| [[CSTS]], [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ARV phase-2]]
| [[Ariane V]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[JAXA|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| —
| TBD
| [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-based spacecraft]]
| [[H3 (rocket)|H3]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Iran}}
| [[Iranian Space Agency|Iranian Space Agency (ISA)]]
| —
| —
| 2019 (on hold)
| [[Iranian crewed spacecraft|ISA spacecraft]]
| TBD
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|North Korea}}
| [[National Aerospace Development Administration|National Aerospace Development Administration (NADA)]]
| —
| —
| 2020s
| [[National Aerospace Development Administration#Future projects|NADA spacecraft]]
| [[Unha|Unha 9]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|Denmark}}
| [[Copenhagen Suborbitals]]
| astronaut
| —
| 2020s
| [[HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe|Tycho Brahe]]
| [[HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe|SPICA]]
| Suborbital
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|}
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Please, DO NOT INCLUDE Equador. Its human spaceflight program http://exa.ec/ESAA-PECE_files/frame.htm with first suborbital mission ESAA-01 is not based on indigenous technology. It will be one of the first paid client's missions aboard on foreign airplane-launched spacecraft [[Space Adventures Explorer|M55X+Explorer system]] that now is under development by Russian NPOM-Almaz company (former Myasishchev Bureau) according to order of British-US commercial space touristic company [[Space Adventures]].
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{{Human spaceflight timeline}}
{{Space station crew timeline}}
== Safety concerns ==
There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the hostile space environment, and those due to possible equipment malfunctions. Addressing these issues is of great importance for NASA and other space agencies before conducting the first extended crewed missions to destinations such as Mars.<ref name="williams202104">{{cite web |url=https://www.universetoday.com/149835/every-challenge-astronauts-will-face-on-a-flight-to-mars/ |title=Every Challenge Astronauts Will Face on a flight to Mars |last=Williams |first=Matt |date=Feb 4, 2021 |website=Universe Today |access-date=Feb 5, 2021}}</ref>
=== Environmental hazards ===
{{See also|Bioastronautics|Space habitat|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Locomotion in Space}}
Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.
==== Life support ====
{{Main| Life support system}}
The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the [[life support system]] of the spacecraft.
{{See also|Astronautical hygiene}}
==== Medical issues ====
{{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Sleep in space|Space medicine}}
Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment, or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on limited resources and medical advice from the ground.
The possibility of [[blindness]] and of [[Bone Loss|bone loss]] have been associated with human [[space flight]].<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=27 January 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=27 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite magazine |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities |url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=23 July 2012 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=23 July 2012 }}</ref>
On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the brains of [[astronauts]] and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last1=Cherry |first1=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |issue=12 |page=e53275 |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |pmid=23300905 |date=2012 |pmc=3534034|bibcode=2012PLoSO...753275C |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |access-date=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |author-link=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |access-date=7 January 2013 }}</ref>
In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[space exploration]], which included the potential hazards of a [[human mission to Mars]].<ref name="AP-20151029">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |title=Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html |date=29 October 2015 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=30 October 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20151029oig">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003) |url=https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY16/IG-16-003.pdf |date=29 October 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |access-date=29 October 2015 }}</ref>
On 2 November 2017, scientists reported, based on [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI studies]], that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|trips in space]]. Astronauts on longer space trips were affected by greater brain changes.<ref name="NEJM-20171102">{{cite journal |author=Roberts, Donna R. |display-authors=etal |title=Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI |date=2 November 2017 |journal=[[New England Journal of Medicine]] |volume=377 |issue=18 |pages=1746–1753 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 |pmid=29091569 |s2cid=205102116 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="QTZ-20171103">{{cite web |last=Foley |first=Katherine Ellen |title=Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls |url=https://qz.com/1119668/space-travel-changes-astronauts-brains/ |date=3 November 2017 |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |access-date=3 November 2017 }}</ref>
Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) of five ''[[Enterobacter|Enterobacter bugandensis]]'' bacterial strains, none [[pathogen]]ic to humans, that [[microorganism]]s on ISS should be carefully monitored to assure a healthy environment for [[astronaut]]s.<ref name="EA-20181122">{{cite web |author=BioMed Central |title=ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/bc-ims112018.php |date=22 November 2018 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=25 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name="BMC-20181123">{{cite journal |author=Singh, Nitin K. |display-authors=etal |title=Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains |date=23 November 2018 |journal=[[BMC Microbiology]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=175 |doi=10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2 |pmid=30466389 |pmc=6251167 }}</ref>
In March 2019, NASA reported that latent [[virus]]es in humans may be activated during space missions, possibly adding more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.<ref name="EA-20190315">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Dormant viruses activate during spaceflight -- NASA investigates - The stress of spaceflight gives viruses a holiday from immune surveillance, putting future deep-space missions in jeopardy |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/f-dva031519.php |date=15 March 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=16 March 2019 }}</ref>
On 25 September 2021, [[CNN]] reported that an alarm had sounded during the [[Inspiration4]] Earth-orbital journey on the [[SpaceX Dragon 2]]. The alarm signal was found to be associated with an apparent toilet malfunction.<ref name="CNN-20210925">{{cite news |last=Wattles |first=Jackie |title=An alarm went off on SpaceX's all-tourist space flight. The problem was the toilet |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/09/25/tech/spacex-toilet-waste-management-system-scn/index.html |date=25 September 2021 |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=25 September 2021 }}</ref>
===== Microgravity =====
{{See also|Weightlessness}}
[[File:Space fluid shift.gif|thumb|The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).]]
Medical data from astronauts in low Earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of [[bone]] density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these [[deconditioning]] effects can impair astronauts' performance or increase their risk of injury.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |title=Exploration Systems Human Research Program – Exercise Countermeasures |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |archive-date=11 October 2008 }}</ref>
In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back [[muscle]]s or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes the muscles to weaken and get smaller. Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days. The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/64249main_ffs_factsheets_hbp_atrophy.pdf|title = NASA Information: Muscle Atrophy|access-date = 20 November 2015|website = NASA}}</ref> Upon returning to Earth from [[long-duration spaceflight|long-duration]] flights, astronauts are considerably weakened and are not allowed{{by whom|date=October 2020}}<!-- is this rule USSR, USA, India, China, ... or do we have a source that indicates this is a truth for all astronauts in all nations states? --> to drive a car for twenty-one days.<ref>{{cite web|title = Earth Living Is Tough for Astronaut Used to Space|url = http://www.space.com/21413-hadfield-astronaut-health-return-earth.html|website = Space.com|date = 3 June 2013|access-date = 21 November 2015}}</ref>
Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get [[motion sickness]], and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, they have to readjust and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking, and turning. Importantly, those motor disturbances only get worse the longer the exposure to weightlessness.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=3830060&page=1 | last=Watson | first=Traci | date=11 November 2007 | title=Readjusting to gravity anti-fun for astronauts | publisher=ABC News | access-date=14 February 2020}}</ref> These changes can affect the ability to perform tasks required for approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may occur while landing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eddy|first1=D. R.|last2=Schiflett|first2=S. G.|last3=Schlegel|first3=R. E.|last4=Shehab|first4=R. L.|date=August 1998|title=Cognitive performance aboard the life and microgravity spacelab|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11541924|journal=Acta Astronautica|volume=43|issue=3–6|pages=193–210|doi=10.1016/s0094-5765(98)00154-4|issn=0094-5765|pmid=11541924|bibcode=1998AcAau..43..193E}}</ref>
In addition, after long [[space flight]] missions, male astronauts may experience severe [[visual system|eyesight]] problems, which may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a [[crewed mission]] to the planet [[Mars]].<ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal|author=Mader, T. H. |display-authors=etal |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|date=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)|Ophthalmology]] |volume=118 |issue=10|pages=2058–2069 |doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=nasapub }}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu |first=Tibi |title=Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=9 November 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |access-date=9 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">[http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN News (CNN-TV, 02/09/2012) – Video (02:14) – Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems]. Cnn.com (9 February 2012). Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests |url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=13 March 2012 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |access-date=14 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. |display-authors=etal |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging |journal=[[Radiology (journal)|Radiology]] |volume=263 |issue=3 |pages=819–27 |doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |pmid=22416248 |date=13 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite magazine |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=https://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=12 February 2014 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=12 February 2014 }}</ref> Long space flights can also alter a space traveler's eye movements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Robert |last2=Macknik |first2=Stephen |last3=Martinez-Conde |first3=Susana |title=Microsaccades in applied environments: Real-world applications of fixational eye movement measurements |journal=Journal of Eye Movement Research |date=2020 |volume=12 |issue=6 |doi=10.16910/jemr.12.6.15 |pmid=33828760 |pmc=7962687 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===== Radiation =====
{{See also|Health threat from cosmic rays}}
[[File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png|thumb|right|Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the [[Radiation assessment detector|RAD]] on the [[Mars Science Laboratory|MSL]] (2011–2013).<ref name="SCI-20130531a">{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Richard |title=Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier |date=31 May 2013 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=340 |issue=6136 |page=1031 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6136.1031 |pmid=23723213 |bibcode=2013Sci...340.1031K}}</ref>]]
Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by [[solar particle event]]s (SPEs) associated with [[solar flare]]s. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a solar storm similar to that of the most powerful in recorded history, the [[Carrington Event]], have been estimated to be able to cause [[acute radiation sickness]] and possibly even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142 |title= Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts|work=New Scientist |date=21 March 2005 |first=Stephen |last=Battersby}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Citation does not differentiate between solar flares and solar particle events.|date=December 2021}} Another storm that could have inflicted a lethal radiation dose on astronauts outside Earth's protective [[magnetosphere]] occurred during the [[Space Age]], shortly after [[Apollo 16]] landed and before [[Apollo 17]] launched.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Lockwood |first = Mike |author2 = M. Hapgood |title = The Rough Guide to the Moon and Mars |journal = Astron. Geophys. |volume = 48 |issue = 6 |pages = 11–17 |date = 2007 |doi = 10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48611.x |bibcode = 2007A&G....48f..11L |doi-access = free }}</ref> This [[solar storm of August 1972]] would likely have caused acute illness, at least.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Parsons |first = Jennifer L. |author2 = L. W. Townsend |title = Interplanetary Crew Dose Rates for the August 1972 Solar Particle Event |journal = Radiat. Res. |volume = 153 |issue = 6 |pages = 729–733 |date = 2000 |doi = 10.1667/0033-7587(2000)153[0729:ICDRFT]2.0.CO;2 |pmid = 10825747 |bibcode = 2000RadR..153..729P }}</ref>
Another type of radiation, galactic [[cosmic ray]]s, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-309-10264-3|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760 |title=Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration |publisher=NAP |date=2006}}</ref>
There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases,<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1189/jlb.0309167 |title=Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit|date=2009|last1=Gueguinou|first1=N.|last2=Huin-Schohn|first2=C.|last3=Bascove|first3=M.|last4=Bueb|first4=J.-L.|last5=Tschirhart|first5=E.|last6=Legrand-Frossi|first6=C.|last7=Frippiat|first7=J.-P.|journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1027–1038|pmid=19690292|doi-access=free}}</ref> resulting in a weakened [[immune system]] and the activation of dormant [[virus]]es in the body. [[Radiation]] can cause both short- and long-term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells from which blood and immune-system cells are created. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
===== Isolation =====
{{Further|Effect of spaceflight on the human body#Psychological effects|Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight}}
During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined in small spaces. [[Depression (mood)|Depression]], anxiety, [[cabin fever]], and other psychological problems may occur more than for an average person and could impact the crew's safety and mission success.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flynn|first=Christopher F.|date=1 June 2005|title=An Operational Approach to Long-Duration Mission Behavioral Health and Performance Factors|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/asma/asem/2005/00000076/A00106s1/art00007|journal=Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine|volume=76|issue=6|pages=B42–B51|pmid=15943194}}</ref> NASA spends millions of dollars on psychological treatments for astronauts and former astronauts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Space psychology and psychiatry |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |last1=Kanas |first1=Nick |last2=Manzey |first2=Dietrich |isbn=9781402067709 |edition=2nd |location=Dordrecht |oclc=233972618}}</ref> To date, there is no way to prevent or reduce mental problems caused by extended periods of stay in space.
Due to these mental disorders, the efficiency of astronauts' work is impaired; and sometimes they are brought back to Earth, incurring the expense of their mission being aborted.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/05/hallucinations-isolation-astronauts-mental-health-space-missions|title=Isolation and hallucinations: the mental health challenges faced by astronauts |last=Bell|first=Vaughan|date=5 October 2014|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-02-01|language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that resulted in a fear of fluid leakage; but after a thorough investigation, it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction. It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinated the smell.
It is possible that the mental health of astronauts can be affected by the changes in the sensory systems while in prolonged space travel.
===== Sensory systems =====
During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in an extreme environment. This, and the fact that little change is taking place in the environment, will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts' seven senses.
* [[Hearing]] – In the space station and spacecraft there are no noises from the outside, as there is no medium that can transmit sound waves. Although there are other team members who can talk to each other, their voices become familiar and do not stimulate the sense of hearing as much. Mechanical noises become familiar, as well.
* [[Sight]] – Because of weightlessness, the body's liquids attain an equilibrium that is different from what it is on the Earth. For this reason, an astronaut's face swells and presses on the eyes; and therefore their vision is impaired. The landscape surrounding the astronauts is constant, which lessens visual stimulations. Due to cosmic rays, astronauts may see flashes.
* [[Sense of smell|Smell]] – The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.
* [[Taste]] – The sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is dulled, the sense of taste is also. The astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten. The food comes only once every few months, when supplies arrive, and there is little or no variety.
* [[Somatosensory system|Touch]] – There are almost no stimulating changes in physical contact. There is almost no human physical contact during the journey.
* The [[vestibular system]] (motion and equilibrium system) – Due to the lack of gravity, all the movements required of the astronauts are changed, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change.
* The [[Proprioception|proprioception system]] (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) – As a result of weightlessness, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles; and there is less stimulus to this system.
=== Equipment hazards ===
Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, and consequently requires the use of high [[energy density]] propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.
==== Launch ====
{{See also| Launch escape system}}
[[File:Sts33-e204.jpg|thumb|There was no practical way for the {{OV|99}}'s crew to safely abort before the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|vehicle's violent disintegration]].]]
Since rockets have the potential for fire or explosive destruction, [[space capsule]]s generally employ some sort of [[launch escape system]], consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the [[launch vehicle]] (employed on [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]], and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]], the escape tower being discarded at some point after launch, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines), or else [[ejection seat]]s (employed on [[Vostok spacecraft|Vostok]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landings.
Such a launch escape system is not always practical for multiple-crew-member vehicles (particularly [[spaceplane]]s), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person [[Voskhod (spacecraft)|Voskhod]], the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps. The [[Space Shuttle]] carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights; but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued.
There have been only two in-flight launch aborts of a crewed flight. The first occurred on [[Soyuz 7K-T No.39|Soyuz 18a]] on 5 April 1975. The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited and the vehicle strayed off course. The crew finally managed to separate the spacecraft, firing its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket, both cosmonauts landing safely. The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of [[Soyuz MS-10]]. Again, both crew members survived.
In the first use of a launch escape system on the launchpad, before the start of a crewed flight, happened during the planned [[Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L|Soyuz T-10a]] launch on 26 September 1983, which was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff. Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely.
The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]] seal, which caused the failure of the [[Space Shuttle external tank|external fuel tank]], resulting in explosion of the fuel and separation of the boosters. All seven crew members were killed.
==== Extravehicular activity ====
Despite the ever-present risks related to mechanical failures while working in open space, no [[extravehicular activity|spacewalking astronaut]] has ever been lost. There is a requirement for spacewalking astronauts to use tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors. If those fail, a spacewalking astronaut would most probably float away impelled by forces that were acting on the astronaut at the time of breaking loose. Such an astronaut would possibly be spinning, as kicking and flailing would be of no use. At the right angle and velocity, the astronaut might even re-enter the [[Earth's atmosphere]] and burn up. [[NASA]] has protocols for such situations: astronauts would be wearing an emergency jetpack that would automatically counter any tumbling. NASA's plan states that astronauts should then take manual control of the jetpack and fly back to safety.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
However, if the jetpack's {{convert|3|lb}} of fuel runs out, and if there is no other astronaut in close proximity to help, or if the air lock is irreparably damaged, the [[space exposure|outcome would certainly be fatal]]. At this time, there is no spacecraft to save an astronaut floating in space, as the only one with a rescue-ready air-locked compartment — [[Space Shuttle retirement|the Space Shuttle]] — retired {{age|July 2011|{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}}} years ago. There is approximately a litre of water available via straw in an astronaut's helmet. The astronaut<!-- use gender-neutral language, see [[MOS:GENDER]] --> would wait roughly 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sofge |first1=Eric |title=What Happens If An Astronaut Floats Off In Space? |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-09/what-happens-if-astronaut-floats-space/ |website=Popular Science|date=30 September 2013 }}</ref>
==== Reentry and landing ====
{{See also| Atmospheric reentry}}
The single pilot of [[Soyuz 1]], [[Vladimir Komarov]], was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash.
On 1 February 2003, the crew of seven aboard the {{OV|102}} were [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|killed on reentry]] after completing a [[STS-107|successful mission in space]]. A wing-leading-edge [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] foam insulation that had broken off and struck the wing during launch. Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to the breakup of the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|orbiter vehicle]].
==== Artificial atmosphere ====
There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen and an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen–oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for [[extravehicular activity]].
The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of [[decompression sickness]] (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment. There have been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen.
* In 1960, [[McDonnell Aircraft]] test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin–space suit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his space suit feed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Giblin |first=Kelly A. |date=Spring 1998 |title =Fire in the Cockpit! |journal=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |volume=13 |issue=4 |publisher=American Heritage Publishing |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120153024/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archive-date=20 November 2008 |access-date=23 March 2011}}</ref> This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft.
* In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the {{OV|102}} at the [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010605212352/http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/chrono.html 1981 KSC Chronology Part 1 – pages 84, 85, 100; Part 2 – pages 181, 194, 195], NASA</ref>
* In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the [[Ariane 5]] launch pad at [[Guiana Space Centre]].<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_17_1995_p_EN.html "Fatal accident at the Guiana Space Centre"], ''ESA Portal'', 5 May 1993</ref>
A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of [[Apollo 1]] during a ground test at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34|Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34]] on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure, increased by the fire, prevented removal of the [[plug door]] hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three astronauts—[[Gus Grissom]], [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]], and [[Roger Chaffee]]—were killed.<ref name="SP4029">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |access-date=12 July 2013 |series=NASA History Series |orig-year=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-050631-4 |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 1 – The Fire: 27 January 1967 |chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm}}</ref> This led NASA to use a nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space.
==== Reliability ====
{{See also| Reliability engineering}}
The March 1966 [[Gemini 8]] mission was aborted in orbit when an [[attitude control system]] thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin that threatened the lives of [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]]. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a [[static electricity]] discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit.
The third lunar landing expedition, [[Apollo 13]], in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew—[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]]—were threatened after the failure of a [[cryogenic]] [[liquid oxygen]] tank en route to the Moon. The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the gradual loss of its remaining oxygen over a period of 130 minutes. This in turn caused loss of electrical power provided by [[fuel cell]]s to the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]]. The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar landing craft]] as a "life boat". The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes: the tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing, necessitating the use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test; which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication.
The crew of [[Soyuz 11]] were killed on 30 June 1971 by a combination of mechanical malfunctions; the crew were [[asphyxia]]ted due to cabin decompression following separation of their descent capsule from the service module. A cabin ventilation valve had been jolted open at an altitude of {{convert|168|km}} by the stronger-than-expected shock of explosive separation bolts, which were designed to fire sequentially, but in fact had fired simultaneously. The loss of pressure became fatal within about 30 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|title=The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project|access-date=20 October 2007|publisher=NASA|year=1974|author=NASA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|archive-date=23 August 2007}}</ref>
=== Fatality risk ===
{{Further|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents}}
{{As of|2015|December}}, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Date
!Mission
!Accident cause
!Deaths
!Cause of death
|-
| 27 January 1967
| [[Apollo 1]]
| Electrical fire in cabin, spread quickly by {{convert|16.7|psi|bar|abbr=on}} pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove [[plug door]] hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot
| style="text-align: center;" | 3
| [[Cardiac arrest]] from [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning
|-
| 15 November 1967
| [[X-15 Flight 3-65-97]]
| The accident board found that the cockpit instrumentation had been functioning properly, and concluded that pilot [[Michael J. Adams]] had lost control of the X-15 as a result of a combination of distraction, misinterpretation of his instrumentation display, and possible [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]]. The electrical disturbance early in the flight degraded the overall effectiveness of the aircraft's control system and further added to pilot workload.
| style="text-align: center;"| 1
| Vehicle breakup
|-
| 24 April 1967
| [[Soyuz 1]]
| Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and entanglement of reserve parachute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitating emergency abort
| style="text-align: center;"| 1
| [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash landing
|-
| 30 June 1971
| [[Soyuz 11]]
| Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry
| style="text-align: center;"| 3
| [[Asphyxia]]
|-
| 28 January 1986
| [[STS-51L]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']]
| Failure of [[O-ring]] inter-segment seal in one [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Booster]] in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]]; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces
| style="text-align: center;"| 7
| Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |title=Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |archive-date=3 January 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| 1 February 2003
| [[STS-107]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']]
| Damaged [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by piece of [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]] foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of wing, loss of control and disintegration of orbiter
| style="text-align: center;"| 7
| Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<ref>{{cite web |title=Columbia Crew Survival Investigation Report |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf |website=NASA.gov |publisher=NASA}}</ref>
|-
| 31 October 2014
| [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Enterprise crash|VSS ''Enterprise'' powered drop-test]]
| Copilot error: premature deployment of "[[Feathering (reentry)|feathering]]" descent air-braking system caused disintegration of vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died
| style="text-align: center;"| 1
| [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash
|}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
* [[List of human spaceflight programs]]
* [[List of human spaceflights]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 1961–1970|1961-1970]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 1971–1980|1971-1980]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 1981–1990|1981-1990]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 1991–2000|1991-2000]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 2001–2010|2001-2010]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 2011–present|2011-2020]]
**[[List of human spaceflights, 2021–present|2021-present]]
* [[List of spaceflight records]]
* [[List of crewed spacecraft]]
* [[Animals in space]]
* [[Monkeys and apes in space]]
* [[Crewed Mars rover]]
* [[Commercial astronaut]]
* [[Mars to Stay]]
* [[NewSpace]]
* [[Space medicine]]
* [[Tourism on the Moon]]
* [[Women in space]]
== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* Darling, David. ''The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity''. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, {{ISBN|0-471-05649-9}}.
* Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-7091-0666-2}}.
* Larson, Wiley J. (ed.). ''Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design''. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, {{ISBN|0-07-236811-X}}.
*
* Pyle, Rod. ''Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International Partners are Creating a New Space Age'' (2019), overview of space exploration [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1944648453/ excerpt]
* Spencer, Brett. "The Book and th
* Reneau, Allyson (ed.). ''Moon First and Mars Second: A Practical Approach to Human Space Exploration'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Moon-First-Mars-Second-SpringerBriefs/dp/3030542297/ excerpt]
* Smith, Michael G., Michelle Kelley, and Mathias Basner. "A brief history of spaceflight from 1961 to 2020: An analysis of missions and astronaut demographics." ''Acta Astronautica'' 175 (2020): 290–299.
== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/ NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070802015842/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight Human Spaceflight Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
* [http://www.nasaconstellation.com Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190404044029/http://spaceflighthistory.com/ U.S. Spaceflight History]
{{Future spaceflights}}
{{Crewed spacecraft}}
{{Public sector space agencies}}
{{Spaceflight}}
{{NASA space program}}
{{Russian space program}}
{{Inspace}}
{{Space exploration lists and timelines}}
{{Solar System}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Human Spaceflight}}
[[Category:Human spaceflight| ]]
[[Category:Spaceflight]]
[[Category:Space policy]]
[[Category:Life in space]]
[[Category:1961 introductions]]'
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'@@ -30,42 +30,34 @@
{{Main|History of spaceflight}}
-=== Cold War era ===
-{{Main|Space Race}}
-[[File:Vostok spacecraft replica.jpg|thumb|180px|Replica of the [[Vostok programme|Vostok]] space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit]]
-[[File:Sigma7-1.jpg|thumb|[[Project Mercury|Mercury]] space capsule, which carried the first Americans into orbit]]
-[[File:X-15 in flight.jpg|thumb|[[North American X-15]], hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft, which reached the edge of space]]
-[[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|[[Neil Armstrong]], one of the first two people to land on the Moon and the first to walk on the lunar surface, July 1969.]]
+[[Malaysia]]
-Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR). These nations developed [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s for the delivery of [[nuclear weapon]]s, producing rockets large enough to be adapted to carry the first [[artificial satellite]]s into [[low Earth orbit]].
+After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on Proje.ct Mercury, with the aim of launching men into orbit. The USSR was secretly pursuing the Vostok program to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who, on 12 April 1961, was launched aboard Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket and completed a single orbit. On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight aboard ''Freedom 7'' on a Mercury-Redstone rocket. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecraft's attitude. On 20 February 1962, John Glenn became the first American in orbit, aboard ''Friendship 7'' on a Mercury-Atlas rocket. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6, on 16 June 1963. Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit. The US also made two North American X-15 flights (90 and 91, piloted by Joseph A. Walker) that exceeded the Kármán line, the {{convert|100|km}} altitude used by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) to denote the edge of space.
-After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on [[Project Mercury]], with the aim of launching men into orbit. The USSR was secretly pursuing the [[Vostok programme|Vostok program]] to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]], who, on 12 April 1961, was launched aboard [[Vostok 1]] on a [[Vostok 3KA]] rocket and completed a single orbit. On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first [[astronaut]], [[Alan Shepard]], on a suborbital flight aboard ''[[Freedom 7]]'' on a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Mercury-Redstone rocket]]. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually [[attitude control|controlled his spacecraft's attitude]]. On 20 February 1962, [[John Glenn]] became the first American in orbit, aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'' on a [[Atlas LV-3B|Mercury-Atlas rocket]]. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok [[space capsule|capsule]]s, including the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] aboard [[Vostok 6]], on 16 June 1963. Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit. The US also made two [[North American X-15]] flights ([[X-15 Flight 90|90]] and [[X-15 Flight 91|91]], piloted by [[Joseph A. Walker]]) that exceeded the [[Kármán line]], the {{convert|100|km}} altitude used by the [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI) to denote the edge of space.
+In 1961, US President John F. Kennedy raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s. That same year, the US began the Apollo program of launching three-man capsules atop the Saturn family of launch vehicles to accomplish this; and, in 1962, began Project Gemini, which, in 1965 and 1966, flew 10 missions with two-man crews launched by Titan II rockets, Gemini's objective being to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used during the Moon mission.
-In 1961, US President [[John F. Kennedy]] raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Kennedy, John F. |date=25 May 1961 |title=Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |medium=Motion picture (excerpt) |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |access-date=1 August 2013 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |location=Boston, MA |id=Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref> That same year, the US began the [[Apollo program]] of launching three-man capsules atop the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family of launch vehicles]] to accomplish this; and, in 1962, began [[Project Gemini]], which, in 1965 and 1966, flew 10 missions with two-man crews launched by [[Titan II GLV|Titan II rockets]], Gemini's objective being to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used during the Moon mission.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Loff |first1=Sarah |title=Gemini: Stepping Stone to the Moon |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/#.VKi1GsaWt78 |website=Gemini: Bridge to the Moon |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221151510/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/ |archive-date=21 December 2014 |location=Washington, DC |date=21 October 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
+Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule by adapting it to a two or three-person Voskhod capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, performed by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2 on 8 March 1965. However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not achieve the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks, solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by compensating for the lack of gravity, demonstrating the ability of humans to endure two weeks in space, and performing the first space rendezvous and docking of spacecraft.
-Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule by adapting it to a two or three-person [[Voskhod programme|Voskhod]] capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first [[spacewalk]], performed by [[Alexei Leonov]] on [[Voskhod 2]] on 8 March 1965. However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not achieve the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks, solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by compensating for the lack of gravity, demonstrating the ability of humans to endure two weeks in space, and performing the first [[space rendezvous]] and [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]] of spacecraft.
+The US succeeded in developing the Saturn V rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders into 10 orbits around the Moon in Apollo 8 in December 1968. In July 1969, Apollo 11 accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot Michael Collins. Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove electric powered vehicles on the surface. The crew of Apollo 13—
-The US succeeded in developing the [[Saturn V]] rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] into 10 orbits around the Moon in [[Apollo 8]] in December 1968. In July 1969, [[Apollo 11]] accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]. Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|electric powered vehicles]] on the surface. The crew of [[Apollo 13]]—[[Jim Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]]—survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, orbited the Moon without landing, and returned safely to Earth.
+[[Jim Lovell|ell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]]—survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, orbited the Moon without landing, and returned safely to Earth.[[File:Salyut 1 and Soyuz drawing.png|thumb|Salyut 1, first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraft]]
-[[File:Soyuz TMA-7 spacecraft2edit1.jpg|thumb|[[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]], most serial spacecraft]]
-[[File:Salyut 1 and Soyuz drawing.png|thumb|[[Salyut 1]], first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraft]]
-
-Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued [[Soviet crewed lunar programs|crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs]]. They successfully developed the three-person [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] necessary for a human landing, discontinuing their lunar programs in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|title = Challenge To Apollo The Soviet Union and The Space Race, 1945–1974|last = Siddiqi|first = Asif|page = 832|publisher = NASA|url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408}}</ref> Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of [[space station]]s, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of [[Salyut program|Salyut]] sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.
+Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs. They successfully developed the three-person Soyuz spacecraft for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the N1 rocket necessary for a human landing, discontinuing their lunar programs in 1974. Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of space stations, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.
==== Post-Apollo era ====
-[[File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|Artist's rendering of an [[Apollo CSM]] is about to dock with a [[Soyuz spacecraft]].]]
+[[File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|Artist's rendering of an Apollo CSM is about to dock with a Soyuz spacecraft.]]
-In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, [[Spiro Agnew]], to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious [[Space Transportation System]] based on a [[Space Shuttle design process|reusable Space Shuttle]], which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger [[RP-1|kerosene]]-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable [[space tug]]; and [[NERVA|nuclear]] interplanetary ferry, leading to a [[human mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars]] as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. [[Space Shuttle|Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back]] to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly back booster with two reusable [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]]s, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable [[Space Shuttle external tank|external propellant tank]] to feed its hydrogen-fueled [[Space Shuttle main engine|main engine]]s. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.
+In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious Space Transportation System based on a reusable Space Shuttle, which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger kerosene-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the o launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable space tug; and nuclear interplanetary ferry, leading to a human expedition to Mars as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly back booster with two reusable solid rocket boosters, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable external propellant tank to feed its hydrogen-fueled main engines. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.
-[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|[[Space Shuttle orbiter]], first crewed orbital spaceplane]]
+[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|Space Shuttle orbiter, first crewed orbital spaceplane]]
-In 1973, the US launched the [[Skylab]] sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard Apollo spacecraft. During that time, President [[Richard Nixon]] and Soviet general secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev]] were negotiating an easing of Cold War tensions known as [[détente]]. As part of this, they negotiated the [[Apollo-Soyuz]] program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with [[Soyuz 19]] in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely symbolic.
+In 1973, the US launched the Skylab sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard Apollo spacecraft. During that time, President Richard Nixon and Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev were negotiating an easing of Cold War tensions known as détente. As part of this, they negotiated the Apollo-Soyuz program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with Soyuz 19 in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely symbolic.
-The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, which was dubbed ''[[Space Station Freedom|Freedom]]''. The USSR launched three [[Almaz]] military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''[[Mir]]'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of {{convert|354|km|nmi|abbr=off|sp=us}}, at an [[orbital inclination]] of 51.6°. It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001.
+The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, which was dubbed ''Freedom''. The USSR launched three Almaz military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''Mir'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of , at an orbital inclination of 51.6°. It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001.
-The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Space Station Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]''. A fifth shuttle, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|an accident during launch]] that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a [[European Space Agency]] sortie space station called [[Spacelab]] in the Shuttle payload bay.<ref name=StoryShuttle>{{cite book |title=The Story of the Space Shuttle |author=David Michael Harland |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] Praxis |date=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 444] |isbn=978-1-85233-793-3 |author-link=David M. Harland |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 }}</ref>
+The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Space Station Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''Columbia'', ''Challenger'', ''Discovery'', and ''Atlantis''. A fifth shuttle, ''Endeavour'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in an accident during launch that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a European Space Agency sortie space station called Spacelab in the Shuttle payload bay.
-[[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiter, Soviet equivalent of the Space Shuttle orbiter]]
+[[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|''Buran''-class orbiter, Soviet equivalent of the Space Shuttle orbiter]]
-The USSR copied the US's reusable [[Space Shuttle orbiter]], which they called ''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiter or simply ''Buran'', which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable [[Energia]] rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the Space Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter it used smaller rocket engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.
+The USSR copied the US's reusable Space Shuttle orbiter, which they called ''Buran''-class orbiter or simply ''Buran'', which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable Energia rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the Space Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter it used smaller rocket engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.
=== US / Russian cooperation ===
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0 => '[[Malaysia]] ',
1 => 'After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on Proje.ct Mercury, with the aim of launching men into orbit. The USSR was secretly pursuing the Vostok program to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who, on 12 April 1961, was launched aboard Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket and completed a single orbit. On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight aboard ''Freedom 7'' on a Mercury-Redstone rocket. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecraft's attitude. On 20 February 1962, John Glenn became the first American in orbit, aboard ''Friendship 7'' on a Mercury-Atlas rocket. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6, on 16 June 1963. Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit. The US also made two North American X-15 flights (90 and 91, piloted by Joseph A. Walker) that exceeded the Kármán line, the {{convert|100|km}} altitude used by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) to denote the edge of space.',
2 => 'In 1961, US President John F. Kennedy raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s. That same year, the US began the Apollo program of launching three-man capsules atop the Saturn family of launch vehicles to accomplish this; and, in 1962, began Project Gemini, which, in 1965 and 1966, flew 10 missions with two-man crews launched by Titan II rockets, Gemini's objective being to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used during the Moon mission.',
3 => 'Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule by adapting it to a two or three-person Voskhod capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, performed by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2 on 8 March 1965. However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not achieve the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks, solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by compensating for the lack of gravity, demonstrating the ability of humans to endure two weeks in space, and performing the first space rendezvous and docking of spacecraft.',
4 => 'The US succeeded in developing the Saturn V rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders into 10 orbits around the Moon in Apollo 8 in December 1968. In July 1969, Apollo 11 accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot Michael Collins. Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove electric powered vehicles on the surface. The crew of Apollo 13—',
5 => '[[Jim Lovell|ell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]]—survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, orbited the Moon without landing, and returned safely to Earth.[[File:Salyut 1 and Soyuz drawing.png|thumb|Salyut 1, first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraft]]',
6 => 'Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs. They successfully developed the three-person Soyuz spacecraft for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the N1 rocket necessary for a human landing, discontinuing their lunar programs in 1974. Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of space stations, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.',
7 => '[[File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|Artist's rendering of an Apollo CSM is about to dock with a Soyuz spacecraft.]]',
8 => 'In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious Space Transportation System based on a reusable Space Shuttle, which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger kerosene-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the o launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable space tug; and nuclear interplanetary ferry, leading to a human expedition to Mars as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly back booster with two reusable solid rocket boosters, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable external propellant tank to feed its hydrogen-fueled main engines. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.',
9 => '[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|Space Shuttle orbiter, first crewed orbital spaceplane]]',
10 => 'In 1973, the US launched the Skylab sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard Apollo spacecraft. During that time, President Richard Nixon and Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev were negotiating an easing of Cold War tensions known as détente. As part of this, they negotiated the Apollo-Soyuz program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with Soyuz 19 in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely symbolic.',
11 => 'The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, which was dubbed ''Freedom''. The USSR launched three Almaz military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''Mir'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of , at an orbital inclination of 51.6°. It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001.',
12 => 'The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Space Station Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''Columbia'', ''Challenger'', ''Discovery'', and ''Atlantis''. A fifth shuttle, ''Endeavour'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in an accident during launch that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a European Space Agency sortie space station called Spacelab in the Shuttle payload bay.',
13 => '[[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|''Buran''-class orbiter, Soviet equivalent of the Space Shuttle orbiter]]',
14 => 'The USSR copied the US's reusable Space Shuttle orbiter, which they called ''Buran''-class orbiter or simply ''Buran'', which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable Energia rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the Space Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter it used smaller rocket engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.'
]
|
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[
0 => '=== Cold War era ===',
1 => '{{Main|Space Race}}',
2 => '[[File:Vostok spacecraft replica.jpg|thumb|180px|Replica of the [[Vostok programme|Vostok]] space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit]]',
3 => '[[File:Sigma7-1.jpg|thumb|[[Project Mercury|Mercury]] space capsule, which carried the first Americans into orbit]]',
4 => '[[File:X-15 in flight.jpg|thumb|[[North American X-15]], hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft, which reached the edge of space]]',
5 => '[[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|[[Neil Armstrong]], one of the first two people to land on the Moon and the first to walk on the lunar surface, July 1969.]]',
6 => 'Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR). These nations developed [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s for the delivery of [[nuclear weapon]]s, producing rockets large enough to be adapted to carry the first [[artificial satellite]]s into [[low Earth orbit]].',
7 => 'After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on [[Project Mercury]], with the aim of launching men into orbit. The USSR was secretly pursuing the [[Vostok programme|Vostok program]] to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]], who, on 12 April 1961, was launched aboard [[Vostok 1]] on a [[Vostok 3KA]] rocket and completed a single orbit. On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first [[astronaut]], [[Alan Shepard]], on a suborbital flight aboard ''[[Freedom 7]]'' on a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Mercury-Redstone rocket]]. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually [[attitude control|controlled his spacecraft's attitude]]. On 20 February 1962, [[John Glenn]] became the first American in orbit, aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'' on a [[Atlas LV-3B|Mercury-Atlas rocket]]. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok [[space capsule|capsule]]s, including the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] aboard [[Vostok 6]], on 16 June 1963. Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit. The US also made two [[North American X-15]] flights ([[X-15 Flight 90|90]] and [[X-15 Flight 91|91]], piloted by [[Joseph A. Walker]]) that exceeded the [[Kármán line]], the {{convert|100|km}} altitude used by the [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI) to denote the edge of space.',
8 => 'In 1961, US President [[John F. Kennedy]] raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Kennedy, John F. |date=25 May 1961 |title=Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |medium=Motion picture (excerpt) |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |access-date=1 August 2013 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |location=Boston, MA |id=Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref> That same year, the US began the [[Apollo program]] of launching three-man capsules atop the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family of launch vehicles]] to accomplish this; and, in 1962, began [[Project Gemini]], which, in 1965 and 1966, flew 10 missions with two-man crews launched by [[Titan II GLV|Titan II rockets]], Gemini's objective being to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used during the Moon mission.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Loff |first1=Sarah |title=Gemini: Stepping Stone to the Moon |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/#.VKi1GsaWt78 |website=Gemini: Bridge to the Moon |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221151510/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/ |archive-date=21 December 2014 |location=Washington, DC |date=21 October 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref>',
9 => 'Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule by adapting it to a two or three-person [[Voskhod programme|Voskhod]] capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first [[spacewalk]], performed by [[Alexei Leonov]] on [[Voskhod 2]] on 8 March 1965. However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not achieve the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks, solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by compensating for the lack of gravity, demonstrating the ability of humans to endure two weeks in space, and performing the first [[space rendezvous]] and [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]] of spacecraft.',
10 => 'The US succeeded in developing the [[Saturn V]] rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] into 10 orbits around the Moon in [[Apollo 8]] in December 1968. In July 1969, [[Apollo 11]] accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]. Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|electric powered vehicles]] on the surface. The crew of [[Apollo 13]]—[[Jim Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]]—survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, orbited the Moon without landing, and returned safely to Earth.',
11 => '[[File:Soyuz TMA-7 spacecraft2edit1.jpg|thumb|[[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]], most serial spacecraft]]',
12 => '[[File:Salyut 1 and Soyuz drawing.png|thumb|[[Salyut 1]], first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraft]]',
13 => '',
14 => 'Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued [[Soviet crewed lunar programs|crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs]]. They successfully developed the three-person [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] necessary for a human landing, discontinuing their lunar programs in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|title = Challenge To Apollo The Soviet Union and The Space Race, 1945–1974|last = Siddiqi|first = Asif|page = 832|publisher = NASA|url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408}}</ref> Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of [[space station]]s, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of [[Salyut program|Salyut]] sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.',
15 => '[[File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|Artist's rendering of an [[Apollo CSM]] is about to dock with a [[Soyuz spacecraft]].]]',
16 => 'In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, [[Spiro Agnew]], to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious [[Space Transportation System]] based on a [[Space Shuttle design process|reusable Space Shuttle]], which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger [[RP-1|kerosene]]-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable [[space tug]]; and [[NERVA|nuclear]] interplanetary ferry, leading to a [[human mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars]] as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. [[Space Shuttle|Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back]] to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly back booster with two reusable [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]]s, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable [[Space Shuttle external tank|external propellant tank]] to feed its hydrogen-fueled [[Space Shuttle main engine|main engine]]s. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.',
17 => '[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|[[Space Shuttle orbiter]], first crewed orbital spaceplane]]',
18 => 'In 1973, the US launched the [[Skylab]] sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard Apollo spacecraft. During that time, President [[Richard Nixon]] and Soviet general secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev]] were negotiating an easing of Cold War tensions known as [[détente]]. As part of this, they negotiated the [[Apollo-Soyuz]] program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with [[Soyuz 19]] in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely symbolic.',
19 => 'The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, which was dubbed ''[[Space Station Freedom|Freedom]]''. The USSR launched three [[Almaz]] military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''[[Mir]]'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of {{convert|354|km|nmi|abbr=off|sp=us}}, at an [[orbital inclination]] of 51.6°. It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001.',
20 => 'The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Space Station Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]''. A fifth shuttle, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|an accident during launch]] that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a [[European Space Agency]] sortie space station called [[Spacelab]] in the Shuttle payload bay.<ref name=StoryShuttle>{{cite book |title=The Story of the Space Shuttle |author=David Michael Harland |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] Praxis |date=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 444] |isbn=978-1-85233-793-3 |author-link=David M. Harland |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 }}</ref>',
21 => '[[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiter, Soviet equivalent of the Space Shuttle orbiter]]',
22 => 'The USSR copied the US's reusable [[Space Shuttle orbiter]], which they called ''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiter or simply ''Buran'', which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable [[Energia]] rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the Space Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter it used smaller rocket engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.'
]
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All external links added in the edit ($1) (added_links) |
[]
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All external links removed in the edit ($1) (removed_links) |
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2 => 'https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444',
3 => 'https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408',
4 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20141221151510/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/'
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All external links in the new text ($1) (all_links) |
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1 => 'https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity',
2 => 'https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-30/spacex-set-to-retry-historic-rocket-launch-after-weather-delay',
3 => 'http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouv/',
4 => 'http://en.cmse.gov.cn/aboutcms/',
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10 => 'http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202005/t20200506_46488.html',
11 => 'http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202105/t20210528_48002.html',
12 => 'http://www.cmse.gov.cn/ztbd/xwfbh/202106/t20210622_48281.html',
13 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20210713065620/http://www.cmse.gov.cn/ztbd/xwfbh/202106/t20210622_48281.html',
14 => 'http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html',
15 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20111129102151/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html',
16 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20210427085514/https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html',
17 => 'https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html',
18 => 'https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/09/spacex-launch-inspiration4/',
19 => 'http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/',
20 => 'https://spaceflightnow.com/2021/09/22/nasa-official-says-starliner-demo-mission-not-likely-to-launch-until-next-year/',
21 => 'https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/08/boeing-to-ground-starliner-indefinitely-until-valve-issue-solved/',
22 => 'https://archive.today/20140921132432/http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions',
23 => 'http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions',
24 => 'http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international',
25 => 'https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747',
26 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0',
27 => 'http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/',
28 => 'http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/',
29 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130306043002/http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/',
30 => 'http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Space_Experience_Curacao_Announces_Wet_Lease_of_XCOR_Lynx_Suborbital_999.html',
31 => 'http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/',
32 => 'https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/',
33 => 'https://www.inclusiveastronomy.org',
34 => 'https://www.rbth.com/science-and-tech/333087-nasa-soviet-space-selection',
35 => 'http://www.space.com/22252-women-astronauts-radiation-risk.html',
36 => 'https://theconversation.com/female-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346',
37 => 'https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/10/18/nasa-astronauts-wrap-up-historic-all-woman-spacewalk/',
38 => 'http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-america-in-historic-test-flight-of-spacex-crew-dragon',
39 => 'https://planet4589.org/space/jsr/back/news.792.txt',
40 => 'https://history.nasa.gov/styleguide.html',
41 => 'https://www.isro.gov.in/update/07-nov-2006/scientists-discuss-indian-manned-space-mission',
42 => 'http://eprints.nias.res.in/1359/1/2017-MK-Rao-IAC-17-B3-1-9-IndianHumanSpaceFlightFullPaper.pdf',
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44 => 'https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2020-06-11-isro-stalls-launch-uncrewed-gaganyaan-mission-chandrayaan-3-due-covid-19',
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46 => 'https://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/technology/four-years-is-tight-but-can-achieve-the-human-spaceflight-isros-k-sivan/65411891',
47 => 'https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-will-put-man-in-space-for-seven-days-isro-chairman-118081500485_1.html',
48 => 'http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8139347.stm',
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61 => 'http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html',
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73 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/',
74 => 'http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/',
75 => 'https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/64249main_ffs_factsheets_hbp_atrophy.pdf',
76 => 'http://www.space.com/21413-hadfield-astronaut-health-return-earth.html',
77 => 'https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=3830060&page=1',
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123 => 'https://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/technology/four-years-is-tight-but-can-achieve-the-human-spaceflight-isros-k-sivan/65411891',
124 => 'https://theconversation.com/female-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346',
125 => 'https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-manned-mission-not-before-2023-minister/articleshow/81013233.cms',
126 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AcAau..43..193E',
127 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000RadR..153..729P',
128 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007A&G....48f..11L',
129 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLoSO...753275C',
130 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Sci...340.1031K',
131 => 'https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2020-06-11-isro-stalls-launch-uncrewed-gaganyaan-mission-chandrayaan-3-due-covid-19',
132 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20010605212352/http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/chrono.html',
133 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070802015842/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight',
134 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm',
135 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/',
136 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20081120153024/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml',
137 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20111129102151/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html',
138 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html',
139 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130306043002/http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/',
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142 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20210427085514/https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html',
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148 => 'https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-will-put-man-in-space-for-seven-days-isro-chairman-118081500485_1.html',
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150 => 'https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/bc-ims112018.php',
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156 => 'https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity',
157 => 'https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/09/spacex-launch-inspiration4/',
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170 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0'
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'<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Space travel by humans</div>
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<a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight"><span style="color:#FFFFFF">History</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline of spaceflight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_probes" title="List of Solar System probes">Space probes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lunar_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of lunar missions">Lunar missions</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#1d2f61">
<a href="/wiki/Spaceflight#Applications_of_spaceflight" title="Spaceflight"><span style="color:#FFFFFF">Applications</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation satellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spy_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Spy satellite">Spy satellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Military_satellite" title="Military satellite">Military satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescopes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#1d2f61">
<a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft"><span style="color:#FFFFFF">Spacecraft</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a><br />
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_spacecraft" title="Cargo spacecraft">Cargo spacecraft</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a><br />
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">Space capsule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">Space station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#1d2f61">
<a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch"><span style="color:#FFFFFF">Space launch</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">Launch pad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Expendable_launch_system" title="Expendable launch system">Expendable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_system" title="Reusable launch system">reusable</a> <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">Non-rocket spacelaunch</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#1d2f61">
<span style="color:#FFFFFF">Spaceflight types</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">Sub-orbital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">Orbital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#1d2f61">
<a href="/wiki/Space_agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Space agency"><span style="color:#FFFFFF">Space agencies</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">List of government space agencies</a></div></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#1d2f61">
<a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force"><span style="color:#FFFFFF">Space forces</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">PLASSF</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/French_Air_and_Space_Force" title="French Air and Space Force">AAE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><img alt="Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/46px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/IRGCASF" class="mw-redirect" title="IRGCASF">IRGCASF</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Forces" title="Russian Aerospace Forces">VKS</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">USSF</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#1d2f61">
<a href="/wiki/Space_command" title="Space command"><span style="color:#FFFFFF">Space commands</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Operations_Command" title="Aerospace Operations Command">COMAE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">NORAD</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/French_Space_Command" title="French Space Command">CDE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Defence_Space_Agency" title="Defence Space Agency">DSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Operations_Command_(Italy)" title="Space Operations Command (Italy)">COS</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Operations_Squadron_(JASDF)" title="Space Operations Squadron (JASDF)">SOS</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO"><img alt="NATO" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Flag_of_NATO.svg/20px-Flag_of_NATO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Flag_of_NATO.svg/31px-Flag_of_NATO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Flag_of_NATO.svg/40px-Flag_of_NATO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/NATO_Space_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="NATO Space Centre">NATO SC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru"><img alt="Peru" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Commission_for_Aerospace_Research_and_Development" title="National Commission for Aerospace Research and Development">CONIDA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Forces" title="Russian Space Forces">KV</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea"><img alt="South Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Defense_Development" title="Agency for Defense Development">ADD</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Space_Command" title="United Kingdom Space Command">UKSC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">USSPACECOM</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#1d2f61">
<a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight"><span style="color:#FFFFFF">Private spaceflight</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABL_Space_Systems" title="ABL Space Systems">ABL Space Systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrobotic">Astrobotic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_Space" title="Axiom Space">Axiom Space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ARCAspace" title="ARCAspace">ARCA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astra_Space" class="mw-redirect" title="Astra Space">Astra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bigelow_Aerospace" title="Bigelow Aerospace">Bigelow Aerospace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Origin" title="Blue Origin">Blue Origin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BluShift_Aerospace" title="BluShift Aerospace">BluShift Aerospace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Suborbitals" title="Copenhagen Suborbitals">Copenhagen Suborbitals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Firefly_Aerospace" title="Firefly Aerospace">Firefly Aerospace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_Technologies" title="Interstellar Technologies">Interstellar Technologies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intuitive_Machines" title="Intuitive Machines">Intuitive Machines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman" title="Northrop Grumman">Northrop Grumman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbex" title="Orbex">Orbex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perigee_Aerospace" title="Perigee Aerospace">Perigee Aerospace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PLD_Space" title="PLD Space">PLD Space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_Space" title="Relativity Space">Relativity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_Lab" title="Rocket Lab">Rocket Lab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_Corporation" title="Sierra Nevada Corporation">Sierra Nevada Corp</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TiSPACE" title="TiSPACE">TiSPACE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance" title="United Launch Alliance">United Launch Alliance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/UP_Aerospace" title="UP Aerospace">UP Aerospace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Galactic" title="Virgin Galactic">Virgin Galactic</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#000 2px solid; border-bottom:#000 2px solid;">
<a href="/wiki/File:RocketSunIcon.svg" class="image"><img alt="RocketSunIcon.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/16px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/24px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/32px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaceflight_sidebar" title="Template:Spaceflight sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaceflight_sidebar" title="Template talk:Spaceflight sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Spaceflight_sidebar&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r978413945/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:254px;max-width:254px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Aldrin_Apollo_11_original.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Aldrin_Apollo_11_original.jpg/250px-Aldrin_Apollo_11_original.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="252" data-file-width="3912" data-file-height="3936" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> astronaut <a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a> on the Moon, 1969</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:FirstSpaceWalk.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/47/FirstSpaceWalk.png/250px-FirstSpaceWalk.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="178" data-file-width="374" data-file-height="267" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_2" title="Voskhod 2">Voskhod 2</a> cosmonaut <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Leonov" title="Alexei Leonov">Alexei Leonov</a>, first in open space, 1965</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Ed_White_First_American_Spacewalker_-_GPN-2000-001180.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Ed_White_First_American_Spacewalker_-_GPN-2000-001180.jpg/250px-Ed_White_First_American_Spacewalker_-_GPN-2000-001180.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="251" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3011" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Gemini_4" title="Gemini 4">Gemini 4</a> astronaut <a href="/wiki/Ed_White_(astronaut)" title="Ed White (astronaut)">Ed White</a> in open space, 1965</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS-32_American_EVA_b3_Aki_Hoshide.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/ISS-32_American_EVA_b3_Aki_Hoshide.jpg/250px-ISS-32_American_EVA_b3_Aki_Hoshide.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Japan_Aerospace_Exploration_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency">Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</a> astronaut <a href="/wiki/Akihiko_Hoshide" title="Akihiko Hoshide">Akihiko Hoshide</a> taking a <a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">space selfie</a> in 2012</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg/250px-Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> crewmember <a href="/wiki/Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson" title="Tracy Caldwell Dyson">Tracy Caldwell Dyson</a> views the Earth, 2010</div></div></div></div></div>
<p><b>Human spaceflight</b> (also referred to as <b>manned spaceflight</b> or <b>crewed spaceflight</b>) is <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> with a crew or passengers aboard a <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>, often with the spacecraft being operated directly by the onboard human crew. Spacecraft can also be <a href="/wiki/Telerobotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Telerobotic">remotely operated</a> from ground stations on Earth, or <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_robot" title="Autonomous robot">autonomously</a>, without any direct human involvement. People trained for spaceflight are called <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a> (American or other), <i>cosmonauts</i> (Russian), or <i>taikonauts</i> (Chinese); and non-professionals are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_participant" title="Spaceflight participant">spaceflight participants</a> or <i>spacefarers</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first human in space was <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> cosmonaut <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, who launched on <a href="/wiki/Cosmonautics_Day" title="Cosmonautics Day">12 April 1961</a> as part of the Soviet Union's <a href="/wiki/Vostok_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok program">Vostok program</a>. This was towards the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>. On 5 May 1961, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a> became the first American in space, as part of <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>. Humans traveled to <a href="/wiki/The_Moon" class="mw-redirect" title="The Moon">the Moon</a> nine times between 1968 and 1972 as part of the United States' <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a>, and have had a continuous presence in space for 21 years and 136 days on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> As of 2021, humans have not traveled beyond <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_17" title="Apollo 17">Apollo 17</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_the_Moon" title="List of missions to the Moon">lunar mission</a> in December 1972.
</p><p>Currently, the United States, Russia, and China are the only countries with <a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflight_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of human spaceflight programs">public or commercial human spaceflight-capable programs</a>. On 15 October 2003, the first Chinese taikonaut, <a href="/wiki/Yang_Liwei" title="Yang Liwei">Yang Liwei</a>, went to space as part of <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_5" title="Shenzhou 5">Shenzhou 5</a>. <a href="/wiki/List_of_private_spaceflight_companies" title="List of private spaceflight companies">Non-governmental spaceflight companies</a> have been working to develop human space programs of their own, e.g. for <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourism</a> or commercial <a href="/wiki/Space_research" title="Space research">in-space research</a>. The first private human spaceflight launch was a <a href="/wiki/Suborbital_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Suborbital flight">suborbital flight</a> on <a href="/wiki/SpaceShipOne" title="SpaceShipOne">SpaceShipOne</a> on June 21, 2004. The first commercial <a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">orbital</a> crew launch was by <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a> in May 2020, transporting, under United States government contract, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> astronauts to the <a href="/wiki/ISS" class="mw-redirect" title="ISS">ISS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Post-Apollo_era"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Post-Apollo era</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#US_/_Russian_cooperation"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">US / Russian cooperation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#China"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">China</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Abandoned_programs_of_other_nations"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Abandoned programs of other nations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#United_States_"Shuttle_gap""><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">United States "Shuttle gap"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Commercial_private_spaceflight"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Commercial private spaceflight</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Passenger_travel_via_spacecraft"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Passenger travel via spacecraft</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Human_representation_and_participation"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Human representation and participation</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Women"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Women</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Milestones"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Milestones</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#By_achievement"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">By achievement</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#By_nationality_or_sex"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">By nationality or sex</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Space_programs"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Space programs</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Current_programs"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Current programs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Planned_future_programs"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Planned future programs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#National_spacefaring_attempts"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">National spacefaring attempts</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Safety_concerns"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Safety concerns</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Environmental_hazards"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Environmental hazards</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Life_support"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Life support</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Medical_issues"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medical issues</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-22"><a href="#Microgravity"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Microgravity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-23"><a href="#Radiation"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Radiation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-24"><a href="#Isolation"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Isolation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-25"><a href="#Sensory_systems"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Sensory systems</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Equipment_hazards"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Equipment hazards</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Launch"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Launch</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Extravehicular_activity"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Extravehicular activity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Reentry_and_landing"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Reentry and landing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Artificial_atmosphere"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Artificial atmosphere</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Reliability"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Reliability</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Fatality_risk"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Fatality risk</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History of spaceflight</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>
</p><p>After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on Proje.ct Mercury, with the aim of launching men into orbit. The USSR was secretly pursuing the Vostok program to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who, on 12 April 1961, was launched aboard Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket and completed a single orbit. On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight aboard <i>Freedom 7</i> on a Mercury-Redstone rocket. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecraft's attitude. On 20 February 1962, John Glenn became the first American in orbit, aboard <i>Friendship 7</i> on a Mercury-Atlas rocket. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6, on 16 June 1963. Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit. The US also made two North American X-15 flights (90 and 91, piloted by Joseph A. Walker) that exceeded the Kármán line, the 100 kilometres (62 mi) altitude used by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) to denote the edge of space.
</p><p>In 1961, US President John F. Kennedy raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s. That same year, the US began the Apollo program of launching three-man capsules atop the Saturn family of launch vehicles to accomplish this; and, in 1962, began Project Gemini, which, in 1965 and 1966, flew 10 missions with two-man crews launched by Titan II rockets, Gemini's objective being to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used during the Moon mission.
</p><p>Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule by adapting it to a two or three-person Voskhod capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, performed by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2 on 8 March 1965. However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not achieve the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks, solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by compensating for the lack of gravity, demonstrating the ability of humans to endure two weeks in space, and performing the first space rendezvous and docking of spacecraft.
</p><p>The US succeeded in developing the Saturn V rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders into 10 orbits around the Moon in Apollo 8 in December 1968. In July 1969, Apollo 11 accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot Michael Collins. Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove electric powered vehicles on the surface. The crew of Apollo 13—
</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">ell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Swigert" title="Jack Swigert">Jack Swigert</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Haise" title="Fred Haise">Fred Haise</a>—survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, orbited the Moon without landing, and returned safely to Earth.</p><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Salyut_1_and_Soyuz_drawing.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Salyut_1_and_Soyuz_drawing.png/220px-Salyut_1_and_Soyuz_drawing.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="1466" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Salyut_1_and_Soyuz_drawing.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Salyut 1, first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraft</div></div></div>
<p>Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs. They successfully developed the three-person Soyuz spacecraft for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the N1 rocket necessary for a human landing, discontinuing their lunar programs in 1974. Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of space stations, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Post-Apollo_era">Post-Apollo era</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg/220px-Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="5920" data-file-height="2792" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Artist's rendering of an Apollo CSM is about to dock with a Soyuz spacecraft.</div></div></div>
<p>In 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious Space Transportation System based on a reusable Space Shuttle, which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger kerosene-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the o launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable space tug; and nuclear interplanetary ferry, leading to a human expedition to Mars as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly back booster with two reusable solid rocket boosters, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable external propellant tank to feed its hydrogen-fueled main engines. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_landing_at_KSC_following_STS-122_(crop).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_landing_at_KSC_following_STS-122_%28crop%29.jpg/220px-Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_landing_at_KSC_following_STS-122_%28crop%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="1400" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_landing_at_KSC_following_STS-122_(crop).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Space Shuttle orbiter, first crewed orbital spaceplane</div></div></div>
<p>In 1973, the US launched the Skylab sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard Apollo spacecraft. During that time, President Richard Nixon and Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev were negotiating an easing of Cold War tensions known as détente. As part of this, they negotiated the Apollo-Soyuz program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with Soyuz 19 in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely symbolic.
</p><p>The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, which was dubbed <i>Freedom</i>. The USSR launched three Almaz military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of <i>Mir</i>, the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. <i>Mir</i> orbited at an altitude of , at an orbital inclination of 51.6°. It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001.
</p><p>The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make <i>Space Station Freedom</i> a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: <i>Columbia</i>, <i>Challenger</i>, <i>Discovery</i>, and <i>Atlantis</i>. A fifth shuttle, <i>Endeavour</i>, was built to replace <i>Challenger</i>, which was destroyed in an accident during launch that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a European Space Agency sortie space station called Spacelab in the Shuttle payload bay.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Buran_on_An-225_(Le_Bourget_1989)_(cropped).JPEG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Buran_on_An-225_%28Le_Bourget_1989%29_%28cropped%29.JPEG/220px-Buran_on_An-225_%28Le_Bourget_1989%29_%28cropped%29.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1076" data-file-height="568" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Buran_on_An-225_(Le_Bourget_1989)_(cropped).JPEG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i>Buran</i>-class orbiter, Soviet equivalent of the Space Shuttle orbiter</div></div></div>
<p>The USSR copied the US's reusable Space Shuttle orbiter, which they called <i>Buran</i>-class orbiter or simply <i>Buran</i>, which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable Energia rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the Space Shuttle, <i>Buran</i> had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter it used smaller rocket engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.
</p>
<h3><span id="US_.2F_Russian_cooperation"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="US_/_Russian_cooperation">US / Russian cooperation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg/220px-International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3319" data-file-height="2116" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and Russia</div></div></div>
<p>The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos_State_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Roscosmos State Corporation">Roscosmos State Corporation</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Shuttle-Mir_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuttle-Mir Program">Shuttle-Mir Program</a> included American Space Shuttles visiting the <i>Mir</i> space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard <i>Mir</i>.
</p><p>In 1993, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station <i>Freedom</i> into the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS). Construction of the station began in 1998. The station orbits at an altitude of 409 kilometers (221 nmi) and an orbital inclination of 51.65°. Several of the Space Shuttle's 135 orbital flights were to help assemble, supply, and crew the ISS. Russia has built half of the International Space Station and has continued its cooperation with the US.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="China">China</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/China_Manned_Space_Program" title="China Manned Space Program">China Manned Space Program</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquette_d%27un_vaisseau_Shenzhou.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Maquette_d%27un_vaisseau_Shenzhou.jpg/220px-Maquette_d%27un_vaisseau_Shenzhou.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquette_d%27un_vaisseau_Shenzhou.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_(spacecraft)" title="Shenzhou (spacecraft)">Shenzhou</a>, first non-USSR and non-USA spacecraft</div></div></div>
<p>China was the third nation in the world, after the USSR and USA, to send humans into space. During the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> between the two superpowers, which culminated with <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> landing humans on the Moon, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> decided on 14 July 1967 that China should not be left behind, and initiated their own crewed space program: the top-secret Project 714, which aimed to put two people into space by 1973 with the <a href="/wiki/Shuguang_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuguang spacecraft">Shuguang</a> spacecraft. Nineteen <a href="/wiki/PLAAF" class="mw-redirect" title="PLAAF">PLAAF</a> pilots were selected for this goal in March 1971. The Shuguang-1 spacecraft, to be launched with the <a href="/wiki/CZ-2A" class="mw-redirect" title="CZ-2A">CZ-2A</a> rocket, was designed to carry a crew of two. The program was officially cancelled on 13 May 1972 for economic reasons.
</p><p>In 1992, under <a href="/wiki/China_Manned_Space_Program" title="China Manned Space Program">China Manned Space Program</a> (CMS), also known as "Project 921", authorization and funding was given for the first phase of a third, successful attempt at crewed spaceflight. To achieve independent human spaceflight capability, China developed <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenzhou spacecraft">Shenzhou spacecraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Long_March_2F" title="Long March 2F">Long March 2F</a> rocket dedicated for human spaceflight in the next few years, along with critical infrastructures like new launch site and flight control center being built. The first uncrewed spacecraft, <i><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_1" title="Shenzhou 1">Shenzhou 1</a></i>, was launched on 20 November 1999 and recovered the next day, marking the first step of the realization of China's human spaceflight capability. Three more uncrewed missions were conducted in the next few years in order to verify the key technologies. On 15 October 2003 <i><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_5" title="Shenzhou 5">Shenzhou 5</a></i>, China's first crewed spaceflight mission, put <i><a href="/wiki/Yang_Liwei" title="Yang Liwei">Yang Liwei</a></i> in orbit for 21 hours and returned safely back to <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, making China the third nation to launch a human into orbit independently.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The goal of the second phase of CMS was to make technology breakthroughs in <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activities" class="mw-redirect" title="Extravehicular activities">extravehicular activities</a> (EVA, or spacewalk) as well as <a href="/wiki/Space_rendezvous" title="Space rendezvous">space rendezvous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Docking_and_berthing_of_spacecraft" title="Docking and berthing of spacecraft">docking</a> to support short-term human activities in space.<sup id="cite_ref-aboutCMS_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aboutCMS-5">[5]</a></sup> On 25 September 2008 during the flight of <i><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_7" title="Shenzhou 7">Shenzhou 7</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Zhai_Zhigang" title="Zhai Zhigang">Zhai Zhigang</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Liu_Boming_(astronaut)" title="Liu Boming (astronaut)">Liu Boming</a></i> completed China's first EVA.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> In 2011, China launched the <a href="/wiki/Tiangong_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiangong 1">Tiangong 1</a> target spacecraft and <i><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_8" title="Shenzhou 8">Shenzhou 8</a></i> uncrewed spacecraft. The two spacecraft completed China's first automatic rendezvous and docking on 3 November 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> About 9 months later, <i>Tiangong 1</i> completed the first manual rendezvous and docking with <i><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_9" title="Shenzhou 9">Shenzhou 9</a></i>, which carried China's first female astronaut <i><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yang_(astronaut)" title="Liu Yang (astronaut)">Liu Yang</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>In September 2016, <i><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiangong 2">Tiangong 2</a></i> was launched into the orbit. It was a space laboratory with more advanced functions and equipment than <i>Tiangong 1</i>. A month later, <i><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_11" title="Shenzhou 11">Shenzhou 11</a></i> was launched and docked with <i>Tiangong 2</i>. Two astronauts entered <i>Tiangong 2</i> and stationed for about 30 days and verified the viability of astronauts' medium-term stay in space.<sup id="cite_ref-spacelab_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spacelab-9">[9]</a></sup> In April 2017, China's first cargo spacecraft, <i><a href="/wiki/Tianzhou_1" title="Tianzhou 1">Tianzhou 1</a></i> docked with <i>Tiangong 2</i> and completed multiple in-orbit propellant refueling tests, which marked the successful completion of the second phase of CMS.<sup id="cite_ref-spacelab_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spacelab-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>The third phase of CMS bagan in 2020. The goal of this phase is to build China's own space station, <a href="/wiki/Tiangong_Space_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiangong Space Station"><i>Tiangong</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> The first module of <i>Tiangong</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Tianhe_core_module" title="Tianhe core module">Tianhe core module</a>, was launched into orbit by China's most powerful rocket <a href="/wiki/Long_March_5B" class="mw-redirect" title="Long March 5B">Long March 5B</a> on 29 April 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-third_step_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-third_step-11">[11]</a></sup> It was later visited by multiple cargo and crewed spacecraft and demonstrated China's capability of sustaining Chinese astronauts' long-term stay in space.
</p><p>According to CMS announcement, all missions of Tiangong Space Station are scheduled to be carried out by the end of 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-CSSplan_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSSplan-12">[12]</a></sup> Once the construction is completed, <i>Tiangong</i> will enter the application and development phase, which is poised to last for no less than 10 years.<sup id="cite_ref-CSSplan_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSSplan-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Abandoned_programs_of_other_nations">Abandoned programs of other nations</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> began development of the <a href="/wiki/Hermes_(spacecraft)" title="Hermes (spacecraft)">Hermes</a> shuttle <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a> in 1987, to be launched on the <a href="/wiki/Ariane_5" title="Ariane 5">Ariane 5</a> expendable launch vehicle. It was intended to dock with the European <a href="/wiki/Columbus_Man-Tended_Free_Flyer" title="Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer">Columbus space station</a>. The projects were canceled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built. The Columbus space station was reconfigured as the <a href="/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)" title="Columbus (ISS module)">European module of the same name</a> on the International Space Station.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Japan (<a href="/wiki/NASDA" class="mw-redirect" title="NASDA">NASDA</a>) began development of the <a href="/wiki/HOPE-X" title="HOPE-X">HOPE-X</a> experimental shuttle spaceplane in the 1980s, to be launched on its <a href="/wiki/H-IIA" title="H-IIA">H-IIA</a> expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reductions, and the project's cancellation in 2003 in favor of participation in the International Space Station program through the <a href="/wiki/Kibo_(ISS_module)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibo (ISS module)"><i>Kibō</i> Japanese Experiment Module</a> and <a href="/wiki/H-II_Transfer_Vehicle" title="H-II Transfer Vehicle">H-II Transfer Vehicle</a> cargo spacecraft. As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the <a href="/wiki/Fuji_(spacecraft)" title="Fuji (spacecraft)">Fuji crew capsule</a> for independent or ISS flights, but the project did not proceed to the contracting stage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>From 1993 to 1997, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_Rocket_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Japanese Rocket Society (page does not exist)">Japanese Rocket Society</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B1%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E5%8D%94%E4%BC%9A" class="extiw" title="ja:日本ロケット協会">ja</a>]</sup>, <a href="/wiki/Kawasaki_Heavy_Industries" title="Kawasaki Heavy Industries">Kawasaki Heavy Industries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries" title="Mitsubishi Heavy Industries">Mitsubishi Heavy Industries</a> worked on the proposed <a href="/wiki/Kankoh-maru" title="Kankoh-maru">Kankoh-maru</a> <a href="/wiki/Vertical_takeoff_and_landing" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical takeoff and landing">vertical-takeoff-and-landing</a> <a href="/wiki/Single-stage-to-orbit" title="Single-stage-to-orbit">single-stage-to-orbit</a> reusable launch system. In 2005, this system was proposed for space tourism.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>According to a press release from the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_News_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi News Agency">Iraqi News Agency</a> dated 5 December 1989, there was only one test of the <a href="/wiki/Al-Abid" title="Al-Abid">Al-Abid</a> space launcher, which <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> intended to use to develop its own crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> of 1991 and the economic hardships that followed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="United_States_.22Shuttle_gap.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States_"Shuttle_gap"">United States "Shuttle gap"</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:STS-135_begins_takeoff_(cropped).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/STS-135_begins_takeoff_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-STS-135_begins_takeoff_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:STS-135_begins_takeoff_(cropped).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/STS-135" title="STS-135">STS-135</a> (July 2011), the final human spaceflight of the United States until 2018</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Virgin_Galactic_SpaceShipTwo_%22Unity%22_rollout_19Feb2016,_FAITH_hangar,_Mojave,_California.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Virgin_Galactic_SpaceShipTwo_%22Unity%22_rollout_19Feb2016%2C_FAITH_hangar%2C_Mojave%2C_California.jpg/220px-Virgin_Galactic_SpaceShipTwo_%22Unity%22_rollout_19Feb2016%2C_FAITH_hangar%2C_Mojave%2C_California.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="6762" data-file-height="3612" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Virgin_Galactic_SpaceShipTwo_%22Unity%22_rollout_19Feb2016,_FAITH_hangar,_Mojave,_California.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/VSS_Unity" title="VSS Unity">VSS <i>Unity</i></a> <a href="/wiki/VSS_Unity_VP-03" title="VSS Unity VP-03">Flight VP-03</a> December 2018, the first human spaceflight from the United States since <a href="/wiki/STS-135" title="STS-135">STS-135</a></div></div></div>
<p>Under the Bush administration, the <a href="/wiki/Constellation_program" title="Constellation program">Constellation program</a> included plans for retiring the Space Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the <a href="/wiki/2011_United_States_federal_budget" title="2011 United States federal budget">2011 United States federal budget</a>, the Obama administration canceled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> As part of the <a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis program</a>, NASA is developing the <a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a> spacecraft to be launched by the <a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_System" title="Space Launch System">Space Launch System</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Crew Development">Commercial Crew Development</a> plan, NASA relies on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low Earth orbit, such as <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2" title="SpaceX Dragon 2">SpaceX Dragon 2</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_Starliner" title="Boeing Starliner">Boeing Starliner</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_Corporation" title="Sierra Nevada Corporation">Sierra Nevada Corporation</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dream_Chaser" title="Dream Chaser">Dream Chaser</a>. The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch into space of <a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a> <a href="/wiki/VSS_Unity_VP-03" title="VSS Unity VP-03">Flight VP-03</a> on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> in 1975 and the <a href="/wiki/STS-1" title="STS-1">first Space Shuttle flight</a> in 1981, and is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Commercial_private_spaceflight">Commercial private spaceflight</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:SpaceShipOne_Flight_15P_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/SpaceShipOne_Flight_15P_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg/220px-SpaceShipOne_Flight_15P_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:SpaceShipOne_Flight_15P_photo_D_Ramey_Logan.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipOne" title="SpaceShipOne">SpaceShipOne</a>, first private sub-orbital spaceplane</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Crew_Dragon_at_the_ISS_for_Demo_Mission_1_(cropped).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Crew_Dragon_at_the_ISS_for_Demo_Mission_1_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Crew_Dragon_at_the_ISS_for_Demo_Mission_1_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Crew_Dragon_at_the_ISS_for_Demo_Mission_1_(cropped).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Crew_Dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Crew Dragon">Crew Dragon</a>, first private orbital spacecraft</div></div></div>
<p>Since the early 2000s, a variety of <a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">private spaceflight</a> ventures have been undertaken. As of May 2021, <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a> has launched humans to orbit, while <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Galactic" title="Virgin Galactic">Virgin Galactic</a> has launched crew to a height above 80 km (50 mi) on a suborbital trajectory.<sup id="cite_ref-spaceshiptwoflight_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spaceshiptwoflight-14">[14]</a></sup> Several other companies—including <a href="/wiki/Blue_Origin" title="Blue Origin">Blue Origin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_Corporation" title="Sierra Nevada Corporation">Sierra Nevada</a>—develop crewed spacecraft. All four companies plan to fly commercial passengers in the emerging <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourism</a> market.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a> has developed <a href="/wiki/Crew_Dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Crew Dragon">Crew Dragon</a> flying on <a href="/wiki/Falcon_9" title="Falcon 9">Falcon 9</a>. It first launched astronauts to orbit and to the ISS in May 2020 as part of the <a href="/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2" title="Crew Dragon Demo-2">Demo-2</a> mission. Developed as part of NASA's <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Crew Development">Commercial Crew Development</a> program, the capsule is also available for flights with other customers. A first tourist mission, <a href="/wiki/Inspiration4" title="Inspiration4">Inspiration4</a>, launched in September 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-Inspiration4_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inspiration4-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Defense,_Space_%26_Security" title="Boeing Defense, Space & Security">Boeing</a> is developing the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_Starliner" title="Boeing Starliner">Starliner</a> capsule as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, which is launched on a <a href="/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance" title="United Launch Alliance">United Launch Alliance</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_V" title="Atlas V">Atlas V</a> launch vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-nasaAnnounce20140906_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasaAnnounce20140906-16">[16]</a></sup> Starliner made an uncrewed flight in December 2019. A second uncrewed flight attempt was scrubbed in August 2021, with a NASA official saying it would likely not launch until 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> A crewed flight is not expected before the second half of 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> Similar to SpaceX, development funding has been provided by a mix of <a href="/wiki/Government_funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Government funding">government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Private_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Private capital">private</a> funds.<sup id="cite_ref-sn20140921_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sn20140921-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASApress20140916_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASApress20140916-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Galactic" title="Virgin Galactic">Virgin Galactic</a> is developing <a href="/wiki/SpaceshipTwo" class="mw-redirect" title="SpaceshipTwo">SpaceshipTwo</a>, a commercial <a href="/wiki/Suborbital_spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Suborbital spaceflight">suborbital</a> spacecraft aimed at the <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourism</a> market. It reached space in December 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-spaceshiptwoflight_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spaceshiptwoflight-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Blue_Origin" title="Blue Origin">Blue Origin</a> is in a multi-year <a href="/wiki/Flight_test" title="Flight test">test</a> program of their <a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a> vehicle and has carried out 16 uncrewed test flights as of September 2021, and one crewed flight carrying founder <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Bezos" title="Jeff Bezos">Jeff Bezos</a>, his brother <a href="/wiki/Mark_Bezos" title="Mark Bezos">Mark Bezos</a>, aviator <a href="/wiki/Wally_Funk" title="Wally Funk">Wally Funk</a>, and 18-year old <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Daemen" title="Oliver Daemen">Oliver Daemen</a> on July 20, 2021.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Passenger_travel_via_spacecraft">Passenger travel via spacecraft</span></h2>
<p>Over the decades, a number of spacecraft have been proposed for spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by <a href="/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">airliner</a> after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to <a href="/wiki/Space_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Space transport">transport</a> large numbers of passengers to destinations in space, or on Earth via <a href="/wiki/Suborbital_spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Suborbital spaceflight">suborbital spaceflights</a>. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the <a href="/wiki/Test_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Test flight">test flight</a> phase of their development process.
</p><p>One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">SpaceX Starship</a>, which, in addition to replacing the <a href="/wiki/Falcon_9" title="Falcon 9">Falcon 9</a> and <a href="/wiki/Falcon_Heavy" title="Falcon Heavy">Falcon Heavy</a> <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a> in the legacy Earth-orbit <a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">market</a> after 2020, has been proposed by SpaceX for long-distance commercial travel on Earth, flying 100+ people suborbitally between two points in under one hour, also known as "Earth-to-Earth".<sup id="cite_ref-rollingstone20171115_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rollingstone20171115-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sxEarthToEarth201709_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sxEarthToEarth201709-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sn20171015c_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sn20171015c-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>Small <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a> or small <a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">capsule</a> suborbital spacecraft have been under development for the past decade or so; as of 2017<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, at least one of each type is under development. Both <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Galactic" title="Virgin Galactic">Virgin Galactic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blue_Origin" title="Blue Origin">Blue Origin</a> have craft in active <a href="/wiki/New_product_development" title="New product development">development</a>: the <a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a> spaceplane and the <a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a> capsule, respectively. Both would carry approximately a half-dozen passengers up to space for a brief time of zero gravity before returning to the launch location. <a href="/wiki/XCOR_Aerospace" title="XCOR Aerospace">XCOR Aerospace</a> had been developing the <a href="/wiki/Lynx_(spacecraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynx (spacecraft)">Lynx single-passenger spaceplane</a> since the 2000s,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> but development was halted in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-sn20171109_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sn20171109-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Human_representation_and_participation">Human representation and participation</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_presence_in_space" title="Human presence in space">Human presence in space</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_outpost" title="Human outpost">Human outpost</a></div>
<p>Participation and representation of humanity in space has been an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration.<sup id="cite_ref-Durrani_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durrani-27">[27]</a></sup> Some rights of non-spacefaring countries have been secured through international <a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">space law</a>, declaring space the "<a href="/wiki/Common_heritage_of_mankind" class="mw-redirect" title="Common heritage of mankind">province of all mankind</a>", though the sharing of space by all humanity is sometimes criticized as <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialist</a> and lacking.<sup id="cite_ref-Durrani_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durrani-27">[27]</a></sup> In addition to the lack of international inclusion, the inclusion of women and <a href="/wiki/People_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="People of color">people of color</a> has also been lacking. To make spaceflight more inclusive, organizations such as the <i>Justspace Alliance</i><sup id="cite_ref-Durrani_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durrani-27">[27]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/IAU" class="mw-redirect" title="IAU">IAU</a>-featured <i>Inclusive Astronomy</i><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> have been formed in recent years.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Women">Women</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Women in space</a></div>
<p>The first woman to ever enter space was <a href="/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a>. She flew in 1963, but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space. At the time, all astronauts were required to be military test pilots; women were not able to enter this career, which is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> After the rules were changed, <a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Savitskaya" title="Svetlana Savitskaya">Svetlana Savitskaya</a> became the second woman to enter space; she was also from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sally_Ride" title="Sally Ride">Sally Ride</a> became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program.
</p><p>Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. The first all-female space walk occurred in 2018, by <a href="/wiki/Christina_Koch" title="Christina Koch">Christina Koch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Meir" title="Jessica Meir">Jessica Meir</a>. These two women had both participated in separate space walks with NASA. The first mission to the Moon with a woman aboard is planned for 2024.
</p><p>Despite these developments, women are still underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs, and limit the space missions they are able to go on, are, for example:
</p>
<ul><li>agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, due to suppositions that women are at greater potential risk for cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></li>
<li>a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts.<sup id="cite_ref-clothing_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clothing-31">[31]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Milestones">Milestones</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="By_achievement">By achievement</span></h3>
<dl><dt>12 April 1961</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> was the first human in space and the first in Earth orbit, on <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a>.</dd>
<dt>17 July 1962 or 19 July 1963</dt>
<dd>Either <a href="/wiki/Robert_Michael_White" title="Robert Michael White">Robert M. White</a> or <a href="/wiki/Joseph_A._Walker" title="Joseph A. Walker">Joseph A. Walker</a> (depending on the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Space_border" class="mw-redirect" title="Space border">space border</a>) was the first to pilot a <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a>, the <a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">North American X-15</a>, on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker).</dd>
<dt>18 March 1965</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Leonov" title="Alexei Leonov">Alexei Leonov</a> was first to <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">walk in space</a>.</dd>
<dt>15 December 1965</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_M._Schirra" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter M. Schirra">Walter M. Schirra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_P._Stafford" title="Thomas P. Stafford">Tom Stafford</a> were first to perform a <a href="/wiki/Space_rendezvous" title="Space rendezvous">space rendezvous</a>, piloting their <a href="/wiki/Gemini_6A" title="Gemini 6A">Gemini 6A</a> spacecraft to achieve <a href="/wiki/Orbital_station-keeping" title="Orbital station-keeping">station-keeping</a> one foot (30 cm) from <a href="/wiki/Gemini_7" title="Gemini 7">Gemini 7</a> for over 5 hours.</dd>
<dt>16 March 1966</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Neil_Armstrong" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Scott" title="David Scott">David Scott</a> were first to <a href="/wiki/Docking_and_berthing_of_spacecraft" title="Docking and berthing of spacecraft">rendezvous and dock</a>, piloting their <a href="/wiki/Gemini_8" title="Gemini 8">Gemini 8</a> spacecraft to dock with an uncrewed <a href="/wiki/Agena_Target_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Agena Target Vehicle">Agena Target Vehicle</a>.</dd>
<dt>21–27 December 1968</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">Jim Lovell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> were first to travel beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and first to orbit the Moon, on the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a> mission, which orbited the Moon ten times before returning to Earth.</dd>
<dt>26 May 1969</dt>
<dd>Apollo 10 reaches the fastest speed ever traveled by a human: 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph), or roughly 1/27,000 of <a href="/wiki/Lightspeed" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightspeed">lightspeed</a>.</dd>
<dt>20 July 1969</dt>
<dd>Neil Armstrong and <a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a> were first to land on the Moon, during <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a>.</dd>
<dt>Longest time in space</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Valeri_Polyakov" title="Valeri Polyakov">Valeri Polyakov</a> performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days, 17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds). <a href="/wiki/Gennady_Padalka" title="Gennady Padalka">Gennady Padalka</a> has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days.</dd>
<dt>Longest-duration crewed space station</dt>
<dd>The <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present (21 years and 136 days). This record was previously held by <a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_TM-8" title="Soyuz TM-8">Soyuz TM-8</a> on 5 September 1989 to the <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_TM-29" title="Soyuz TM-29">Soyuz TM-29</a> on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,644 days (almost 10 years).</dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="By_nationality_or_sex">By nationality or sex</span></h3>
<dl><dt>12 April 1961</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> became the first Soviet and the first human to reach space, on <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a>.</dd>
<dt>5 May 1961</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a> became the first American to reach space, on <i><a href="/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_3" title="Mercury-Redstone 3">Freedom 7</a></i>.</dd>
<dt>20 February 1962</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a> became the first American to orbit the Earth.</dd>
<dt>16 June 1963</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a> became the first woman to go into space and to orbit the Earth.</dd>
<dt>2 March 1978</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Vladim%C3%ADr_Remek" title="Vladimír Remek">Vladimír Remek</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakian</a>, became the first non-American and non-Soviet in space, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a> program.</dd>
<dt>2 April 1984</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_Sharma" title="Rakesh Sharma">Rakesh Sharma</a>, became the first Indian citizen to reach Earth's orbit.</dd>
<dt>25 July 1984</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Savitskaya" title="Svetlana Savitskaya">Svetlana Savitskaya</a> became the first woman to <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">walk in space</a>.</dd>
<dt>15 October 2003</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Yang_Liwei" title="Yang Liwei">Yang Liwei</a> became the first Chinese in space and to orbit the Earth, on <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_5" title="Shenzhou 5">Shenzhou 5</a>.</dd>
<dt>18 October 2019</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Christina_Koch" title="Christina Koch">Christina Koch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Meir" title="Jessica Meir">Jessica Meir</a> conducted the first woman-only <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">walk in space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p><a href="/wiki/Sally_Ride" title="Sally Ride">Sally Ride</a> became the first American woman in space, in 1983. <a href="/wiki/Eileen_Collins" title="Eileen Collins">Eileen Collins</a> was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission <a href="/wiki/STS-93" title="STS-93">STS-93</a> in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft.
</p><p>For many years, only the USSR (later Russia) and the United States were the only countries whose astronauts flew in space. That ended with the 1978 flight of Vladimir Remek. As of 2010<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, citizens from 38 nations (including <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourists</a>) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Space_programs">Space programs</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflight_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of human spaceflight programs">List of human spaceflight programs</a>.</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Astronaut corps" redirects here. For subdivision of NASA, see <a href="/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Corps" title="NASA Astronaut Corps">NASA Astronaut Corps</a>.</div>
<p>Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the Soviet Union–Russian Federation, the United States, <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a>, and by American <a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">private spaceflight</a> companies.
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1039153519">@media all and (max-width:720px){body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mw-graph{min-width:100%!important;max-width:100%;overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:visible}}.mw-parser-output .mw-graph-img{width:inherit;height:inherit}</style><div class="mw-graph mw-graph-always mw-graph-nofallback" style="min-width:1px;min-height:1px" data-graph-id="ffad9be266af0145d495ccaa0c429693bc22fbe0"></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="background-color:#204a87; color:white;"> </span> Currently have human spaceflight programs.</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"/><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="background-color:#729fcf; color:black;"> </span> Confirmed and dated plans for human spaceflight programs.</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"/><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="background-color:#add8e6; color:black;"> </span> Confirmed plans for human spaceflight programs.</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"/><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="background-color:#4e9a06; color:black;"> </span> Plans for human spaceflight on the simplest form (suborbital spaceflight, <i>etc.</i>).</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"/><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="background-color:#ce5c00; color:black;"> </span> Plans for human spaceflight on the extreme form (space stations, <i>etc.</i>).</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"/><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="background-color:#2e3436; color:white;"> </span> Once had official plans for human spaceflight programs, but have since been abandoned.</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Current_programs">Current programs</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:272px;"><div class="noresize"><map name="ImageMap_b0856a48121798f3"><area href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" shape="rect" coords="0,0,214,164" alt="International Space Station" title="International Space Station" /><area href="/wiki/Tiangong_Space_Station" shape="rect" coords="214,0,270,164" alt="Tiangong Space Station" title="Tiangong Space Station" /><area href="/wiki/Mir" shape="rect" coords="0,164,101,273" alt="Mir" title="Mir" /><area href="/wiki/Skylab" shape="rect" coords="101,164,195,273" alt="Skylab" title="Skylab" /><area href="/wiki/Tiangong-2" shape="rect" coords="195,164,270,273" alt="Tiangong-2" title="Tiangong-2" /><area href="/wiki/Salyut_1" shape="rect" coords="0,273,62,359" alt="Salyut 1" title="Salyut 1" /><area href="/wiki/Salyut_2" shape="rect" coords="62,273,109,359" alt="Salyut 2" title="Salyut 2" /><area href="/wiki/Salyut_4" shape="rect" coords="109,273,164,359" alt="Salyut 4" title="Salyut 4" /><area href="/wiki/Salyut_6" shape="rect" coords="164,273,214,359" alt="Salyut 6" title="Salyut 6" /><area href="/wiki/Salyut_7" shape="rect" coords="214,273,270,359" alt="Salyut 7" title="Salyut 7" /></map><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Space_station_size_comparison.svg/270px-Space_station_size_comparison.svg.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="359" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Space_station_size_comparison.svg/405px-Space_station_size_comparison.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Space_station_size_comparison.svg/540px-Space_station_size_comparison.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="693" data-file-height="921" usemap="#ImageMap_b0856a48121798f3" /></div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_station_size_comparison.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><div class="floatleft"><img alt="The image above contains clickable links" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/18px-Interactive_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="The image above contains clickable links" width="18" height="27" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/27px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/36px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="133" data-file-height="200" /></div> Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes.</div></div></div>
<p>The following space vehicles and <a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">spaceports</a> are currently used for launching human spaceflights:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz program</a> (Russia): spacecraft on <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz launch vehicle</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a>; 146 crewed orbital flights since 1967, including two in-flight aborts which failed to reach orbit, as of the end of April 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Manned_Space_Program" title="China Manned Space Program">China Manned Space Program</a> (China): <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenzhou spacecraft">Shenzhou spacecraft</a> on <a href="/wiki/Long_March_(rocket_family)" title="Long March (rocket family)">Long March launch vehicle</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Jiuquan_Satellite_Launch_Center" title="Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center">Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center</a>; eight crewed orbital flights since 2003, as of October 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a> (US): Air launched from <a href="/wiki/Scaled_Composites_White_Knight_Two" title="Scaled Composites White Knight Two">White Knight Two</a> carrier aircraft. The first two flights were from the <a href="/wiki/Mojave_Air_and_Space_Port" title="Mojave Air and Space Port">Mojave Air and Space Port</a>, with subsequent flights from <a href="/wiki/Spaceport_America" title="Spaceport America">Spaceport America</a>. Four crewed suborbital flights since 2018, as of the end of July 2021.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crew_Dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Crew Dragon">Crew Dragon</a> (US): Launched from <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Falcon_9_Block_5" title="Falcon 9 Block 5">Falcon 9</a> rocket. Four crewed orbital flights as of September 2021, both privately funded and as part of the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Program" title="Commercial Crew Program">Commercial Crew Program</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Inspiration4_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inspiration4-15">[15]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a> (US): Launched from a facility near <a href="/wiki/Van_Horn,_Texas" title="Van Horn, Texas">Van Horn, Texas</a>. Three crewed suborbital launches as of December 2021.</li></ul>
<p>The following <a href="/wiki/Space_stations" class="mw-redirect" title="Space stations">space stations</a> are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (US, Russia, Europe, Japan, Canada) assembled in orbit: altitude 409 kilometers (221 nautical miles), 51.65° orbital inclination; crews transported by Soyuz or Crew Dragon spacecraft</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_Space_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiangong Space Station">Tiangong Space Station</a> (China) assembled in orbit: 41.5° orbital inclination;<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> crews transported by Shenzhou spacecraft</li></ul>
<p>Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, which generally has a crew of 7 except during crew transitions, and those aboard Tiangong, which has a crew of 3.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and <a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA">ESA</a> use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions", though because of gender specificity this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Planned_future_programs">Planned future programs</span></h3>
<p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Human_Spaceflight_Programme" title="Indian Human Spaceflight Programme">Indian Human Spaceflight Program</a>, India was planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle <a href="/wiki/Gaganyaan" title="Gaganyaan">Gaganyaan</a> before August 2022, but it has been delayed to 2023, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</a> (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kadursrinivas_2017_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kadursrinivas_2017-37">[37]</a></sup> The initial objective is to carry a crew of two or three to <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> (LEO) for a 3-to-7-day flight in a <a href="/wiki/ISRO_Orbital_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="ISRO Orbital Vehicle">spacecraft</a> on a <a href="/wiki/GSLV_Mk_III" class="mw-redirect" title="GSLV Mk III">GSLV Mk III</a> rocket and return them safely for a water landing at a predefined landing zone. On 15 August 2018, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Prime_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Prime Minister">Indian Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a>, declared India will independently send humans into space before the 75th <a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(India)" title="Independence Day (India)">anniversary of independence</a> in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> In 2019, ISRO revealed plans for a <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Station">space station</a> by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission. The program envisages the development of a fully-autonomous orbital vehicle capable of carrying 2 or 3 crew members to an about 300 km (190 mi) low Earth orbit and bringing them safely back home.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>Since 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Aerospace_Exploration_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency">Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</a> has developed the <a href="/wiki/H-II_Transfer_Vehicle" title="H-II Transfer Vehicle">H-II Transfer Vehicle</a> cargo-spacecraft-based crewed spacecraft and <a href="/wiki/Kibo_(ISS_module)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibo (ISS module)"><i>Kibō</i> Japanese Experiment Module</a>–based small space laboratory.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s. The first step will begin with <a href="/wiki/Artemis_1" title="Artemis 1">Artemis 1</a> in 2022, sending an uncrewed <a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a> spacecraft to a <a href="/wiki/Distant_retrograde_orbit" title="Distant retrograde orbit">distant retrograde orbit</a> around the Moon and returning it to Earth after a 25-day mission.
</p><p>SpaceX is developing <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">Starship</a>, a fully reusable two stage system, with near-Earth and cislunar applications and an ultimate goal of landing on Mars. The upper stage of the Starship system, also called Starship, has had 9 atmospheric test flights as of September 2021. A <a href="/wiki/Starship_HLS" title="Starship HLS">modified version</a> of Starship is being developed for the <a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis program</a>.
</p><p>Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs using natively developed equipment and technology, including Japan (<a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">JAXA</a>), <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">ISA</a>), and <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Development_Administration" title="National Aerospace Development Administration">NADA</a>). The plans for the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_crewed_spacecraft" title="Iranian crewed spacecraft">Iranian crewed spacecraft</a> are for a small spacecraft and space laboratory. <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>'s <a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Development_Administration" title="National Aerospace Development Administration">space program</a> has plans for crewed spacecraft and small shuttle systems.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="National_spacefaring_attempts">National spacefaring attempts</span></h3>
<dl><dd><i>This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/List_of_space_travelers_by_nationality" title="List of space travelers by nationality">nations with citizens who have traveled into space</a>, including space tourists, flown or intending to fly by a foreign country's or non-domestic private company's space systems – who are not counted in this list toward their country's national spacefaring attempts.</i></dd></dl>
<p><br />
</p>
<table class="wikitable" border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;">
<tbody><tr style="background:#f9f9b0;">
<th>Nation/Organization
</th>
<th>Space agency
</th>
<th>Term(s) for space traveler
</th>
<th>First launched astronaut
</th>
<th>Date
</th>
<th>Spacecraft
</th>
<th>Launcher
</th>
<th>Type
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a><br />(1922–1991)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/OKB-1" class="mw-redirect" title="OKB-1">OKB-1 Design Bureau</a>)
</td>
<td>космонавт (same word in:) <span class="languageicon">(in Russian and Ukrainian)</span><br /><i>kosmonavt</i><br />cosmonaut<br />Ғарышкер<span class="languageicon">(in Kazakh)</span>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>
</td>
<td>12 April 1961
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Vostok_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok spacecraft">Vostok spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Vostok_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok rocket">Vostok</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)</a>
</td>
<td>astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a> (suborbital)
</td>
<td>5 May 1961
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mercury_spacecraft#Spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercury spacecraft">Mercury spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_Launch_Vehicle" title="Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle">Redstone</a>
</td>
<td>Suborbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)</a>
</td>
<td>astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a> (orbital)
</td>
<td>20 February 1962
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mercury_spacecraft#Spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercury spacecraft">Mercury spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Atlas_LV-3B" title="Atlas LV-3B">Atlas LV-3B</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program of the People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">宇航员</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">yǔhángyuán</i></span><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">航天员</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">hángtiānyuán</i></span>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>1973 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Shuguang_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuguang spacecraft">Shuguang</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Long_March_2A" title="Long March 2A">Long March 2A</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program of the People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">宇航员</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">yǔhángyuán</i></span><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">航天员</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">hángtiānyuán</i></span>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>1981 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Fanhui_Shi_Weixing" title="Fanhui Shi Weixing">Piloted FSW</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Long_March_2" title="Long March 2">Long March 2</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:ESA_logo_simple.svg" class="image"><img alt="ESA logo simple.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ESA_logo_simple.svg/20px-ESA_logo_simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ESA_logo_simple.svg/30px-ESA_logo_simple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ESA_logo_simple.svg/40px-ESA_logo_simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="243" data-file-height="243" /></a> <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">CNES</a> / <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency (ESA)</a>
</td>
<td><i>spationaute</i> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span><br />astronaut
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>1992 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Hermes_(spacecraft)" title="Hermes (spacecraft)">Hermes</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Ariane_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariane V">Ariane V</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a><br />
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a> <br />
</td>
<td>космонавт <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span><br /><i>kosmonavt</i><br />cosmonaut
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Viktorenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Viktorenko">Alexander Viktorenko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kaleri" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Kaleri">Alexander Kaleri</a>
</td>
<td>17 March 1992
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_TM-14" title="Soyuz TM-14">Soyuz TM-14</a> to MIR
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz-U2" title="Soyuz-U2">Soyuz-U2</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a><br />(1968–2003)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[note 1]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">رجل فضاء</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>)</span><br /><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">rajul faḍāʼ</i></span><br /><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">رائد فضاء</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>)</span><br /><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">rāʼid faḍāʼ</i></span><br /><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ملاح فضائي</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>)</span><br /><i>mallāḥ faḍāʼiy</i>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2001 (abandoned)
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tammouz_rocket&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tammouz rocket (page does not exist)">Tammouz 2 or 3</a>
</td>
<td data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">N/A
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/National_Space_Development_Agency_of_Japan" title="National Space Development Agency of Japan">National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)</a>
</td>
<td><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">宇宙飛行士</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">uchūhikōshi</i></span> or<br /> <span class="t_nihongo_kanji"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">アストロノート</span></span></span><br /> <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">asutoronoto</i></span>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2003 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/HOPE-X" title="HOPE-X">HOPE</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/H-II" title="H-II">H-II</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/China_Manned_Space_Agency" title="China Manned Space Agency">China Manned Space Agency (CMSA)</a>
</td>
<td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">宇航员</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">yǔhángyuán</i></span><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">航天员</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">hángtiānyuán</i></span><br />taikonaut (<span lang="zh">太空人</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">tàikōng rén</span></i>)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Yang_Liwei" title="Yang Liwei">Yang Liwei</a>
</td>
<td>15 October 2003
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_(spacecraft)" title="Shenzhou (spacecraft)">Shenzhou spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Long_March_2F" title="Long March 2F">Long March 2F</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_Rocket_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Japanese Rocket Society (page does not exist)">Japanese Rocket Society</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B1%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E5%8D%94%E4%BC%9A" class="extiw" title="ja:日本ロケット協会">ja</a>]</sup>, <a href="/wiki/Kawasaki_Heavy_Industries" title="Kawasaki Heavy Industries">Kawasaki Heavy Industries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries" title="Mitsubishi Heavy Industries">Mitsubishi Heavy Industries</a>
</td>
<td><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">宇宙飛行士</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">uchūhikōshi</i></span> or<br /> <span class="t_nihongo_kanji"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">アストロノート</span></span></span><br /> <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">asutoronoto</i></span>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2000s (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Kankoh-maru" title="Kankoh-maru">Kankoh-maru</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Kankoh-maru" title="Kankoh-maru">Kankoh-maru</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)</a>
</td>
<td><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">宇宙飛行士</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">uchūhikōshi</i></span> or<br /> <span class="t_nihongo_kanji"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">アストロノート</span></span></span><br /> <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">asutoronoto</i></span>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2003 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Fuji_(spacecraft)" title="Fuji (spacecraft)">Fuji</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/H-II" title="H-II">H-II</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /> </span><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)</a>
</td>
<td>Vyomanaut <br /> <span class="languageicon">(in Sanskrit)</span>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2023<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a></sup>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Gaganyaan" title="Gaganyaan">Gaganyaan</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_Satellite_Launch_Vehicle_Mk_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III">GSLV Mk III</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
<p><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:ESA_logo_simple.svg" class="image"><img alt="ESA logo simple.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ESA_logo_simple.svg/20px-ESA_logo_simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ESA_logo_simple.svg/30px-ESA_logo_simple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/ESA_logo_simple.svg/40px-ESA_logo_simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="243" data-file-height="243" /></a> <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency (ESA)</a>
</td>
<td>astronaut
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2020 (concept approved in 2009; but full development not begun)<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a></sup>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/CSTS" title="CSTS">CSTS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle" title="Automated Transfer Vehicle">ARV phase-2</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Ariane_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariane V">Ariane V</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)</a>
</td>
<td><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">宇宙飛行士</span></span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>)</span><br /><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">uchūhikōshi</i></span> or<br /> <span class="t_nihongo_kanji"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">アストロノート</span></span></span><br /> <span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">asutoronoto</i></span>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>TBD
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/H-II_Transfer_Vehicle" title="H-II Transfer Vehicle">HTV-based spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/H3_(rocket)" title="H3 (rocket)">H3</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/46px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">Iranian Space Agency (ISA)</a>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2019 (on hold)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Iranian_crewed_spacecraft" title="Iranian crewed spacecraft">ISA spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td>TBD
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/46px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="800" /> </span><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Development_Administration" title="National Aerospace Development Administration">National Aerospace Development Administration (NADA)</a>
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2020s
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Development_Administration#Future_projects" title="National Aerospace Development Administration">NADA spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Unha" title="Unha">Unha 9</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Suborbitals" title="Copenhagen Suborbitals">Copenhagen Suborbitals</a>
</td>
<td>astronaut
</td>
<td>—
</td>
<td>2020s
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/HEAT_1X_Tycho_Brahe" title="HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/HEAT_1X_Tycho_Brahe" title="HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe">SPICA</a>
</td>
<td>Suborbital
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><br />
</p>
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alt="Aleksandr Aleksandrov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yuri_Romanenko" coords="398,89,435,109" title="Yuri Romanenko" alt="Yuri Romanenko" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Laveykin" coords="393,74,429,95" title="Aleksandr Laveykin" alt="Aleksandr Laveykin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov" coords="378,60,414,80" title="Vladimir Solovyov" alt="Vladimir Solovyov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Leonid_Kizim" coords="378,45,414,66" title="Leonid Kizim" alt="Leonid Kizim" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov" coords="378,218,414,239" title="Vladimir Solovyov" alt="Vladimir Solovyov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Leonid_Kizim" coords="378,204,414,224" title="Leonid Kizim" alt="Leonid Kizim" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Alexander_Volkov" coords="369,189,405,210" title="Alexander Volkov" alt="Alexander Volkov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Vasyutin" coords="369,175,405,196" title="Vladimir Vasyutin" alt="Vladimir Vasyutin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dzhanibekov" coords="367,161,403,181" title="Vladimir Dzhanibekov" alt="Vladimir Dzhanibekov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Viktor_Savinykh" coords="369,146,405,167" title="Viktor Savinykh" alt="Viktor Savinykh" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Oleg_Atkov" coords="353,132,389,152" title="Oleg Atkov" alt="Oleg Atkov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov" coords="353,117,389,138" title="Vladimir Solovyov" alt="Vladimir Solovyov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Leonid_Kizim" coords="353,103,389,124" title="Leonid Kizim" alt="Leonid Kizim" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Pavlovich_Aleksandrov" coords="340,89,377,109" title="Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov" alt="Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lyakhov" coords="340,74,377,95" title="Vladimir Lyakhov" alt="Vladimir Lyakhov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Valentin_Lebedev" coords="327,60,363,80" title="Valentin Lebedev" alt="Valentin Lebedev" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Anatoli_Berezovoy" coords="327,45,363,66" title="Anatoli Berezovoy" alt="Anatoli Berezovoy" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Viktor_Savinykh" coords="305,189,341,210" title="Viktor Savinykh" alt="Viktor Savinykh" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kovalyonok" coords="305,175,341,196" title="Vladimir Kovalyonok" alt="Vladimir Kovalyonok" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Valery_Ryumin" coords="296,161,333,181" title="Valery Ryumin" alt="Valery Ryumin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Leonid_Popov" coords="296,146,333,167" title="Leonid Popov" alt="Leonid Popov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Georgi_Ivanov_(cosmonaut)" coords="275,132,311,152" title="Georgi Ivanov (cosmonaut)" alt="Georgi Ivanov (cosmonaut)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Valery_Ryumin" coords="280,117,316,138" title="Valery Ryumin" alt="Valery Ryumin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lyankhov" coords="280,103,316,124" title="Vladimir Lyankhov" alt="Vladimir Lyankhov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Ivanchenkov" coords="269,89,305,109" title="Aleksandr Ivanchenkov" alt="Aleksandr Ivanchenkov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kovalyonok" coords="269,74,305,95" title="Vladimir Kovalyonok" alt="Vladimir Kovalyonok" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Gerogi_Grencho" coords="260,60,296,80" title="Gerogi Grencho" alt="Gerogi Grencho" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yuri_Romanenko" coords="260,45,296,66" title="Yuri Romanenko" alt="Yuri Romanenko" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yuri_Glazkov" coords="245,218,281,239" title="Yuri Glazkov" alt="Yuri Glazkov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Viktor_Gorbatko" coords="245,204,281,224" title="Viktor Gorbatko" alt="Viktor Gorbatko" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vitali_Zholobov" coords="238,189,274,210" title="Vitali Zholobov" alt="Vitali Zholobov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Boris_Volynov" coords="238,175,274,196" title="Boris Volynov" alt="Boris Volynov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vitali_Sevastyanov" coords="223,146,259,167" title="Vitali Sevastyanov" alt="Vitali Sevastyanov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Pyotr_Klimuk" coords="223,132,259,152" title="Pyotr Klimuk" alt="Pyotr Klimuk" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Aleksei_Gubarev" coords="216,117,252,138" title="Aleksei Gubarev" alt="Aleksei Gubarev" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Georgi_Grechko" coords="216,103,252,124" title="Georgi Grechko" alt="Georgi Grechko" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Pavel_Popovich" coords="208,74,244,95" title="Pavel Popovich" alt="Pavel Popovich" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yuri_Artyukhin" coords="208,60,244,80" title="Yuri Artyukhin" alt="Yuri Artyukhin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Edward_Gibson" coords="202,161,238,181" title="Edward Gibson" alt="Edward Gibson" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/William_Pogue" coords="202,146,238,167" title="William Pogue" alt="William Pogue" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Gerald_Carr" coords="202,132,238,152" title="Gerald Carr" alt="Gerald Carr" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Owen_Garriot" coords="197,117,233,138" title="Owen Garriot" alt="Owen Garriot" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jack_Lousma" coords="197,103,233,124" title="Jack Lousma" alt="Jack Lousma" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Alan_Bean" coords="197,89,233,109" title="Alan Bean" alt="Alan Bean" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Joeseph_Kerwin" coords="193,74,229,95" title="Joeseph Kerwin" alt="Joeseph Kerwin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paul_Weitz" coords="193,60,229,80" title="Paul Weitz" alt="Paul Weitz" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Pete_Conrad" coords="193,45,229,66" title="Pete Conrad" alt="Pete Conrad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladislav_Volkov" coords="165,74,201,95" title="Vladislav Volkov" alt="Vladislav Volkov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Viktor_Patsayev" coords="165,60,201,80" title="Viktor Patsayev" alt="Viktor Patsayev" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Georgi_Dobrovolski" coords="165,45,201,66" title="Georgi Dobrovolski" alt="Georgi Dobrovolski" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_qjd2cc5e6sui30gk2iop8jv2kixa5sy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/qjd2cc5e6sui30gk2iop8jv2kixa5sy.png" /></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Safety_concerns">Safety concerns</span></h2>
<p>There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the hostile space environment, and those due to possible equipment malfunctions. Addressing these issues is of great importance for NASA and other space agencies before conducting the first extended crewed missions to destinations such as Mars.<sup id="cite_ref-williams202104_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams202104-48">[47]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Environmental_hazards">Environmental hazards</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_habitat" title="Space habitat">Space habitat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Locomotion_in_Space" class="mw-redirect" title="Locomotion in Space">Locomotion in Space</a></div>
<p>Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Life_support">Life support</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Life_support_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support system">Life support system</a></div>
<p>The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the <a href="/wiki/Life_support_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support system">life support system</a> of the spacecraft.
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astronautical_hygiene" title="Astronautical hygiene">Astronautical hygiene</a></div>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Medical_issues">Medical issues</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep in space</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></div>
<p>Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment, or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on limited resources and medical advice from the ground.
</p><p>The possibility of <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blindness</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Bone_Loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone Loss">bone loss</a> have been associated with human <a href="/wiki/Space_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Space flight">space flight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20140127_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140127-49">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wired-20120723_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wired-20120723-50">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 31 December 2012, a <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the brains of <a href="/wiki/Astronauts" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronauts">astronauts</a> and accelerate the onset of <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PLOS-20121231_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLOS-20121231-51">[50]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SpaceRef-20130101_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpaceRef-20130101-52">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NasaWatch-20130103_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NasaWatch-20130103-53">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>In October 2015, the <a href="/wiki/NASA_Office_of_Inspector_General" title="NASA Office of Inspector General">NASA Office of Inspector General</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">health hazards report</a> related to <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>, which included the potential hazards of a <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">human mission to Mars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20151029_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20151029-54">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20151029oig_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20151029oig-55">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 2 November 2017, scientists reported, based on <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI studies</a>, that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">trips in space</a>. Astronauts on longer space trips were affected by greater brain changes.<sup id="cite_ref-NEJM-20171102_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEJM-20171102-56">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-QTZ-20171103_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QTZ-20171103-57">[56]</a></sup>
</p><p>Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS) of five <i><a href="/wiki/Enterobacter" title="Enterobacter">Enterobacter bugandensis</a></i> bacterial strains, none <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a> to humans, that <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> on ISS should be carefully monitored to assure a healthy environment for <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EA-20181122_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EA-20181122-58">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BMC-20181123_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMC-20181123-59">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>In March 2019, NASA reported that latent <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> in humans may be activated during space missions, possibly adding more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.<sup id="cite_ref-EA-20190315_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EA-20190315-60">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 25 September 2021, <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> reported that an alarm had sounded during the <a href="/wiki/Inspiration4" title="Inspiration4">Inspiration4</a> Earth-orbital journey on the <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2" title="SpaceX Dragon 2">SpaceX Dragon 2</a>. The alarm signal was found to be associated with an apparent toilet malfunction.<sup id="cite_ref-CNN-20210925_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20210925-61">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Microgravity">Microgravity</span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_fluid_shift.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Space_fluid_shift.gif/220px-Space_fluid_shift.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="293" data-file-height="151" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_fluid_shift.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).</div></div></div>
<p>Medical data from astronauts in low Earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these <a href="/wiki/Deconditioning" title="Deconditioning">deconditioning</a> effects can impair astronauts' performance or increase their risk of injury.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back <a href="/wiki/Muscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle">muscles</a> or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes the muscles to weaken and get smaller. Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days. The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a></sup> Upon returning to Earth from <a href="/wiki/Long-duration_spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-duration spaceflight">long-duration</a> flights, astronauts are considerably weakened and are not allowed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (October 2020)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to drive a car for twenty-one days.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get <a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">motion sickness</a>, and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, they have to readjust and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking, and turning. Importantly, those motor disturbances only get worse the longer the exposure to weightlessness.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a></sup> These changes can affect the ability to perform tasks required for approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may occur while landing.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a></sup>
</p><p>In addition, after long <a href="/wiki/Space_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Space flight">space flight</a> missions, male astronauts may experience severe <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">eyesight</a> problems, which may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a <a href="/wiki/Crewed_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Crewed mission">crewed mission</a> to the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mader-2011_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mader-2011-67">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Puiu-20111109_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puiu-20111109-68">[67]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNN-20120109_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20120109-69">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Space-20120313_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Space-20120313-70">[69]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Radiology-20120313_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radiology-20120313-71">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WIRED-20140212_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIRED-20140212-72">[71]</a></sup> Long space flights can also alter a space traveler's eye movements.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Radiation">Radiation</span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png/220px-PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1017" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_assessment_detector" title="Radiation assessment detector">RAD</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">MSL</a> (2011–2013).<sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20130531a_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531a-74">[73]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by <a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">solar particle events</a> (SPEs) associated with <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a>. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a solar storm similar to that of the most powerful in recorded history, the <a href="/wiki/Carrington_Event" title="Carrington Event">Carrington Event</a>, have been estimated to be able to cause <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute radiation sickness">acute radiation sickness</a> and possibly even death.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Citation does not differentiate between solar flares and solar particle events. (December 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Another storm that could have inflicted a lethal radiation dose on astronauts outside Earth's protective <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a>, shortly after <a href="/wiki/Apollo_16" title="Apollo 16">Apollo 16</a> landed and before <a href="/wiki/Apollo_17" title="Apollo 17">Apollo 17</a> launched.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_August_1972" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of August 1972">solar storm of August 1972</a> would likely have caused acute illness, at least.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another type of radiation, galactic <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a></sup> resulting in a weakened <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> and the activation of dormant <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> in the body. <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> can cause both short- and long-term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells from which blood and immune-system cells are created. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Isolation">Isolation</span></h5>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body#Psychological_effects" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body § Psychological effects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight</a></div>
<p>During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined in small spaces. <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a>, anxiety, <a href="/wiki/Cabin_fever" title="Cabin fever">cabin fever</a>, and other psychological problems may occur more than for an average person and could impact the crew's safety and mission success.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a></sup> NASA spends millions of dollars on psychological treatments for astronauts and former astronauts.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a></sup> To date, there is no way to prevent or reduce mental problems caused by extended periods of stay in space.
</p><p>Due to these mental disorders, the efficiency of astronauts' work is impaired; and sometimes they are brought back to Earth, incurring the expense of their mission being aborted.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a></sup> A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that resulted in a fear of fluid leakage; but after a thorough investigation, it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction. It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinated the smell.
</p><p>It is possible that the mental health of astronauts can be affected by the changes in the sensory systems while in prolonged space travel.
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Sensory_systems">Sensory systems</span></h5>
<p>During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in an extreme environment. This, and the fact that little change is taking place in the environment, will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts' seven senses.
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a> – In the space station and spacecraft there are no noises from the outside, as there is no medium that can transmit sound waves. Although there are other team members who can talk to each other, their voices become familiar and do not stimulate the sense of hearing as much. Mechanical noises become familiar, as well.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sight" class="mw-redirect" title="Sight">Sight</a> – Because of weightlessness, the body's liquids attain an equilibrium that is different from what it is on the Earth. For this reason, an astronaut's face swells and presses on the eyes; and therefore their vision is impaired. The landscape surrounding the astronauts is constant, which lessens visual stimulations. Due to cosmic rays, astronauts may see flashes.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Smell</a> – The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">Taste</a> – The sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is dulled, the sense of taste is also. The astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten. The food comes only once every few months, when supplies arrive, and there is little or no variety.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Touch</a> – There are almost no stimulating changes in physical contact. There is almost no human physical contact during the journey.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">vestibular system</a> (motion and equilibrium system) – Due to the lack of gravity, all the movements required of the astronauts are changed, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception system</a> (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) – As a result of weightlessness, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles; and there is less stimulus to this system.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Equipment_hazards">Equipment hazards</span></h3>
<p>Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, and consequently requires the use of high <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Launch">Launch</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Launch_escape_system" title="Launch escape system">Launch escape system</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sts33-e204.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sts33-e204.jpg/220px-Sts33-e204.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="409" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Sts33-e204.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>There was no practical way for the <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger" title="Space Shuttle Challenger"><i>Challenger</i></a>'s crew to safely abort before the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">vehicle's violent disintegration</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>Since rockets have the potential for fire or explosive destruction, <a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">space capsules</a> generally employ some sort of <a href="/wiki/Launch_escape_system" title="Launch escape system">launch escape system</a>, consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicle</a> (employed on <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apollo_(spacecraft)" title="Apollo (spacecraft)">Apollo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz spacecraft">Soyuz</a>, the escape tower being discarded at some point after launch, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines), or else <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seats</a> (employed on <a href="/wiki/Vostok_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok spacecraft">Vostok</a> and <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a>) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landings.
</p><p>Such a launch escape system is not always practical for multiple-crew-member vehicles (particularly <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplanes</a>), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person <a href="/wiki/Voskhod_(spacecraft)" title="Voskhod (spacecraft)">Voskhod</a>, the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps. The <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights; but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued.
</p><p>There have been only two in-flight launch aborts of a crewed flight. The first occurred on <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T_No.39" title="Soyuz 7K-T No.39">Soyuz 18a</a> on 5 April 1975. The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited and the vehicle strayed off course. The crew finally managed to separate the spacecraft, firing its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket, both cosmonauts landing safely. The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_MS-10" title="Soyuz MS-10">Soyuz MS-10</a>. Again, both crew members survived.
</p><p>In the first use of a launch escape system on the launchpad, before the start of a crewed flight, happened during the planned <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_7K-ST_No._16L" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L">Soyuz T-10a</a> launch on 26 September 1983, which was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff. Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely.
</p><p>The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i></a> broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster" title="Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster">solid rocket booster</a> seal, which caused the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">external fuel tank</a>, resulting in explosion of the fuel and separation of the boosters. All seven crew members were killed.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Extravehicular_activity">Extravehicular activity</span></h4>
<p>Despite the ever-present risks related to mechanical failures while working in open space, no <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">spacewalking astronaut</a> has ever been lost. There is a requirement for spacewalking astronauts to use tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors. If those fail, a spacewalking astronaut would most probably float away impelled by forces that were acting on the astronaut at the time of breaking loose. Such an astronaut would possibly be spinning, as kicking and flailing would be of no use. At the right angle and velocity, the astronaut might even re-enter the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> and burn up. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> has protocols for such situations: astronauts would be wearing an emergency jetpack that would automatically counter any tumbling. NASA's plan states that astronauts should then take manual control of the jetpack and fly back to safety.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>However, if the jetpack's 3 pounds (1.4 kg) of fuel runs out, and if there is no other astronaut in close proximity to help, or if the air lock is irreparably damaged, the <a href="/wiki/Space_exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Space exposure">outcome would certainly be fatal</a>. At this time, there is no spacecraft to save an astronaut floating in space, as the only one with a rescue-ready air-locked compartment — <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_retirement" title="Space Shuttle retirement">the Space Shuttle</a> — retired 10 years ago. There is approximately a litre of water available via straw in an astronaut's helmet. The astronaut would wait roughly 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Reentry_and_landing">Reentry and landing</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_reentry" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric reentry">Atmospheric reentry</a></div>
<p>The single pilot of <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_1" title="Soyuz 1">Soyuz 1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Komarov" title="Vladimir Komarov">Vladimir Komarov</a>, was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash.
</p><p>On 1 February 2003, the crew of seven aboard the <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia" title="Space Shuttle Columbia"><i>Columbia</i></a> were <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">killed on reentry</a> after completing a <a href="/wiki/STS-107" title="STS-107">successful mission in space</a>. A wing-leading-edge <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_carbon-carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced carbon-carbon">reinforced carbon-carbon</a> heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">external tank</a> foam insulation that had broken off and struck the wing during launch. Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to the breakup of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" title="Space Shuttle orbiter">orbiter vehicle</a>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Artificial_atmosphere">Artificial atmosphere</span></h4>
<p>There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen and an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen–oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">extravehicular activity</a>.
</p><p>The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a> (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment. There have been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen.
</p>
<ul><li>In 1960, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonnell Aircraft">McDonnell Aircraft</a> test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin–space suit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his space suit feed.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a></sup> This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft.</li>
<li>In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia" title="Space Shuttle Columbia"><i>Columbia</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39">Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the <a href="/wiki/Ariane_5" title="Ariane 5">Ariane 5</a> launch pad at <a href="/wiki/Guiana_Space_Centre" title="Guiana Space Centre">Guiana Space Centre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_1" title="Apollo 1">Apollo 1</a> during a ground test at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Air_Force_Station_Launch_Complex_34" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34">Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34</a> on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure, increased by the fire, prevented removal of the <a href="/wiki/Plug_door" title="Plug door">plug door</a> hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three astronauts—<a href="/wiki/Gus_Grissom" title="Gus Grissom">Gus Grissom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ed_White_(astronaut)" title="Ed White (astronaut)">Ed White</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Chaffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Chaffee">Roger Chaffee</a>—were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-SP4029_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SP4029-87">[86]</a></sup> This led NASA to use a nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Reliability">Reliability</span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a></div>
<p>The March 1966 <a href="/wiki/Gemini_8" title="Gemini 8">Gemini 8</a> mission was aborted in orbit when an <a href="/wiki/Attitude_control_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Attitude control system">attitude control system</a> thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin that threatened the lives of <a href="/wiki/Neil_Armstrong" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Scott" title="David Scott">David Scott</a>. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a> discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit.
</p><p>The third lunar landing expedition, <a href="/wiki/Apollo_13" title="Apollo 13">Apollo 13</a>, in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew—<a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">James Lovell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Swigert" title="Jack Swigert">Jack Swigert</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Haise" title="Fred Haise">Fred Haise</a>—were threatened after the failure of a <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">cryogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a> tank en route to the Moon. The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the gradual loss of its remaining oxygen over a period of 130 minutes. This in turn caused loss of electrical power provided by <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Command/Service_Module" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo Command/Service Module">command spacecraft</a>. The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module" title="Apollo Lunar Module">lunar landing craft</a> as a "life boat". The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes: the tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing, necessitating the use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test; which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication.
</p><p>The crew of <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_11" title="Soyuz 11">Soyuz 11</a> were killed on 30 June 1971 by a combination of mechanical malfunctions; the crew were <a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxiated</a> due to cabin decompression following separation of their descent capsule from the service module. A cabin ventilation valve had been jolted open at an altitude of 168 kilometres (104 mi) by the stronger-than-expected shock of explosive separation bolts, which were designed to fire sequentially, but in fact had fired simultaneously. The loss of pressure became fatal within about 30 seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fatality_risk">Fatality risk</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents</a></div>
<p>As of December 2015<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing.
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Date
</th>
<th>Mission
</th>
<th>Accident cause
</th>
<th>Deaths
</th>
<th>Cause of death
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>27 January 1967
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Apollo_1" title="Apollo 1">Apollo 1</a>
</td>
<td>Electrical fire in cabin, spread quickly by 16.7 psi (1.15 bar) pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove <a href="/wiki/Plug_door" title="Plug door">plug door</a> hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">3
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_arrest" title="Cardiac arrest">Cardiac arrest</a> from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> poisoning
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>15 November 1967
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/X-15_Flight_3-65-97" title="X-15 Flight 3-65-97">X-15 Flight 3-65-97</a>
</td>
<td>The accident board found that the cockpit instrumentation had been functioning properly, and concluded that pilot <a href="/wiki/Michael_J._Adams" title="Michael J. Adams">Michael J. Adams</a> had lost control of the X-15 as a result of a combination of distraction, misinterpretation of his instrumentation display, and possible <a href="/wiki/Vertigo_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertigo (medical)">vertigo</a>. The electrical disturbance early in the flight degraded the overall effectiveness of the aircraft's control system and further added to pilot workload.
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1
</td>
<td>Vehicle breakup
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>24 April 1967
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_1" title="Soyuz 1">Soyuz 1</a>
</td>
<td>Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and entanglement of reserve parachute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitating emergency abort
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Physical_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical trauma">Trauma</a> from crash landing
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>30 June 1971
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_11" title="Soyuz 11">Soyuz 11</a>
</td>
<td>Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">3
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">Asphyxia</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>28 January 1986
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/STS-51L" class="mw-redirect" title="STS-51L">STS-51L</a> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i></a>
</td>
<td>Failure of <a href="/wiki/O-ring" title="O-ring">O-ring</a> inter-segment seal in one <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster" title="Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster">Solid Rocket Booster</a> in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">External Tank</a>; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">7
</td>
<td>Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>1 February 2003
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/STS-107" title="STS-107">STS-107</a> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Columbia</i></a>
</td>
<td>Damaged <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_carbon-carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced carbon-carbon">reinforced carbon-carbon</a> heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by piece of <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">External Tank</a> foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of wing, loss of control and disintegration of orbiter
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">7
</td>
<td>Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>31 October 2014
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a> <a href="/wiki/VSS_Enterprise_crash" title="VSS Enterprise crash">VSS <i>Enterprise</i> powered drop-test</a>
</td>
<td>Copilot error: premature deployment of "<a href="/wiki/Feathering_(reentry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Feathering (reentry)">feathering</a>" descent air-braking system caused disintegration of vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Physical_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical trauma">Trauma</a> from crash
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1072126029">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{float:right;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:solid #aaa 1px}.mw-parser-output .portalbox.tleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalbox.tright{margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}.mw-parser-output .portalbox>ul{display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalborder>ul{padding:0.1em;background:#f9f9f9}.mw-parser-output .portalbox>ul>li{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .portalbox>ul>li>span:first-child{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox>ul>li>span:last-child{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}</style><div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint plainlist portalbox portalborder tright">
<ul>
<li><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/28px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/42px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/56px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight portal</a></span></li></ul></div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflight_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of human spaceflight programs">List of human spaceflight programs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights" title="List of human spaceflights">List of human spaceflights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1961%E2%80%931970" title="List of human spaceflights, 1961–1970">1961-1970</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1971%E2%80%931980" title="List of human spaceflights, 1971–1980">1971-1980</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1981%E2%80%931990" title="List of human spaceflights, 1981–1990">1981-1990</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1991%E2%80%932000" title="List of human spaceflights, 1991–2000">1991-2000</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_2001%E2%80%932010" title="List of human spaceflights, 2001–2010">2001-2010</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_2011%E2%80%93present" class="mw-redirect" title="List of human spaceflights, 2011–present">2011-2020</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_2021%E2%80%93present" title="List of human spaceflights, 2021–present">2021-present</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">List of spaceflight records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">List of crewed spacecraft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Monkeys and apes in space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crewed_Mars_rover" title="Crewed Mars rover">Crewed Mars rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_astronaut" title="Commercial astronaut">Commercial astronaut</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_to_Stay" title="Mars to Stay">Mars to Stay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NewSpace" class="mw-redirect" title="NewSpace">NewSpace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_on_the_Moon" title="Tourism on the Moon">Tourism on the Moon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Women in space</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tammouz_rocket&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tammouz rocket (page does not exist)">Tammouz</a> space launcher, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"/><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity">"Counting the Many Ways the International Space Station Benefits Humanity"</a>. 5 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Counting+the+Many+Ways+the+International+Space+Station+Benefits+Humanity&rft.date=2019-04-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fpress-release%2Fcounting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-30/spacex-set-to-retry-historic-rocket-launch-after-weather-delay">"SpaceX Astronauts Reach Space Station After Milestone Voyage"</a>. <i>www.bloomberg.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=SpaceX+Astronauts+Reach+Space+Station+After+Milestone+Voyage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2020-05-30%2Fspacex-set-to-retry-historic-rocket-launch-after-weather-delay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouv/">"Shenzhou V"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=Shenzhou+V&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cmse.gov.cn%2Fmissions%2Fshenzhouv%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-aboutCMS-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aboutCMS_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/aboutcms/">"About CMS"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=About+CMS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cmse.gov.cn%2Faboutcms%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouvii/">"Shenzhou VII"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=Shenzhou+VII&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cmse.gov.cn%2Fmissions%2Fshenzhouvii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouviii/">"Shenzhou VIII"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=Shenzhou+VIII&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cmse.gov.cn%2Fmissions%2Fshenzhouviii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/shenzhouix/">"Shenzhou IX"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=Shenzhou+IX&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cmse.gov.cn%2Fmissions%2Fshenzhouix%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-spacelab-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spacelab_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spacelab_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/missions/space_laboratory_missions/">"Space Laboratory Missions"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=Space+Laboratory+Missions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cmse.gov.cn%2Fmissions%2Fspace_laboratory_missions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210617054112/http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202005/t20200506_46488.html">"China launches new Long March-5B rocket for space station program"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i>. 5 May 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202005/t20200506_46488.html">the original</a> on 17 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=China+launches+new+Long+March-5B+rocket+for+space+station+program&rft.date=2020-05-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cmse.gov.cn%2Fnews%2F202005%2Ft20200506_46488.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-third_step-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-third_step_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.cmse.gov.cn/news/202105/t20210528_48002.html">"Core Module Tianhe Launch a Complete Success -- Construction of China Space Station in Full Swing"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i>. 30 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=Core+Module+Tianhe+Launch+a+Complete+Success+--+Construction+of+China+Space+Station+in+Full+Swing&rft.date=2021-04-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.cmse.gov.cn%2Fnews%2F202105%2Ft20210528_48002.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-CSSplan-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CSSplan_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CSSplan_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cmse.gov.cn/ztbd/xwfbh/202106/t20210622_48281.html">"空间站天和核心舱飞行任务新闻发布会召开"</a>. <i>China Manned Space</i> (in Chinese). 29 April 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210713065620/http://www.cmse.gov.cn/ztbd/xwfbh/202106/t20210622_48281.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Manned+Space&rft.atitle=%E7%A9%BA%E9%97%B4%E7%AB%99%E5%A4%A9%E5%92%8C%E6%A0%B8%E5%BF%83%E8%88%B1%E9%A3%9E%E8%A1%8C%E4%BB%BB%E5%8A%A1%E6%96%B0%E9%97%BB%E5%8F%91%E5%B8%83%E4%BC%9A%E5%8F%AC%E5%BC%80&rft.date=2021-04-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cmse.gov.cn%2Fztbd%2Fxwfbh%2F202106%2Ft20210622_48281.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-nasaAnnounce20140906-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nasaAnnounce20140906_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBolden" class="citation web cs1">Bolden, Charlie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/">"American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil"</a>. <i>NASA.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA.gov&rft.atitle=American+Companies+Selected+to+Return+Astronaut+Launches+to+American+Soil&rft.aulast=Bolden&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.nasa.gov%2Fbolden%2F2014%2F09%2F16%2Famerican-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFClark" class="citation web cs1">Clark, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spaceflightnow.com/2021/09/22/nasa-official-says-starliner-demo-mission-not-likely-to-launch-until-next-year/">"NASA official says Starliner demo mission not likely to launch until next year"</a>. <i>Spaceflight Now</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spaceflight+Now&rft.atitle=NASA+official+says+Starliner+demo+mission+not+likely+to+launch+until+next+year&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspaceflightnow.com%2F2021%2F09%2F22%2Fnasa-official-says-starliner-demo-mission-not-likely-to-launch-until-next-year%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBerger2021" class="citation web cs1">Berger, Eric (13 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/08/boeing-to-ground-starliner-indefinitely-until-valve-issue-solved/">"Boeing to ground Starliner indefinitely until valve issue solved"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Boeing+to+ground+Starliner+indefinitely+until+valve+issue+solved&rft.date=2021-08-13&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fscience%2F2021%2F08%2Fboeing-to-ground-starliner-indefinitely-until-valve-issue-solved%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-sn20140921-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sn20140921_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFoust2014" class="citation news cs1">Foust, Jeff (19 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20140921132432/http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions">"NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions"</a>. <i>Space News</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions">the original</a> on 21 September 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2014</span>. <q>"We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given", Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. "Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Space+News&rft.atitle=NASA+Commercial+Crew+Awards+Leave+Unanswered+Questions&rft.date=2014-09-19&rft.aulast=Foust&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spacenews.com%2Farticle%2Fcivil-space%2F41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NASApress20140916-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NASApress20140916_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international">"RELEASE 14-256 NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station"</a>. <i>www.nasa.gov</i>. NASA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=RELEASE+14-256+NASA+Chooses+American+Companies+to+Transport+U.S.+Astronauts+to+International+Space+Station&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fpress%2F2014%2Fseptember%2Fnasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-rollingstone20171115-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rollingstone20171115_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFStrauss2017" class="citation magazine cs1">Strauss, Neil (15 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747">"Elon Musk: The Architect of Tomorrow"</a>. <i>Rolling Stone</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rolling+Stone&rft.atitle=Elon+Musk%3A+The+Architect+of+Tomorrow&rft.date=2017-11-15&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rollingstone.com%2Fculture%2Ffeatures%2Felon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-sxEarthToEarth201709-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sxEarthToEarth201709_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0">Starship Earth to Earth</a>, SpaceX, 28 September 2017, accessed 23 December 2017.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-sn20171015c-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sn20171015c_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFoust2017" class="citation news cs1">Foust, Jeff (15 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/">"Musk offers more technical details on BFR system"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SpaceNews" title="SpaceNews">SpaceNews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2017</span>. <q>[the] spaceship portion of the BFR, which would transport people on point-to-point suborbital flights or on missions to the moon or Mars, will be tested on Earth first in a series of short hops. ... a full-scale Ship doing short hops of a few hundred kilometers altitude and lateral distance ... fairly easy on the vehicle, as no heat shield is needed, we can have a large amount of reserve propellant and don't need the high area ratio, deep space Raptor engines.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=Musk+offers+more+technical+details+on+BFR+system&rft.date=2017-10-15&rft.aulast=Foust&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fmusk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/">SXC - Buying your tickets into space!</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130306043002/http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/">Archived</a> 6 March 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> SXC web page, Retrieved 5 April 2013</span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFStaff_writers2010" class="citation web cs1">Staff writers (6 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Space_Experience_Curacao_Announces_Wet_Lease_of_XCOR_Lynx_Suborbital_999.html">"Space Expedition Corporation Announces Wet Lease of XCOR Lynx Suborbital"</a>. <i>Space Media Network Promotions</i>. Space-Travel.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space+Media+Network+Promotions&rft.atitle=Space+Expedition+Corporation+Announces+Wet+Lease+of+XCOR+Lynx+Suborbital&rft.date=2010-10-06&rft.au=Staff+writers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space-travel.com%2Freports%2FSpace_Experience_Curacao_Announces_Wet_Lease_of_XCOR_Lynx_Suborbital_999.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-sn20171109-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sn20171109_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFoust2017" class="citation news cs1">Foust, Jeff (9 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/">"XCOR Aerospace Files for Bankruptcy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SpaceNews" title="SpaceNews">SpaceNews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpaceNews&rft.atitle=XCOR+Aerospace+Files+for+Bankruptcy&rft.date=2017-11-09&rft.aulast=Foust&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspacenews.com%2Fxcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Durrani-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Durrani_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Durrani_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Durrani_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHaris_Durrani2019" class="citation magazine cs1">Haris Durrani (19 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/">"Is Spaceflight Colonialism?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Is+Spaceflight+Colonialism%3F&rft.date=2019-07-19&rft.au=Haris+Durrani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Farchive%2Fapollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_magazine" title="Template:Cite magazine">cite magazine</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">Cite magazine requires <code class="cs1-code">|magazine=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inclusiveastronomy.org">Website of the IAU100 <i>Inclusive Astronomy</i> project</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760"><i>Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration</i></a>. NAP. 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10264-3"><bdi>978-0-309-10264-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+Radiation+Hazards+and+the+Vision+for+Space+Exploration&rft.pub=NAP&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10264-3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Frecord_id%3D11760&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGueguinouHuin-SchohnBascoveBueb2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gueguinou, N.; Huin-Schohn, C.; Bascove, M.; Bueb, J.-L.; Tschirhart, E.; Legrand-Frossi, C.; Frippiat, J.-P. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1189%2Fjlb.0309167">"Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit"</a>. <i>Journal of Leukocyte Biology</i>. <b>86</b> (5): 1027–1038. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1189%2Fjlb.0309167">10.1189/jlb.0309167</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19690292">19690292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Leukocyte+Biology&rft.atitle=Could+spaceflight-associated+immune+system+weakening+preclude+the+expansion+of+human+presence+beyond+Earth%27s+orbit&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1027-1038&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1189%2Fjlb.0309167&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19690292&rft.aulast=Gueguinou&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Huin-Schohn%2C+C.&rft.au=Bascove%2C+M.&rft.au=Bueb%2C+J.-L.&rft.au=Tschirhart%2C+E.&rft.au=Legrand-Frossi%2C+C.&rft.au=Frippiat%2C+J.-P.&rft_id=%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1189%252Fjlb.0309167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFlynn2005" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, Christopher F. (1 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/asma/asem/2005/00000076/A00106s1/art00007">"An Operational Approach to Long-Duration Mission Behavioral Health and Performance Factors"</a>. <i>Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine</i>. <b>76</b> (6): B42–B51. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15943194">15943194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aviation%2C+Space%2C+and+Environmental+Medicine&rft.atitle=An+Operational+Approach+to+Long-Duration+Mission+Behavioral+Health+and+Performance+Factors&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=B42-B51&rft.date=2005-06-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15943194&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=Christopher+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontentone%2Fasma%2Fasem%2F2005%2F00000076%2FA00106s1%2Fart00007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKanasManzey2008" class="citation book cs1">Kanas, Nick; Manzey, Dietrich (2008). <i>Space psychology and psychiatry</i> (2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402067709" title="Special:BookSources/9781402067709"><bdi>9781402067709</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/233972618">233972618</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+psychology+and+psychiatry&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233972618&rft.isbn=9781402067709&rft.aulast=Kanas&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft.au=Manzey%2C+Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBell2014" class="citation news cs1">Bell, Vaughan (5 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/05/hallucinations-isolation-astronauts-mental-health-space-missions">"Isolation and hallucinations: the mental health challenges faced by astronauts"</a>. <i>The Observer</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0029-7712">0029-7712</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observer&rft.atitle=Isolation+and+hallucinations%3A+the+mental+health+challenges+faced+by+astronauts&rft.date=2014-10-05&rft.issn=0029-7712&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Vaughan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2014%2Foct%2F05%2Fhallucinations-isolation-astronauts-mental-health-space-missions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSofge2013" class="citation web cs1">Sofge, Eric (30 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-09/what-happens-if-astronaut-floats-space/">"What Happens If An Astronaut Floats Off In Space?"</a>. <i>Popular Science</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=What+Happens+If+An+Astronaut+Floats+Off+In+Space%3F&rft.date=2013-09-30&rft.aulast=Sofge&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.popsci.com%2Ftechnology%2Farticle%2F2013-09%2Fwhat-happens-if-astronaut-floats-space%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGiblin1998" class="citation journal cs1">Giblin, Kelly A. (Spring 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081120153024/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml">"Fire in the Cockpit!"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_of_Invention_%26_Technology" title="American Heritage of Invention & Technology">American Heritage of Invention & Technology</a></i>. American Heritage Publishing. <b>13</b> (4). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml">the original</a> on 20 November 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Heritage+of+Invention+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Fire+in+the+Cockpit%21&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Giblin&rft.aufirst=Kelly+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanheritage.com%2Farticles%2Fmagazine%2Fit%2F1998%2F4%2F1998_4_46.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010605212352/http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/chrono.html">1981 KSC Chronology Part 1 – pages 84, 85, 100; Part 2 – pages 181, 194, 195</a>, NASA</span>
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<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_17_1995_p_EN.html">"Fatal accident at the Guiana Space Centre"</a>, <i>ESA Portal</i>, 5 May 1993</span>
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<li id="cite_note-SP4029-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SP4029_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFOrloff2004" class="citation book cs1">Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm">"Apollo 1 – The Fire: 27 January 1967"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm"><i>Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference</i></a>. <i>NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans</i>. NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-050631-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-050631-4"><bdi>978-0-16-050631-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/00061677">00061677</a>. NASA SP-2000-4029<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Apollo+1+%E2%80%93+The+Fire%3A+27+January+1967&rft.btitle=Apollo+by+the+Numbers%3A+A+Statistical+Reference&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=NASA+History+Series&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F00061677&rft.isbn=978-0-16-050631-4&rft.aulast=Orloff&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2FSP-4029%2FApollo_01a_Summary.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFNASA1974" class="citation web cs1">NASA (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm">"The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project"</a>. NASA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm">the original</a> on 23 August 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Partnership%3A+A+History+of+the+Apollo-Soyuz+Test+Project&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=1974&rft.au=NASA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2FSP-4209%2Fch8-2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html">"Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident"</a>. <i>NASA</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html">the original</a> on 3 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Report+from+Joseph+P.+Kerwin%2C+biomedical+specialist+from+the+Johnson+Space+Center+in+Houston%2C+Texas%2C+relating+to+the+deaths+of+the+astronauts+in+the+Challenger+accident&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2Fkerwin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf">"Columbia Crew Survival Investigation Report"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>NASA.gov</i>. NASA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA.gov&rft.atitle=Columbia+Crew+Survival+Investigation+Report&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fpdf%2F298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<ul><li>Darling, David. <i>The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity</i>. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-05649-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-05649-9">0-471-05649-9</a>.</li>
<li>Haeuplik-Meusburger: <i>Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach</i>. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7091-0666-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7091-0666-2">978-3-7091-0666-2</a>.</li>
<li>Larson, Wiley J. (ed.). <i>Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design</i>. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-236811-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-236811-X">0-07-236811-X</a>.</li>
<li class="mw-empty-elt"></li>
<li>Pyle, Rod. <i>Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International Partners are Creating a New Space Age</i> (2019), overview of space exploration <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1944648453/">excerpt</a></li>
<li>Spencer, Brett. "The Book and th</li>
<li>Reneau, Allyson (ed.). <i>Moon First and Mars Second: A Practical Approach to Human Space Exploration</i> (2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Moon-First-Mars-Second-SpringerBriefs/dp/3030542297/">excerpt</a></li>
<li>Smith, Michael G., Michelle Kelley, and Mathias Basner. "A brief history of spaceflight from 1961 to 2020: An analysis of missions and astronaut demographics." <i>Acta Astronautica</i> 175 (2020): 290–299.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_spaceflight" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></span>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/">NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070802015842/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight">Human Spaceflight Profile</a> by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://solarsystem.nasa.gov">NASA's Solar System Exploration</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasaconstellation.com">Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404044029/http://spaceflighthistory.com/">U.S. Spaceflight History</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Future_spaceflights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Future_spaceflights" title="Template:Future spaceflights"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Future_spaceflights" title="Template talk:Future spaceflights"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Future_spaceflights&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Future_spaceflights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Future spaceflights</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crewed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2022_in_spaceflight" title="2022 in spaceflight">2022</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_MS-21" title="Soyuz MS-21">Soyuz MS-21</a> (March)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_Mission_1" title="Axiom Mission 1">Axiom-1</a> (March)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-4" title="SpaceX Crew-4">SpaceX Crew-4</a> (April)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_14" title="Shenzhou 14">Shenzhou 14</a> (May)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_MS-22" title="Soyuz MS-22">Soyuz MS-22</a> (September)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-5" title="SpaceX Crew-5">SpaceX Crew-5</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_15" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenzhou 15">Shenzhou 15</a> (November)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polaris_Dawn" title="Polaris Dawn">Polaris Dawn</a> (Q4)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Crewed_Flight_Test" title="Boeing Crewed Flight Test">Starliner CFT</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2023_in_spaceflight" title="2023 in spaceflight">2023</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_Mission_2" title="Axiom Mission 2">Axiom-2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Starliner-1" title="Boeing Starliner-1">Boeing Starliner-1</a> (March)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-6" title="SpaceX Crew-6">SpaceX Crew-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaganyaan" title="Gaganyaan">Gaganyaan crewed flight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DearMoon_project" title="DearMoon project">dearMoon project</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;">2024+</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_2" title="Artemis 2">Artemis 2</a> (May 2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_3" title="Artemis 3">Artemis 3</a> (2025)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_4" title="Artemis 4">Artemis 4</a> (2026)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_5" title="Artemis 5">Artemis 5</a> (2027)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Uncrewed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2022_in_spaceflight" title="2022 in spaceflight">2022</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aditya-L1" title="Aditya-L1">Aditya-L1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_1" title="Artemis 1">Artemis 1</a> (May)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Orbital_Flight_Test_2" title="Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2">Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CAPSTONE_(spacecraft)" title="CAPSTONE (spacecraft)">CAPSTONE</a> (May)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chandrayaan-3" title="Chandrayaan-3">Chandrayaan-3</a> (August)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EnMAP" title="EnMAP">EnMAP</a> (April)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ispace_(Japanese_company)#Hakuto-R_Program" title="Ispace (Japanese company)">Hakuto-R M1</a> / <a href="/wiki/Emirates_Lunar_Mission" title="Emirates Lunar Mission">Emirates Lunar Mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/HTV-X1" title="HTV-X1">HTV-X1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nova-C" title="Nova-C">IM-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nova-C" title="Nova-C">IM-2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Pathfinder_Lunar_Orbiter" title="Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter">KPLO</a> (August)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_25" title="Luna 25">Luna 25</a> (July)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Cabin_Module" title="Laboratory Cabin Module">Mengtian</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotic_Technology#Peregrine_lander" title="Astrobotic Technology"><i>Peregrine</i></a> <a href="/wiki/Astrobotic_Technology#Mission_One" title="Astrobotic Technology">Mission One</a> / <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Asagumo_(rover)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asagumo (rover) (page does not exist)">Asagumo</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PETREL" title="PETREL">PETREL</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psyche_(spacecraft)" title="Psyche (spacecraft)">Psyche</a> / <a href="/wiki/Janus_(spacecraft)" title="Janus (spacecraft)">Janus</a> (August)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin_(rover)" title="Rosalind Franklin (rover)"><i>Rosalind Franklin</i> rover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazachok" title="Kazachok"><i>Kazachok</i> lander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SNC_Demo-1" title="SNC Demo-1">SNC Demo-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">SpaceX Starship</a> (1st Mars departure)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Surface_Water_and_Ocean_Topography" title="Surface Water and Ocean Topography">SWOT</a> (November)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TROPICS" class="mw-redirect" title="TROPICS">TROPICS</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Cabin_Module" title="Laboratory Cabin Module">Wentian</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_Polarimeter_Satellite" title="X-ray Polarimeter Satellite">XPoSat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/X-Ray_Imaging_and_Spectroscopy_Mission" title="X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission">XRISM</a> / <a href="/wiki/Smart_Lander_for_Investigating_Moon" title="Smart Lander for Investigating Moon">SLIM</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2023_in_spaceflight" title="2023 in spaceflight">2023</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/BIOMASS" title="BIOMASS">Biomass</a> (August)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Firefly_Aerospace#Blue_Ghost_lunar_lander" title="Firefly Aerospace">Blue Ghost</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EarthCARE" title="EarthCARE">EarthCARE</a> (March)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_(spacecraft)" title="Euclid (spacecraft)">Euclid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Garat%C3%A9a-L" title="Garatéa-L">Garatéa-L</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GOSAT-GW" class="mw-redirect" title="GOSAT-GW">GOSAT-GW</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer" title="Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer">JUICE</a> (April)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/LOXSAT" title="LOXSAT">LOXSAT-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Masten_Mission_One" class="mw-redirect" title="Masten Mission One">Masten Mission One</a> (November)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MetOp-SG" title="MetOp-SG">MetOp-SG</a> Series A</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multispectral_Unit_for_Land_Assessment" title="Multispectral Unit for Land Assessment">MULA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NISAR_(satellite)" title="NISAR (satellite)">NISAR</a> (January)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plankton,_Aerosol,_Cloud,_ocean_Ecosystem" title="Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem">PACE</a> (November)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proba-3" class="mw-redirect" title="Proba-3">Proba-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polarimeter_to_Unify_the_Corona_and_Heliosphere" title="Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere">PUNCH</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tandem_Reconnection_and_Cusp_Electrodynamics_Reconnaissance_Satellites" title="Tandem Reconnection and Cusp Electrodynamics Reconnaissance Satellites">TRACERS</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_RIDER" class="mw-redirect" title="Space RIDER">Space RIDER</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/VIPER_(rover)" title="VIPER (rover)">VIPER</a> (November)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weather_System_Follow-on_Microwave" title="Weather System Follow-on Microwave">Weather System Follow-on Microwave</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2024_in_spaceflight" title="2024 in spaceflight">2024</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_6" title="Chang'e 6">Chang'e 6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_7" title="Chang'e 7">Chang'e 7</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DESTINY_PLUS" class="mw-redirect" title="DESTINY PLUS">DESTINY<sup>+</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DISHA_(spacecraft)" title="DISHA (spacecraft)">DISHA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Clipper" title="Europa Clipper">Europa Clipper</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GOES-U" title="GOES-U">GOES-U</a> (April)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ispace_(Japanese_company)#Hakuto-R_Program" title="Ispace (Japanese company)">Hakuto-R M2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nova-C" title="Nova-C">IM-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ispace_(Japanese_company)" title="Ispace (Japanese company)">ispace M3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_(mission)#Hera" title="AIDA (mission)">Hera</a> / <a href="/wiki/AIDA_(mission)#Collaboration" title="AIDA (mission)">Milani</a> / <a href="/wiki/AIDA_(mission)#Collaboration" title="AIDA (mission)">Juventas</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_26" title="Luna 26">Luna 26</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Polar_Exploration_Mission" title="Lunar Polar Exploration Mission">Lunar Polar Exploration Mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MetOp-SG" title="MetOp-SG">MetOp-SG</a> Series B</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_Moons_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian Moons Exploration">MMX</a> (September)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Orbiter_Mission_2" title="Mars Orbiter Mission 2">MOM 2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Power_and_Propulsion_Element" title="Power and Propulsion Element">PPE</a> / <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Gateway#HALO" title="Lunar Gateway">HALO</a> (November)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shukrayaan-1" title="Shukrayaan-1">Shukrayaan-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SMILE_(spacecraft)" title="SMILE (spacecraft)">SMILE</a> (November)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SPHEREx" title="SPHEREx">SPHEREx</a> (June)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dream_Chaser#United_Nations" title="Dream Chaser">UN/Dream Chaser</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2025_in_spaceflight" title="2025 in spaceflight">2025</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/FLEX_(satellite)" title="FLEX (satellite)">FLEX</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_Mapping_and_Acceleration_Probe" title="Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe">IMAP</a> / <a href="/wiki/Solar_Cruiser" title="Solar Cruiser">Solar Cruiser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Space_Weather_Follow-On_L1" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Weather Follow-On L1">SWFO-L1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_27" title="Luna 27">Luna 27</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-UV" title="Spektr-UV">Spektr-UV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ZhengHe_(spacecraft)" title="ZhengHe (spacecraft)">ZhengHe</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2020s_in_spaceflight" title="2020s in spaceflight">2026+</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_Outgoing_Radiation_Understanding_and_Monitoring" title="Far-infrared Outgoing Radiation Understanding and Monitoring">FORUM</a> (2026)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_Object_Surveillance_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission">NEO Surveyor</a> (2026)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PLATO_(spacecraft)" title="PLATO (spacecraft)">PLATO</a> (2026)</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chang%27e_8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chang'e 8 (page does not exist)">Chang'e 8</a> (2027)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dragonfly_(spacecraft)" title="Dragonfly (spacecraft)">Dragonfly</a> (2027)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_28" title="Luna 28">Luna 28</a> (2027)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Grace_Roman_Space_Telescope" title="Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a> (2027)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/JASMINE_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="JASMINE (satellite)">JASMINE</a> (2028)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/LiteBIRD" title="LiteBIRD">LiteBIRD</a> (2028)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/VERITAS_(spacecraft)" title="VERITAS (spacecraft)">VERITAS</a> (2028)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ARIEL" title="ARIEL">ARIEL</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comet_Interceptor" title="Comet Interceptor">Comet Interceptor</a> (2029)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DAVINCI%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="DAVINCI+">DAVINCI+</a> (2029–2030)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venera-D" title="Venera-D">Venera-D</a> (2029–2031)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-M" title="Spektr-M">Spektr-M</a> (2030)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EnVision" title="EnVision">EnVision</a> (2031)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Telescope_for_High_Energy_Astrophysics" title="Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics">Athena</a> (2034)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laser_Interferometer_Space_Antenna" title="Laser Interferometer Space Antenna">LISA</a> (2037)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/TBA" class="mw-redirect" title="TBA">TBA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Lander_(NASA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Europa Lander (NASA)">Europa Lander</a> (2025?)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nano-JASMINE" title="Nano-JASMINE">Nano-JASMINE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Next_Mars_Orbiter" title="Next Mars Orbiter">Next Mars Orbiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Complex_Alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Complex Alpha">Space Complex Alpha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tera-hertz_Explorer" title="Tera-hertz Explorer">TEREX-1</a> (mid 2020s)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Recently<br />launched</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progress_MS-19" title="Progress MS-19">Progress MS-19</a> (15 February)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cygnus_NG-17" title="Cygnus NG-17">Cygnus NG-17</a> (19 February)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GOES-T" class="mw-redirect" title="GOES-T">GOES-T</a> (1 March)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_missions_to_the_Moon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of proposed missions to the Moon">List of proposed missions to the Moon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_space_observatories" title="List of proposed space observatories">List of proposed space observatories</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Crewed_spacecraft_(programs)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Crewed_spacecraft" title="Template:Crewed spacecraft"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Crewed_spacecraft" title="Template talk:Crewed spacecraft"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Crewed_spacecraft&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Crewed_spacecraft_(programs)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">Crewed spacecraft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight_programs" title="Human spaceflight programs">programs</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>China
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_(spacecraft)" title="Shenzhou (spacecraft)">Shenzhou</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Russia
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)" title="Soyuz (spacecraft)">Soyuz</a></li></ul></li>
<li>United States
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2" title="SpaceX Dragon 2">Crew Dragon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Retired</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Soviet Union
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_(spacecraft)" title="Vostok (spacecraft)">Vostok</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_(spacecraft)" title="Voskhod (spacecraft)">Voskhod</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Buran_(spacecraft)" title="Buran (spacecraft)">Buran</a></li></ul></li>
<li>United States
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">X-15</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_(spacecraft)" title="Apollo (spacecraft)">Apollo</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_command_and_service_module" title="Apollo command and service module">Command and service module</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module" title="Apollo Lunar Module">Apollo Lunar Module</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipOne" title="SpaceShipOne">SpaceShipOne</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>China
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_crewed_spacecraft" title="Next-generation crewed spacecraft">Next-generation</a></li></ul></li>
<li>India
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaganyaan" title="Gaganyaan">Gaganyaan</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Iran
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_crewed_spacecraft" title="Iranian crewed spacecraft">Kavoshgar E</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Russia
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orel_(spacecraft)" title="Orel (spacecraft)">Orel</a></li></ul></li>
<li>United States
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Starliner" title="Boeing Starliner">Starliner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">Starship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceShip_III" title="SpaceShip III">SpaceShip III</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public-sector_space_agencies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public-sector_space_agencies" title="Template:Public-sector space agencies"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public-sector_space_agencies" title="Template talk:Public-sector space agencies"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Public-sector_space_agencies&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public-sector_space_agencies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">Public-sector space agencies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pan-African and Pan-Arab</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization" title="Regional African Satellite Communication Organization">RASCOM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization" title="Arab Satellite Communications Organization">Arabsat</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria"><img alt="Algeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Space_Agency" title="Algerian Space Agency">ASAL</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana"><img alt="Ghana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Space_Science_and_Technology_Centre" title="Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre">GSSTC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt"><img alt="Egypt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/15px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/23px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/30px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Authority_for_Remote_Sensing_and_Space_Sciences" title="National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences">NARRS</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia"><img alt="Ethiopia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Space_Science_and_Technology_Institute" title="Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute">ESSTI</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria"><img alt="Nigeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Research_and_Development_Agency" title="National Space Research and Development Agency">NASRDA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/15px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/30px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="267" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/South_African_National_Space_Agency" title="South African National Space Agency">SANSA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency" title="Canadian Space Agency">CSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/15px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/30px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Agencia_Espacial_Mexicana" title="Agencia Espacial Mexicana">AEM</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Environmental_Satellite,_Data,_and_Information_Service" title="National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service">NESDIS</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Space_Commerce" title="Office of Space Commerce">OSC</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Commercial_Space_Transportation" title="Office of Commercial Space Transportation">FAA/AST</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">FCC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">USSF</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">USSPACECOM</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">NRO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">NORAD</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/15px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/30px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_Nacional_de_Actividades_Espaciales" title="Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales">CONAE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia"><img alt="Bolivia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Bandera_de_Bolivia_%28Estado%29.svg/15px-Bandera_de_Bolivia_%28Estado%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Bandera_de_Bolivia_%28Estado%29.svg/23px-Bandera_de_Bolivia_%28Estado%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Bandera_de_Bolivia_%28Estado%29.svg/30px-Bandera_de_Bolivia_%28Estado%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="750" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bolivian_Space_Agency" title="Bolivian Space Agency">ABE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/15px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/23px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/30px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Space_Agency" title="Brazilian Space Agency">AEB</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Aerospace_Science_and_Technology" title="Department of Aerospace Science and Technology">DCTA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Space_Research" title="National Institute for Space Research">INPE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instituto_Tecnol%C3%B3gico_de_Aeron%C3%A1utica" title="Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica">ITA</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia"><img alt="Colombia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Colombian_Space_Commission" title="Colombian Space Commission">CCE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela"><img alt="Venezuela" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/15px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/23px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/30px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Agency_for_Space_Activities" title="Bolivarian Agency for Space Activities">ABAE</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_Institute_for_Scientific_Research" title="Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research">IVIC</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pan-Asian and Pan-Arab</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Space_Cooperation_Organization" title="Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization">APSCO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization" title="Arab Satellite Communications Organization">Arabsat</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan"><img alt="Kazakhstan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/KazCosmos" title="KazCosmos">KazCosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Research_Institute" title="Russian Space Research Institute">SRI</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Forces" title="Russian Space Forces">VK</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan"><img alt="Turkmenistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan_National_Space_Agency" title="Turkmenistan National Space Agency">TNSA</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration" title="China National Space Administration">CNSA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Administration_for_Science,_Technology_and_Industry_for_National_Defense" title="State Administration for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense">SASTIND</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Aerospace_Science_and_Technology_Corporation" title="China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation">CASC</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Academy_of_Launch_Vehicle_Technology" title="China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology">CALT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Academy_of_Space_Technology" title="China Academy of Space Technology">CAST</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Chang_Feng" title="China Chang Feng">CCF</a></li>
<li>CGWIC</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force_Space_Systems_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force Space Systems Department">SSD</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Aerospace_Science_and_Industry_Corporation" title="China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation">CASIC</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Organization" title="National Space Organization">NSPO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">JAXA</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Space_and_Astronautical_Science" title="Institute of Space and Astronautical Science">ISAS</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Information_and_Communications_Technology" title="National Institute of Information and Communications Technology">NICT</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Japan_Space_Systems" title="Japan Space Systems">JSS</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea"><img alt="North Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/15px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/30px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Development_Administration" title="National Aerospace Development Administration">NADA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea"><img alt="South Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/15px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/30px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute" title="Korea Aerospace Research Institute">KARI</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/KAIST_Satellite_Technology_Research_Center" title="KAIST Satellite Technology Research Center">SaTReC</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh"><img alt="Bangladesh" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/15px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/30px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Research_and_Remote_Sensing_Organization" title="Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization">SPARRSO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/15px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/30px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">ISRO</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antrix_Corporation" title="Antrix Corporation">Antrix Corp</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Space" title="Department of Space">DoS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Remote_Sensing_Centre" title="National Remote Sensing Centre">NRSC</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/15px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/30px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Defence_Space_Agency" title="Defence Space Agency">DSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission">SUPARCO</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeast Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia"><img alt="Indonesia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Aeronautics_and_Space" title="National Institute of Aeronautics and Space">LAPAN</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia"><img alt="Malaysia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Space_Agency" title="Malaysian Space Agency">MYSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines"><img alt="Philippines" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Space_Agency" title="Philippine Space Agency">PhilSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore"><img alt="Singapore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/15px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/30px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Singapore_Space_and_Technology_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Singapore Space and Technology Association">SSTA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand"><img alt="Thailand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/15px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/30px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Geo-Informatics_and_Space_Technology_Development_Agency" title="Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency">GISTDA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam"><img alt="Vietnam" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/15px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/23px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/30px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_National_Space_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnam National Space Center">VNSC</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southwest Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia"><img alt="Armenia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/ArmCosmos" title="ArmCosmos">ArmCosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan"><img alt="Azerbaijan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_National_Aerospace_Agency" title="Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency">MAKA</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain"><img alt="Bahrain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg/15px-Flag_of_Bahrain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bahrain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg/30px-Flag_of_Bahrain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="900" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Science_Agency" title="National Space Science Agency">NSSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><img alt="Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/15px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/30px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps_Aerospace_Force" title="Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Aerospace Force">NEHSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><img alt="Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/15px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/30px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">ISA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Research_Center" title="Iranian Space Research Center">ISRC</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel"><img alt="Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/15px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/23px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/30px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Israel_Space_Agency" title="Israel Space Agency">ISA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Committee_for_Space_Research" title="National Committee for Space Research">NCSR</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia"><img alt="Saudi Arabia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Space_Commission" title="Saudi Space Commission">SSC</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_Abdulaziz_City_for_Science_and_Technology" title="King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology">KACST-SRI</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Space_Agency" title="Syrian Space Agency">SSA</a><sup><small>2</small></sup>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Organization_of_Remote_Sensing" title="General Organization of Remote Sensing">GORS</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Space_Agency" title="Turkish Space Agency">TUA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%9CB%C4%B0TAK_Space_Technologies_Research_Institute" title="TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute">TÜBİTAK UZAY</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates"><img alt="United Arab Emirates" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates_Space_Agency" title="United Arab Emirates Space Agency">UAESA</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mohammed_bin_Rashid_Space_Centre" title="Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre">MBRSC</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pan-European</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Committee_for_Standardization" title="European Committee for Standardization">CEN</a>/<a href="/wiki/European_Committee_for_Electrotechnical_Standardization" title="European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization">CENELEC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Conference_of_Postal_and_Telecommunications_Administrations" title="European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations">CEPT</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ETSI" title="ETSI">ETSI</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eurocontrol" title="Eurocontrol">Eurocontrol</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_Aviation_Conference" title="European Civil Aviation Conference">ECAC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/File:European_Space_Agency_logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="European Space Agency logo.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/European_Space_Agency_logo.svg/30px-European_Space_Agency_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="12" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/European_Space_Agency_logo.svg/45px-European_Space_Agency_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/European_Space_Agency_logo.svg/60px-European_Space_Agency_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="185" /></a><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Cooperation_for_Space_Standardization" title="European Cooperation for Space Standardization">ECSS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Research_and_Technology_Centre" title="European Space Research and Technology Centre">ESRTC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Astronaut_Centre" title="European Astronaut Centre">EAC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ESA_Centre_for_Earth_Observation" title="ESA Centre for Earth Observation">ESRIN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Space_Applications_and_Telecommunications" title="European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications">ECSAT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Astronomy_Centre" title="European Space Astronomy Centre">ESAC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Operations_Centre" title="European Space Operations Centre">ESOC</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ESTRACK" title="ESTRACK">ESTRACK</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guiana_Space_Centre" title="Guiana Space Centre">Guiana Space Centre</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites" title="European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites">EUMETSAT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Telecommunications_Satellite_Organization" title="European Telecommunications Satellite Organization">EUTELSAT IGO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Southern_Observatory" title="European Southern Observatory">ESO</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><img alt="European Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/15px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/30px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Directorate-General_for_Defence_Industry_and_Space" title="Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space">DG DEFIS</a>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><img alt="European Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/15px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/30px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Agency_for_the_Space_Programme" title="European Union Agency for the Space Programme">EUSPA</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><img alt="European Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/15px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/30px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Satellite_Centre" title="European Union Satellite Centre">EU SatCen</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><img alt="European Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/15px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/30px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Aviation_Safety_Agency" title="European Union Aviation Safety Agency">EASA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><img alt="European Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/15px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/30px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Body_of_European_Regulators_for_Electronic_Communications" title="Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications">BEREC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria"><img alt="Austria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Space_Agency" title="Austrian Space Agency">ALR</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Federal_Science_Policy_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Federal Science Policy Office">BelSPo</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Institute_for_Space_Aeronomy" title="Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy">BIRA-IASB</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria"><img alt="Bulgaria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Research_and_Technology_Institute" title="Space Research and Technology Institute">SRTI</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia"><img alt="Catalonia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Catalonia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Catalonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Catalonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Catalonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Catalonia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Catalonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Catalan_Space_Agency" title="Catalan Space Agency">AEC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Czech_Space_Office" title="Czech Space Office">CSO</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark"><img alt="Denmark" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/15px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/23px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/30px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/DTU_Space" title="DTU Space">DTU Space</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia"><img alt="Estonia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Space_Office" title="Estonian Space Office">ESO</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/15px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">CNES</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/15px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/French_Air_and_Space_Force" title="French Air and Space Force">AAE</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Space_Command" title="French Space Command">CdE</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/15px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/30px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center" title="German Aerospace Center">DLR</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece"><img alt="Greece" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/15px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/30px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_Space_Agency" title="Hellenic Space Agency">HSC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary"><img alt="Hungary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/15px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/30px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Space_Office" title="Hungarian Space Office">HSO</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/15px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/30px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">ASI</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg"><img alt="Luxembourg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/15px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Space_Agency" title="Luxembourg Space Agency">LSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania"><img alt="Lithuania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/15px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/30px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lithuanian_Space_Office&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lithuanian Space Office (page does not exist)">LSO</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands"><img alt="Netherlands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Institute_for_Space_Research" title="Netherlands Institute for Space Research">SRON</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands"><img alt="Netherlands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Space_Office" title="Netherlands Space Office">NSO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway"><img alt="Norway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/15px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/23px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/30px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Space_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegian Space Centre">NSC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/15px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Polish_Space_Agency" title="Polish Space Agency">POLSA</a><sup><small>2</small></sup>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Research_Centre_of_Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Space Research Centre of Polish Academy of Sciences">CBK PAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urz%C4%85d_Komunikacji_Elektronicznej&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urząd Komunikacji Elektronicznej (page does not exist)">UKE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Krajowa_Rada_Radiofonii_i_Telewizji" title="Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i Telewizji">KRRiT</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_IMINT_Centre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polish IMINT Centre (page does not exist)">ORO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_(Poland)" title="Civil Aviation Authority (Poland)">ULC</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal"><img alt="Portugal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/15px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/30px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Portugal_Space&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Portugal Space (page does not exist)">PTSPACE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania"><img alt="Romania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/15px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/30px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Space_Agency" title="Romanian Space Agency">ROSA</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/15px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/30px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_T%C3%A9cnica_Aeroespacial" title="Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial">INTA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden"><img alt="Sweden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/15px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/30px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_National_Space_Agency" title="Swedish National Space Agency">SNSA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia"><img alt="Armenia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/ArmCosmos" title="ArmCosmos">ArmCosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan"><img alt="Azerbaijan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_National_Aerospace_Agency" title="Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency">MAKA</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus"><img alt="Belarus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/15px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/30px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="450" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Belarus_Space_Agency" title="Belarus Space Agency">BSA</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan"><img alt="Kazakhstan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/KazCosmos" title="KazCosmos">KazCosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Research_Institute" title="Russian Space Research Institute">SRI</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Defence_Forces" title="Russian Aerospace Defence Forces">VKO</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland"><img alt="Switzerland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/15px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Space_Office" title="Swiss Space Office">SSO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Space_Agency" title="Turkish Space Agency">TUA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%9CB%C4%B0TAK_Space_Technologies_Research_Institute" title="TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute">TÜBİTAK UZAY</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/UK_Space_Agency" title="UK Space Agency">UKSA</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine"><img alt="Ukraine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/State_Space_Agency_of_Ukraine" title="State Space Agency of Ukraine">SSAU</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Australian_Space_Agency" title="Australian Space Agency">ASA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation">CSIRO</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand"><img alt="New Zealand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/15px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/30px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Space_Agency" title="New Zealand Space Agency">NZSA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Committee_for_Space_Data_Systems" title="Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems">CCSDS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Earth_Observation_Satellites" title="Committee on Earth Observation Satellites">CEOS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Space_Research" title="Committee on Space Research">COSPAR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Planetary_Data_Alliance" title="International Planetary Data Alliance">IPDA</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Cospas-Sarsat_Programme" title="International Cospas-Sarsat Programme">Cospas-Sarsat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Group_on_Earth_Observations" title="Group on Earth Observations">GEO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Global_Standards_Collaboration" title="Global Standards Collaboration">GSC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Agency_Space_Debris_Coordination_Committee" title="Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee">IADC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Charter_%27Space_and_Major_Disasters%27" title="International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'">ICSMD</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Mobile_Satellite_Organization" title="International Mobile Satellite Organization">IMSO</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Space_Exploration_Coordination_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Space Exploration Coordination Group (page does not exist)">ISECG</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station_Multilateral_Coordination_Board" title="International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board">ISS MCB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunications_Satellite_Organization" title="International Telecommunications Satellite Organization">ITSO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intersputnik" title="Intersputnik">Intersputnik</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_Debris_Co-ordination_Working_Group" title="Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group">ODCWG</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations"><img alt="United Nations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/ITU-R" title="ITU-R">ITU-R</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations"><img alt="United Nations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Committee_on_the_Peaceful_Uses_of_Outer_Space" title="United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space">UNCOPUOS</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations"><img alt="United Nations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Outer_Space_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs">UNOOSA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/British_National_Space_Centre" title="British National Space Centre">BNSC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea"><img alt="North Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/15px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/30px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Korean_Committee_of_Space_Technology" title="Korean Committee of Space Technology">KCST</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Laboratory_of_Japan" title="National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan">NAL</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Development_Agency_of_Japan" title="National Space Development Agency of Japan">NASDA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">SSP</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country" title="Timeline of first orbital launches by country">Timeline of first orbital launches by country</a></li>
<li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li>
<li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Preceded by <a href="/wiki/Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a> participation</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaceflight" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaceflight" title="Template:Spaceflight"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaceflight" title="Template talk:Spaceflight"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Spaceflight&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spaceflight" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Astrodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Asian_national_space_programs" title="Comparison of Asian national space programs">Asian Space Race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">Records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy" title="Space policy">Space policy</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Space_programme_of_Australia" title="Category:Space programme of Australia">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency_Science_Programme" title="European Space Agency Science Programme">European Space Agency</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Space_Programme" title="European Union Space Programme">European Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_space_program" title="Japanese space program">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Agreement" title="Rescue Agreement">Rescue Agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Liability_Convention" title="Space Liability Convention">Space Liability Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Registration_Convention" title="Registration Convention">Registration Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space warfare</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_command" title="Space command">Space command</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Militarisation_of_space" title="Militarisation of space">Militarisation of space</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">Private spaceflight</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">Archaeology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Imagery and mapping</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Weather and environment monitoring</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Telephone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Television</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_space" title="Commercial use of space">Commercial use of space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">Space launch market competition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Space architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_research" title="Space research">Space research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronaut</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_astronaut" title="Commercial astronaut">commercial</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">Extravehicular activity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Overview_effect" title="Overview effect">Overview effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Space toilet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_diving" title="Space diving">Space diving</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz_Test_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo–Soyuz Test Project">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenzhou program">Shenzhou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_program" title="Tiangong program">Tiangong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Health issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space psychology</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">Launch vehicle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">Space capsule</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_module" title="Orbital module">Orbital module</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reentry_capsule" title="Reentry capsule">Reentry capsule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Service_module" title="Service module">Service module</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lander_(spacecraft)" title="Lander (spacecraft)">Lander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rover_(space_exploration)" title="Rover (space exploration)">Rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electrically_powered_spacecraft_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion">Electric propulsion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">Gravity assist</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Destinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">Sub-orbital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">Orbital</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">Geosynchronous</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_ascent" title="Direct ascent">Direct ascent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Expendable_launch_system" title="Expendable launch system">Expendable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_system" title="Reusable launch system">reusable launch systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">Launch pad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">Non-rocket spacelaunch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_segment" title="Ground segment">Ground segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_controller" title="Flight controller">Flight controller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ground_station" title="Ground station">Ground station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pass_(spaceflight)" title="Pass (spaceflight)">Pass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mission_control_center" title="Mission control center">Mission control center</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>
<ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Spaceflight" title="Category:Spaceflight">Category</a></b></li>
<li> <a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="image" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Portal</a></b></li>
<li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="WikiProject" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Spaceflight" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Spaceflight">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="NASA" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:NASA_space_program" title="Template:NASA space program"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:NASA_space_program" title="Template talk:NASA space program"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:NASA_space_program&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="NASA" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">Policy</a> and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">NACA</a> (1915)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act" title="National Aeronautics and Space Act">National Aeronautics and Space Act</a> (1958)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Task_Group" title="Space Task Group">Space Task Group</a> (1958)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_O._Paine#National_Commission_on_Space" title="Thomas O. Paine">Paine</a> (1986)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission_Report" title="Rogers Commission Report">Rogers</a> (1986)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ride_Report" title="Ride Report">Ride</a> (1987)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Exploration_Initiative" title="Space Exploration Initiative">Space Exploration Initiative</a> (1989)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_Committee" title="Augustine Committee">Augustine</a> (1990)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Clinton_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">U.S. National Space Policy</a> (1996)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commission_on_the_Future_of_the_United_States_Aerospace_Industry" title="Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry">CFUSAI</a> (2002)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Accident_Investigation_Board" title="Columbia Accident Investigation Board">CAIB</a> (2003)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vision_for_Space_Exploration" title="Vision for Space Exploration">Vision for Space Exploration</a> (2004)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Commission_on_Implementation_of_United_States_Space_Exploration_Policy" title="President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy">Aldridge</a> (2004)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Review_of_United_States_Human_Space_Flight_Plans_Committee" title="Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee">Augustine</a> (2009)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_administrators_and_deputy_administrators_of_NASA" class="mw-redirect" title="List of administrators and deputy administrators of NASA">Administrator and Deputy Administrator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Chief_Scientist" title="NASA Chief Scientist">Chief Scientist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Corps" title="NASA Astronaut Corps">Astronaut Corps</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut_ranks_and_positions" title="Astronaut ranks and positions">Ranks and positions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Astronaut_Office" title="Chief of the Astronaut Office">Chief</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_NASA" title="Budget of NASA">Budget</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_research" title="NASA research">NASA research</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/NASA_spinoff_technologies" title="NASA spinoff technologies">spinoff technologies</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_TV" title="NASA TV">NASA TV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Social" title="NASA Social">NASA Social</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Launch_Services_Program" title="Launch Services Program">Launch Services Program</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_Control_Center" title="Mercury Control Center">Mercury Control Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manned_Space_Flight_Network" title="Manned Space Flight Network">Manned Space Flight Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_Assembly_Building" title="Vehicle Assembly Building">Vehicle Assembly Building</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39">Launch Complex 39</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_48" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 48">Launch Complex 48</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Launch_Control_Center" title="Launch Control Center">Launch Control Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operations_and_Checkout_Building" title="Operations and Checkout Building">Operations and Checkout Building</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Space_Center" title="Johnson Space Center">Johnson Space Center</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center" title="Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center">Mission Control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Sample_Laboratory_Facility" title="Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility">Lunar Sample Laboratory</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a><br />programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">X-15</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">suborbital</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a> (with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–<i>Mir</i></a> (with <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos State Corporation</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constellation_program" title="Constellation program">Constellation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station_programme" title="International Space Station programme">International Space Station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services" title="Commercial Orbital Transportation Services">Commercial Orbital Transportation Services</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Program" title="Commercial Crew Program">Commercial Crew</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Gateway" title="Lunar Gateway">Lunar Gateway</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic</a> programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program" title="Hitchhiker Program">Hitchhiker</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mariner_program" title="Mariner program">Mariner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mariner_Mark_II" title="Mariner Mark II">Mariner Mark II</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MESUR" title="MESUR">MESUR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Surveyor_%2798" title="Mars Surveyor '98">Mars Surveyor '98</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Millennium_Program" title="New Millennium Program">New Millennium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_program" title="Lunar Orbiter program">Lunar Orbiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_Observer_program" title="Planetary Observer program">Planetary Observer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ranger_program" title="Ranger program">Ranger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Surveyor_program" title="Surveyor program">Surveyor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Prometheus" title="Project Prometheus">Project Prometheus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Program" title="Mars Exploration Program">Mars Exploration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rover</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Living_With_a_Star" title="Living With a Star">Living With a Star</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Precursor_Robotic_Program" title="Lunar Precursor Robotic Program">Lunar Precursor Robotic Program</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Observing_System" title="Earth Observing System">Earth Observing System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Great_Observatories_program" title="Great Observatories program">Great Observatories program</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Explorers_Program" title="Explorers Program">Explorers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voyager_program" title="Voyager program">Voyager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Program" title="Discovery Program">Discovery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Frontiers_program" title="New Frontiers program">New Frontiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Terrestrial_Probes_program" title="Solar Terrestrial Probes program">Solar Terrestrial Probes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services" title="Commercial Lunar Payload Services">Commercial Lunar Payload Services</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Individual featured<br /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_missions" title="List of NASA missions">missions</a><br />(human and robotic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_3" title="Mercury-Redstone 3">Mercury 3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-Atlas_6" title="Mercury-Atlas 6">Mercury-Atlas 6</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Magellan_(spacecraft)" title="Magellan (spacecraft)">Magellan</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_10" title="Pioneer 10">Pioneer 10</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_11" title="Pioneer 11">Pioneer 11</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_project" title="Galileo project"><i>Galileo</i></a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Timeline of Galileo (spacecraft)">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GALEX" title="GALEX">GALEX</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GRAIL" title="GRAIL">GRAIL</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope" title="Spitzer Space Telescope">Spitzer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_(rover)" title="Sojourner (rover)"><i>Sojourner</i> rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_(rover)" title="Spirit (rover)"><i>Spirit</i> rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/LADEE" title="LADEE">LADEE</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/MESSENGER" title="MESSENGER">MESSENGER</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aquarius_(SAC-D_instrument)" title="Aquarius (SAC-D instrument)">Aquarius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens"><i>Cassini</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dawn_(spacecraft)" title="Dawn (spacecraft)"><i>Dawn</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kepler_space_telescope" title="Kepler space telescope">Kepler space telescope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)"><i>Opportunity</i> rover</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Opportunity" title="Timeline of Opportunity">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ramaty_High_Energy_Solar_Spectroscopic_Imager" title="Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager">RHESSI</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surface_features_of_Mars_visited_by_Spirit_and_Opportunity" title="List of surface features of Mars visited by Spirit and Opportunity">observed</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currently<br />operating</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey" title="2001 Mars Odyssey">2001 Mars Odyssey</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gehrels_Swift_Observatory" title="Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory"><i>Swift</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/THEMIS" title="THEMIS">THEMIS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)"><i>Curiosity</i> rover</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/InSight" title="InSight">InSight</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GOES_14" title="GOES 14">GOES 14</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter">Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GOES_15" title="GOES 15">GOES 15</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_Probes" title="Van Allen Probes">Van Allen Probes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">Solar Dynamics Observatory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Juno_(spacecraft)" title="Juno (spacecraft)"><i>Juno</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">Mars Science Laboratory</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NuSTAR" title="NuSTAR">NuSTAR</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Voyager_1" title="Voyager 1">Voyager 1</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer" title="Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer">WISE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MAVEN" title="MAVEN">MAVEN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magnetospheric_Multiscale_Mission" title="Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission">MMS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/OSIRIS-REx" title="OSIRIS-REx">OSIRIS-REx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transiting_Exoplanet_Survey_Satellite" title="Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite">Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_2020" title="Mars 2020">Mars 2020</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perseverance_(rover)" title="Perseverance (rover)"><i>Perseverance</i> rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ingenuity_(helicopter)" title="Ingenuity (helicopter)"><i>Ingenuity</i> helicopter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mars_2020" title="Timeline of Mars 2020">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="Timeline of the James Webb Space Telescope">timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Future</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Polar_Satellite_System" title="Joint Polar Satellite System">Joint Polar Satellite System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NISAR_(satellite)" title="NISAR (satellite)">NISAR</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Europa_Clipper" title="Europa Clipper">Europa Clipper</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Grace_Roman_Space_Telescope" title="Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_Communications_and_Navigation_Program" title="Space Communications and Navigation Program">Communications<br />and navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near_Earth_Network" title="Near Earth Network">Near Earth Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Network" title="Space Network">Space Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Deep_Space_Network" title="NASA Deep Space Network">Deep Space Network</a> (<a href="/wiki/Goldstone_Deep_Space_Communications_Complex" title="Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex">Goldstone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Madrid_Deep_Space_Communications_Complex" title="Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex">Madrid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canberra_Deep_Space_Communication_Complex" title="Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex">Canberra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Flight_Operations_Facility" title="Space Flight Operations Facility">Space Flight Operations Facility</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Space_Atomic_Clock" title="Deep Space Atomic Clock">Deep Space Atomic Clock</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">NASA lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronauts</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_name" title="List of astronauts by name">by name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_year_of_selection" title="List of astronauts by year of selection">by year</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gemini_astronauts" title="List of Gemini astronauts">Gemini astronauts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_astronauts" title="List of Apollo astronauts">Apollo astronauts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews" title="List of Space Shuttle crews">Space Shuttle crews</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_aircraft" title="List of NASA aircraft">NASA aircraft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_missions" title="List of NASA missions">NASA missions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_uncrewed_NASA_missions" title="List of uncrewed NASA missions">uncrewed missions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_missions" title="List of Apollo missions">Apollo missions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" title="List of Space Shuttle missions">Space Shuttle missions</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_contractors" title="List of NASA contractors">NASA contractors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rockets_of_the_United_States" title="List of rockets of the United States">United States rockets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_cancellations" title="List of NASA cancellations">NASA cancellations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_cameras_on_spacecraft" title="List of NASA cameras on spacecraft">NASA cameras on spacecraft</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">NASA images<br />and artwork</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Earthrise" title="Earthrise">Earthrise</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Blue_Marble" title="The Blue Marble">The Blue Marble</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Family_Portrait_(Voyager)" title="Family Portrait (Voyager)">Family Portrait</a></i>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pale_Blue_Dot" title="Pale Blue Dot">Pale Blue Dot</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pillars_of_Creation" title="Pillars of Creation">Pillars of Creation</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mystic_Mountain" title="Mystic Mountain">Mystic Mountain</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Family_Portrait_(MESSENGER)" title="Family Portrait (MESSENGER)"><i>Solar System Family Portrait</i></a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Day_the_Earth_Smiled" title="The Day the Earth Smiled">The Day the Earth Smiled</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Fallen_Astronaut" title="Fallen Astronaut">Fallen Astronaut</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_plaque" title="Lunar plaque">Lunar plaques</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_plaque" title="Pioneer plaque">Pioneer plaques</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record" title="Voyager Golden Record">Voyager Golden Record</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11_goodwill_messages" title="Apollo 11 goodwill messages">Apollo 11 goodwill messages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_insignia" title="NASA insignia">NASA insignia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_space-flown_Gemini_and_Apollo_medallions" title="NASA space-flown Gemini and Apollo medallions">Gemini and Apollo medallions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mission_patch" title="Mission patch">Mission patches</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/We_choose_to_go_to_the_Moon" title="We choose to go to the Moon">We choose to go to the Moon</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_8_Genesis_reading" title="Apollo 8 Genesis reading">Apollo 8 Genesis reading</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_15_postal_covers_incident" title="Apollo 15 postal covers incident">Apollo 15 postal covers incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Mirror_Memorial" title="Space Mirror Memorial">Space Mirror Memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Astronaut_Monument" title="The Astronaut Monument">The Astronaut Monument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_sample_displays" title="Lunar sample displays">Lunar sample displays</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Astronaut_Hall_of_Fame" title="United States Astronaut Hall of Fame">U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/U.S._space_exploration_history_on_U.S._stamps" title="U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps">Space program on U.S. stamps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fe,_Fi,_Fo,_Fum,_and_Phooey" title="Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey">Apollo 17 Moon mice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moon_tree" title="Moon tree">Moon tree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space#United_States" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Other primates in space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_International_Space_Apps_Challenge" title="NASA International Space Apps Challenge">NASA International Space Apps Challenge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astronauts_Day" title="Astronauts Day">Astronauts Day</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>
<ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:NASA" title="Category:NASA"><b>Category</b></a></li>
<li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:NASA" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:NASA"><b>Commons</b></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_and_Russian_space_program" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_space_program" title="Template:Russian space program"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_space_program" title="Template talk:Russian space program"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Russian_space_program&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_and_Russian_space_program" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russian space program</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div id="*_Roscosmos">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launch sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a> <small>(in <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dombarovsky_(air_base)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dombarovsky (air base)">Dombarovsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kapustin_Yar" title="Kapustin Yar">Kapustin Yar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plesetsk_Cosmodrome" title="Plesetsk Cosmodrome">Plesetsk Cosmodrome</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Svobodny_Cosmodrome" title="Svobodny Cosmodrome">Svobodny Cosmodrome</a> <small>(defunct)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vostochny_Cosmodrome" title="Vostochny Cosmodrome">Vostochny Cosmodrome</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg" class="image"><img alt="Roscosmos logo ru.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg/80px-Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="51" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg/120px-Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg/160px-Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="325" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launch vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angara_(rocket_family)" title="Angara (rocket family)">Angara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proton_(rocket_family)" title="Proton (rocket family)">Proton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a><br />programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Salyut_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Salyut program">Salyut</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> <small>(incorporated into Salyut program)</small> / <a href="/wiki/TKS_(spacecraft)" title="TKS (spacecraft)">TKS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo-Soyuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo-Soyuz">Soyuz-Apollo</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuttle–Mir Program">Shuttle–Mir</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Energia" title="Energia">Energia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buran_programme" title="Buran programme">Buran</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cancelled</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond (7K-L1)</a> <small>(Moon flyby)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_crewed_lunar_programs" title="Soviet crewed lunar programs">Soviet crewed lunar programs</a> <small>(Moon landing)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zvezda_(moonbase)" title="Zvezda (moonbase)">Zvezda</a> <small>(moonbase)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TMK" title="TMK">TMK</a> <small>(Mars/Venus flyby)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-105" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105">Spiral</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Military_Soyuz#Soyuz_7K-VI_Zvezda" title="Military Soyuz">Zvezda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zarya_(spacecraft)" title="Zarya (spacecraft)">Zarya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MAKS_(spacecraft)" title="MAKS (spacecraft)">MAKS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kliper" title="Kliper">Kliper</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> <small>(joint)</small>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Orbital_Segment" title="Russian Orbital Segment">Russian Orbital Segment</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orel_(spacecraft)" title="Orel (spacecraft)">Orel</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic</a><br />programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dnepropetrovsk_Sputnik" title="Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik">DS</a> (1960–1977)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prognoz_(satellite)" title="Prognoz (satellite)">Prognoz</a> (1972–1996)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_programme" title="Luna programme">Luna programme</a> (1959–1976)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> (1961–1984)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond program</a> (1964–1970)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astron_(spacecraft)" title="Astron (spacecraft)">Astron</a> (1983)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vega_program" title="Vega program">Vega program</a> (1984)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Granat" title="Granat">Granat</a> (1989)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_(satellite)" title="Gamma (satellite)">Gamma</a> (1990)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_96" title="Mars 96">Mars 96</a> <small>(failed)</small> (1996)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Resurs-DK_No.1" title="Resurs-DK No.1">Resurs-DK No.1</a> (2006)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Koronas-Foton" title="Koronas-Foton">Koronas-Foton</a> (2009)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fobos-Grunt" title="Fobos-Grunt">Fobos-Grunt</a> <small>(failed)</small> (2011)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-R" title="Spektr-R">Spektr-R</a> (2011–2019)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bion_(satellite)" title="Bion (satellite)">Bion-M</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elektro%E2%80%93L" title="Elektro–L">Elektro–L</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_(satellite)" title="Meteor (satellite)">Meteor-M</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Resurs-P" title="Resurs-P">Resurs-P</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-RG" title="Spektr-RG">Spektr-RG</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luna-Glob" title="Luna-Glob">Luna-Glob</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luna_25" title="Luna 25">Luna 25</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_26" title="Luna 26">Luna 26</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_27" title="Luna 27">Luna 27</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_28" title="Luna 28">Luna 28</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Kazachok" title="Kazachok">Kazachok</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-UV" title="Spektr-UV">Spektr-UV</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Communications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik programme">Sputnik programme</a> (begun 1957)
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_3" title="Sputnik 3">Sputnik 3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_41" title="Sputnik 41">Sputnik 41</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_99" title="Sputnik 99">Sputnik 99</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luch_(satellite)" title="Luch (satellite)">Luch (satellite)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Deep_Space_Network" title="Soviet Deep Space Network">Deep Space Network</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baikal_(rocket_booster)" title="Baikal (rocket booster)">Baikal-Angara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laplace-P" title="Laplace-P">Laplace-P</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars-Grunt" title="Mars-Grunt">Mars-Grunt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-P" title="Mercury-P">Mercury-P</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_Piloted_Assembly_and_Experiment_Complex" title="Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex">OPSEK</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-M" title="Spektr-M">Spektr-M</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venera-D" title="Venera-D">Venera-D</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Images and artwork</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mission_patch" title="Mission patch">Mission patches</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmonauts" title="List of cosmonauts">List of cosmonauts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut_ranks_and_positions" title="Astronaut ranks and positions">Cosmonaut ranks and positions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot-Cosmonaut_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation">Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Soviet space dogs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Belka_and_Strelka" title="Belka and Strelka">Belka and Strelka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs#Veterok_and_Ugolyok" title="Soviet space dogs">Veterok and Ugolyok</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ivanovich_(Vostok_programme)" title="Ivan Ivanovich (Vostok programme)">Ivan Ivanovich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_exploration_history_on_Soviet_stamps" title="Soviet space exploration history on Soviet stamps">Soviet space exploration history on Soviet stamps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmonauts_Alley" title="Cosmonauts Alley">Cosmonauts Alley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_Conquerors_of_Space" title="Monument to the Conquerors of Space">Monument to the Conquerors of Space</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Museum_of_Cosmonautics" title="Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics">Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Out_of_the_Present" title="Out of the Present">Out of the Present</a></i> (1995 documentary)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mission_to_Mir" title="Mission to Mir">Mission to Mir</a></i> (1997 documentary)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_Russia" title="Space industry of Russia">Space industry of Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Defence_Forces" title="Russian Aerospace Defence Forces">Russian Aerospace Defence Forces</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="..._in_space" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;;background:"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:In_space" title="Template:In space"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;background:;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:In_space" title="Template talk:In space"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;background:;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:In_space&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;background:;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="..._in_space" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></i></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">Biology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">The human body</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astronautical_hygiene" title="Astronautical hygiene">Hygiene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Locomotion_in_space" title="Locomotion in space">Locomotion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_in_space" title="Neuroscience in space">Neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Psychology</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_space" title="Sex in space">Sex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licette" title="Félicette">Cats</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Dogs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbiting_Frog_Otolith" title="Orbiting Frog Otolith">Frogs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_flies_in_space" title="Fruit flies in space">Fruit flies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fe,_Fi,_Fo,_Fum,_and_Phooey" title="Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey">Mice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Primates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zond_5" title="Zond 5">Tortoises</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Extraterrestrial life</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space" title="List of microorganisms tested in outer space">Microorganisms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plants_in_space" title="Plants in space">Plants</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" class="image" title="STS-39 in Earth orbit"><img alt="STS-39 in Earth orbit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/140px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="92" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="1173" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:"><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Food</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Toilets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Writing_in_space" title="Writing in space">Writing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">Mining</a></li>
<li>Power
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batteries_in_space" title="Batteries in space">Batteries</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_space" title="Nuclear power in space">Nuclear power</a></li>
<li>Solar power
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">for Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">for spacecraft</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_radar" title="Space-based radar">Radar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Telescopes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">Weapons</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_advertising" title="Space advertising">Advertising</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_spaceflight" title="Alcohol and spaceflight">Alcohol</a></li>
<li>Archaeology
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">of Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_archaeology" title="Space archaeology">of items in space</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_burial" title="Space burial">Burial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Colonization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_economy" title="Space-based economy">Economy</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">Mining</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_trade" title="Space trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Exploration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Food</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_space" title="Music in space">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_space" title="Religion in space">Religion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_on_the_International_Space_Station" title="Christmas on the International Space Station">Christmas</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">Selfies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voting_in_space" title="Voting in space">Voting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">War</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Women</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:"><a href="/wiki/Space_environment" title="Space environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Climate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_in_space" title="Corrosion in space">Corrosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Debris</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Dust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Weather</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">Weathering</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div><b><a href="/wiki/File:Earth-moon.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Earth-moon.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="26" class="noviewer" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines" title="Template:Spaceflight lists and timelines"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines" title="Template talk:Spaceflight lists and timelines"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a> lists and timelines</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div id="*_Timeline_of_spaceflight">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline of spaceflight</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration" title="Outline of space exploration">outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_space_exploration" title="Timeline of space exploration">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_spacecraft" title="Lists of spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">Spaceflight records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Space_Race" title="Timeline of the Space Race">Space Race</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Asian_national_space_programs" title="Comparison of Asian national space programs">Asian Space Race</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology" title="Timeline of rocket and missile technology">Rocket and missile technology</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo_7_photographed_in_flight_by_ALOTS_(68-HC-641).jpg" class="image"><img alt="Apollo 7 photographed in flight by ALOTS (68-HC-641).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Apollo_7_photographed_in_flight_by_ALOTS_%2868-HC-641%29.jpg/75px-Apollo_7_photographed_in_flight_by_ALOTS_%2868-HC-641%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="53" data-file-width="2652" data-file-height="1890" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">Crewed spacecraft</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights#Timeline" title="List of human spaceflights">timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight_programs" title="Human spaceflight programs">by program</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights" title="List of human spaceflights">Spaceflights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1961%E2%80%931970" title="List of human spaceflights, 1961–1970">1961–1970</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1971%E2%80%931980" title="List of human spaceflights, 1971–1980">1971–1980</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1981%E2%80%931990" title="List of human spaceflights, 1981–1990">1981–1990</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1991%E2%80%932000" title="List of human spaceflights, 1991–2000">1991–2000</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_2001%E2%80%932010" title="List of human spaceflights, 2001–2010">2001–2010</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_2011%E2%80%932020" title="List of human spaceflights, 2011–2020">2011–2020</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_2021%E2%80%93present" title="List of human spaceflights, 2021–present">2021–present</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_human_spaceflight_missions" title="List of Soviet human spaceflight missions">Soviet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_human_spaceflight_missions" title="List of Russian human spaceflight missions">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vostok_and_Voskhod_missions" title="List of Vostok and Voskhod missions">Vostok and Voskhod</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soyuz_missions" title="List of Soyuz missions">Soyuz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_missions" title="List of Apollo missions">Apollo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenzhou program">Shenzhou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Human_Spaceflight_Programme" title="Indian Human Spaceflight Programme">Gaganyaan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spacelab" title="Spacelab">Spacelab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Artemis_missions" title="List of Artemis missions">Artemis</a></li>
<li>Civilian spaceflight
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fully_civilian_crewed_orbital_spaceflights" title="List of fully civilian crewed orbital spaceflights">Orbital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fully_civilian_crewed_suborbital_spaceflights" title="List of fully civilian crewed suborbital spaceflights">Suborbital</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salyut_programme" title="Salyut programme">Salyut</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Salyut_expeditions" title="List of Salyut expeditions">Expeditions</a></li>
<li>Spaceflights
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights_to_Salyut_space_stations" title="List of human spaceflights to Salyut space stations">crewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_uncrewed_spaceflights_to_Salyut_space_stations" title="List of uncrewed spaceflights to Salyut space stations">uncrewed</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Salyut_spacewalks" title="List of Salyut spacewalks">Spacewalks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Salyut_visitors" title="List of Salyut visitors">Visitors</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mir_expeditions" title="List of Mir expeditions">Expeditions</a></li>
<li>Spaceflights
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights_to_Mir" title="List of human spaceflights to Mir">crewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_uncrewed_spaceflights_to_Mir" title="List of uncrewed spaceflights to Mir">uncrewed</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mir_spacewalks" title="List of Mir spacewalks">Spacewalks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mir_visitors" title="List of Mir visitors">Visitors</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">ISS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_International_Space_Station_expeditions" title="List of International Space Station expeditions">Expeditions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflights_to_the_International_Space_Station" title="List of spaceflights to the International Space Station">Spaceflights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights_to_the_International_Space_Station" title="List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station">crewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncrewed_spaceflights_to_the_International_Space_Station" title="Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station">uncrewed</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_International_Space_Station_spacewalks" title="List of International Space Station spacewalks">Spacewalks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_visitors_to_the_International_Space_Station" title="List of visitors to the International Space Station">Visitors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacecraft_deployed_from_the_International_Space_Station" title="List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station">Deployed</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_space_station" title="Tiangong space station">Tiangong</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights_to_the_Tiangong_space_station" title="List of human spaceflights to the Tiangong space station">Crewed Spaceflights</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Shuttle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews" title="List of Space Shuttle crews">Crews</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" title="List of Space Shuttle missions">Missions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_rollbacks" title="List of Space Shuttle rollbacks">Rollbacks</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_astronauts" title="Lists of astronauts">Astronauts</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_name" title="List of astronauts by name">by name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_year_of_selection" title="List of astronauts by year of selection">by year of selection</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_astronauts" title="List of Apollo astronauts">Apollo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gemini_astronauts" title="List of Gemini astronauts">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_astronauts" title="List of Chinese astronauts">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_astronauts" title="List of European astronauts">European</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmonauts" title="List of cosmonauts">Cosmonauts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_astronauts" title="List of female astronauts">female</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_astronauts" title="List of Jewish astronauts">Jewish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_astronauts" title="List of Muslim astronauts">Muslim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_astronauts" title="List of Arab astronauts">Arab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">African American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ibero-American_spacefarers" title="List of Ibero-American spacefarers">Ibero-America</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_space_scientists" title="Lists of space scientists">Space scientists</a></li>
<li>Space travelers
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_travelers_by_name" title="List of space travelers by name">by name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_travellers_by_first_flight" title="List of space travellers by first flight">by first flight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_travelers_by_nationality" title="List of space travelers by nationality">by nationality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_billionaire_spacetravellers" title="List of billionaire spacetravellers">billionaires</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_space_travel_by_nationality" title="Timeline of space travel by nationality">timeline by nationality</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Spaceflight-related human fatalities</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">EVA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacewalks_and_moonwalks_1965%E2%80%931999" title="List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999">1965–1999</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacewalks_2000%E2%80%932014" title="List of spacewalks 2000–2014">2000–2014</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacewalks_since_2015" title="List of spacewalks since 2015">2015–present</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cumulative_spacewalk_records" title="List of cumulative spacewalk records">Cumulative spacewalk records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_longest_spacewalks" title="List of longest spacewalks">Longest spacewalks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacewalkers" title="List of spacewalkers">Spacewalkers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_and_exploration_of_the_Solar_System" title="Discovery and exploration of the Solar System">Solar System<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration" title="Timeline of Solar System exploration">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_interplanetary_voyages" title="List of interplanetary voyages">Interplanetary voyages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landings_on_extraterrestrial_bodies" title="List of landings on extraterrestrial bodies">Landings on other planets</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rovers_on_extraterrestrial_bodies" title="List of rovers on extraterrestrial bodies">rovers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_on_extraterrestrial_surfaces" title="List of artificial objects on extraterrestrial surfaces">artificial objects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_objects_at_Lagrange_points" title="List of objects at Lagrange points">Objects at Lagrange points</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_probes" title="List of Solar System probes">Probes</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_Solar_System_probes" title="List of active Solar System probes">active</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_orbiters" title="List of extraterrestrial orbiters">orbiters</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System" title="List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System">leaving the Solar System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lunar_probes" title="List of lunar probes">lunar probes</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_the_Moon" title="List of missions to the Moon">Missions to the Moon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes" title="Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes">Timeline of satellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sample-return_mission" title="Sample-return mission">Sample-return mission</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_sample-return_mission" title="Mars sample-return mission">Mars</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Earth-orbiting<br />satellites</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communications_satellite_firsts" title="List of communications satellite firsts">Communications satellite firsts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CubeSat" title="CubeSat">CubeSats</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PocketQube" title="PocketQube">PocketQube</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Earth_observation_satellites" title="List of Earth observation satellites">Earth observation satellites</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_Earth_observation_satellites" title="Timeline of first Earth observation satellites">Timeline of first Earth observation satellites</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_satellites_in_geosynchronous_orbit" title="List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit">Geosynchronous orbit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_GOES_satellites" title="List of GOES satellites">GOES</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_GPS_satellites" title="List of GPS satellites">GPS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kosmos_satellites" title="List of Kosmos satellites">Kosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_satellites_which_have_provided_data_on_Earth%27s_magnetosphere" title="List of satellites which have provided data on Earth's magnetosphere">Magnetospheric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NRO_launches" title="List of NRO launches">NRO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_TDRS_satellites" title="List of TDRS satellites">TDRS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_USA_satellites" title="List of USA satellites">USA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orbital_launch_systems" title="List of orbital launch systems">Orbital launch systems</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_orbital_launch_systems" title="Comparison of orbital launch systems">Comparison</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sounding_rockets" title="List of sounding rockets">Sounding rocket list</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_spacecraft" title="Lists of spacecraft">Spacecraft</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_uncrewed_spacecraft_by_program" title="List of uncrewed spacecraft by program">uncrewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">crewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heaviest_spacecraft" title="List of heaviest spacecraft">heaviest</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocket_stages" title="List of rocket stages">Upper stages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sounding_rocket" title="Sounding rocket">Sounding rocket</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Small-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Small-lift launch vehicle">Small-lift launch vehicle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medium-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Medium-lift launch vehicle">Medium-lift launch vehicle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heavy-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Heavy-lift launch vehicle">Heavy-lift launch vehicle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Super_heavy-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Super heavy-lift launch vehicle">Super heavy-lift launch vehicle</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launches<br />by rocket type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ariane_launches" title="List of Ariane launches">Ariane</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Atlas_launches" title="List of Atlas launches">Atlas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Black_Brant_launches" title="List of Black Brant launches">Black Brant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Electron_launches" title="List of Electron launches">Electron</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Falcon_9_and_Falcon_Heavy_launches" title="List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches">Falcon 9 and Heavy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_H-II_series_and_H3_launches" title="List of H-II series and H3 launches">H-II and H3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kosmos_launches" title="List of Kosmos launches">Kosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Long_March_launches" title="List of Long March launches">Long March</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Proton_launches" title="List of Proton launches">Proton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_PSLV_launches" title="List of PSLV launches">PSLV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_R-7_launches" title="List of R-7 launches">R-7 (including Semyorka, Molniya, Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scout_launches" title="List of Scout launches">Scout</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Launch_System_launches" title="List of Space Launch System launches">SLS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_SpaceX_Starship_flight_tests" title="List of SpaceX Starship flight tests">Starship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thor_and_Delta_launches" title="List of Thor and Delta launches">Thor and Delta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Titan_launches" title="List of Titan launches">Titan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tsyklon_launches" title="List of Tsyklon launches">Tsyklon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_V-2_test_launches" title="List of V-2 test launches">V-2 tests</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Zenit_launches" title="List of Zenit launches">Zenit</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.15em;">Launches by spaceport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Satish_Dhawan_Space_Centre_launches" title="List of Satish Dhawan Space Centre launches">Satish Dhawan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agencies, companies<br />and facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communication_satellite_companies" title="List of communication satellite companies">Communications satellite companies</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_communication_satellite_operators" title="Comparison of communication satellite operators">comparison</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_private_spaceflight_companies" title="List of private spaceflight companies">Private spaceflight companies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocket_launch_sites" title="List of rocket launch sites">Rocket launch sites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">Space agencies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacecraft_manufacturers" title="List of spacecraft manufacturers">Spacecraft manufacturers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.15em;">Other mission lists<br />and timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country" title="Timeline of first orbital launches by country">First orbital launches by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_artificial_satellites_by_country" title="Timeline of first artificial satellites by country">First artificial satellites by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_missions" title="List of NASA missions">NASA missions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Constellation_missions" title="List of Constellation missions">Constellation missions</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_private_spaceflight" title="Timeline of private spaceflight">Timeline of private spaceflight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_longest_spaceflights" title="Timeline of longest spaceflights">Timeline of longest spaceflights</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Solar_System" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_System" title="Template:Solar System"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Solar_System" title="Template talk:Solar System"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Solar_System&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Solar_System" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="*_Sun_*_Mercury_*_Venus_*_Earth_*_Mars_*_Ceres_*_Jupiter_*_Saturn_*_Uranus_*_Neptune_*_Orcus_*_Pluto_*_Haumea_*_Quaoar_*_Makemake_*_Gonggong_*_Eris_*_Sedna"><div class="noresize"><map name="ImageMap_95c11910eb0c3136"><area href="/wiki/Sun" shape="rect" coords="0,0,90,35" alt="The Sun" title="The Sun" /><area href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" shape="circle" coords="112,18,6" alt="Mercury" title="Mercury" /><area href="/wiki/Venus" shape="circle" coords="153,18,8" alt="Venus" title="Venus" /><area href="/wiki/Moon" shape="circle" coords="204,10,4" alt="The Moon" title="The Moon" /><area href="/wiki/Earth" shape="circle" coords="195,18,8" alt="Earth" title="Earth" /><area href="/wiki/Mars" shape="circle" coords="233,18,8" alt="Mars" title="Mars" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" shape="circle" coords="241,13,3" alt="Phobos and Deimos" title="Phobos and Deimos" /><area href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" shape="circle" coords="271,18,5" alt="Ceres" title="Ceres" /><area href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" shape="rect" coords="256,0,288,35" alt="The main asteroid belt" title="The main asteroid belt" /><area href="/wiki/Jupiter" shape="circle" coords="316,19,15" alt="Jupiter" title="Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter" shape="circle" coords="329,6,6" alt="Moons of Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter" shape="rect" coords="298,18,335,20" alt="Rings of Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Saturn" shape="circle" coords="372,18,12" alt="Saturn" title="Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" shape="circle" coords="381,7,6" alt="Moons of Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" shape="rect" coords="353,5,389,31" alt="Rings of Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Uranus" shape="circle" coords="418,18,12" alt="Uranus" title="Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus" shape="circle" coords="427,10,6" alt="Moons of Uranus" title="Moons of Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Uranus" shape="rect" coords="408,4,429,34" alt="Rings of Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Neptune" shape="circle" coords="462,18,12" alt="Neptune" title="Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune" shape="circle" coords="471,10,5" alt="Moons of Neptune" title="Moons of Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Neptune" shape="rect" coords="441,9,485,28" alt="Rings of Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Pluto" shape="circle" coords="504,18,12" alt="Pluto" title="Pluto" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Pluto" shape="circle" coords="510,13,8" alt="Moons of Pluto" title="Moons of Pluto" /><area href="/wiki/Haumea" shape="circle" coords="534,18,12" alt="Haumea" title="Haumea" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Haumea" shape="circle" coords="540,13,8" alt="Moons of Haumea" title="Moons of Haumea" /><area href="/wiki/Makemake" shape="circle" coords="567,18,12" alt="Makemake" title="Makemake" /><area href="/wiki/S/2015_(136472)_1" shape="circle" coords="571,13,8" alt="S/2015 (136472) 1" title="S/2015 (136472) 1" /><area href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" shape="rect" coords="490,0,580,35" alt="The Kuiper Belt" title="The Kuiper Belt" /><area href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" shape="circle" coords="596,18,12" alt="Eris" title="Eris" /><area href="/wiki/Dysnomia_(moon)" shape="circle" coords="602,13,8" alt="Dysnomia" title="Dysnomia" /><area href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" shape="rect" coords="581,0,610,35" alt="The Scattered Disc" title="The Scattered Disc" /><area href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" shape="rect" coords="623,0,640,35" alt="The Hills Cloud" title="The Hills Cloud" /><area href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" shape="rect" coords="641,0,666,35" alt="The Oort Cloud" title="The Oort Cloud" /></map><img alt="The Sun, the planets, their moons, and several trans-Neptunian objects" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Solar_System_Template_Final.png" decoding="async" width="666" height="36" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="36" usemap="#ImageMap_95c11910eb0c3136" /></div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/90482_Orcus" title="90482 Orcus">Orcus</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Haumea" title="Haumea">Haumea</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/50000_Quaoar" title="50000 Quaoar">Quaoar</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Makemake" title="Makemake">Makemake</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/225088_Gonggong" title="225088 Gonggong">Gonggong</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/90377_Sedna" title="90377 Sedna">Sedna</a></i></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px;"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;;;;width:50%;"><div>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Planets_anddwarf_planets" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planets</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">dwarf planets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">Terrestrials</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giant_planet" title="Giant planet">Giants</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">Dwarfs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/90482_Orcus" title="90482 Orcus">Orcus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Haumea" title="Haumea">Haumea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/50000_Quaoar" title="50000 Quaoar">Quaoar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Makemake" title="Makemake">Makemake</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/225088_Gonggong" title="225088 Gonggong">Gonggong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/90377_Sedna" title="90377 Sedna">Sedna</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">Moons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Earth
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claimed_moons_of_Earth" title="Claimed moons of Earth">other near-Earth objects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" title="Moons of Mars">Mars</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter">Jupiter</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymede</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Callisto_(moon)" title="Callisto (moon)">Callisto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)" title="Io (moon)">Io</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter#List" title="Moons of Jupiter">all 80</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn">Saturn</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhea_(moon)" title="Rhea (moon)">Rhea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iapetus_(moon)" title="Iapetus (moon)">Iapetus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dione_(moon)" title="Dione (moon)">Dione</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tethys_(moon)" title="Tethys (moon)">Tethys</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mimas_(moon)" title="Mimas (moon)">Mimas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hyperion_(moon)" title="Hyperion (moon)">Hyperion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phoebe_(moon)" title="Phoebe (moon)">Phoebe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn#List" title="Moons of Saturn">all 83</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus" title="Moons of Uranus">Uranus</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titania_(moon)" title="Titania (moon)">Titania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oberon_(moon)" title="Oberon (moon)">Oberon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Umbriel_(moon)" title="Umbriel (moon)">Umbriel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_(moon)" title="Ariel (moon)">Ariel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miranda_(moon)" title="Miranda (moon)">Miranda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus#List" title="Moons of Uranus">all 27</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune" title="Moons of Neptune">Neptune</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proteus_(moon)" title="Proteus (moon)">Proteus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nereid_(moon)" title="Nereid (moon)">Nereid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune#List" title="Moons of Neptune">all 14</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/90482_Orcus" title="90482 Orcus">Orcus</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vanth_(moon)" title="Vanth (moon)">Vanth</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Pluto" title="Moons of Pluto">Pluto</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charon_(moon)" title="Charon (moon)">Charon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nix_(moon)" title="Nix (moon)">Nix</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(moon)" title="Hydra (moon)">Hydra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kerberos_(moon)" title="Kerberos (moon)">Kerberos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Styx_(moon)" title="Styx (moon)">Styx</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Haumea" title="Moons of Haumea">Haumea</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hi%CA%BBiaka_(moon)" title="Hiʻiaka (moon)">Hiʻiaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Namaka_(moon)" title="Namaka (moon)">Namaka</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/50000_Quaoar" title="50000 Quaoar">Quaoar</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weywot" title="Weywot">Weywot</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Makemake" title="Makemake">Makemake</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/S/2015_(136472)_1" title="S/2015 (136472) 1">S/2015 (136472) 1</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/225088_Gonggong" title="225088 Gonggong">Gonggong</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiangliu_(moon)" title="Xiangliu (moon)">Xiangliu</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysnomia_(moon)" title="Dysnomia (moon)">Dysnomia</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_comets" title="Lists of comets">Comets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_possible_dwarf_planets" title="List of possible dwarf planets">Possible dwarf planets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gravitationally_rounded_objects_of_the_Solar_System" title="List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System">Gravitationally rounded objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minor_planets" title="List of minor planets">Minor planets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_satellites" title="List of natural satellites">Natural satellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System_model" title="Solar System model">Solar System models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_objects" title="List of Solar System objects">Solar System objects</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_objects_by_size" title="List of Solar System objects by size">by size</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons" title="Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons">by discovery date</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Interstellar and circumstellar molecules</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Small_Solar_System_body" title="Small Solar System body">Small <br />Solar <br />System <br />bodies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">Comets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Damocloid" title="Damocloid">Damocloids</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">Meteoroids</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minor_planet" title="Minor planet">Minor planets</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meanings_of_minor-planet_names" title="Meanings of minor-planet names">names and meanings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minor-planet_moon" title="Minor-planet moon">moons</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mercury-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mercury-crossing minor planets">Mercury-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Venus-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Venus-crossing minor planets">Venus-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2013_ND15" title="2013 ND15">Venus trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Earth-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Earth-crossing minor planets">Earth-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_trojan" title="Earth trojan">Earth trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mars-crossing minor planets">Mars-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_trojan" title="Mars trojan">Mars trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">Asteroid belt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/4_Vesta" title="4 Vesta">Vesta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2_Pallas" title="2 Pallas">Pallas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/10_Hygiea" title="10 Hygiea">Hygiea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Active_asteroid" title="Active asteroid">active</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minor_planets:_1%E2%80%931000" title="List of minor planets: 1–1000">first 1000</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_family" title="Asteroid family">families</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids" title="List of exceptional asteroids">exceptional</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kirkwood_gap" title="Kirkwood gap">Kirkwood gap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jupiter-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Jupiter-crossing minor planets">Jupiter-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_trojan" title="Jupiter trojan">Jupiter trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body)" title="Centaur (small Solar System body)">Centaurs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Saturn-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Saturn-crossing minor planets">Saturn-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Uranus-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Uranus-crossing minor planets">Uranus-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2011_QF99" title="2011 QF99">Uranus trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neptune-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Neptune-crossing minor planets">Neptune-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cis-Neptunian_object" title="Cis-Neptunian object">Cis-Neptunian objects</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body)" title="Centaur (small Solar System body)">Centaurs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_trojan" title="Neptune trojan">Neptune trojans</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object" title="Trans-Neptunian object">Trans-Neptunian objects</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Kuiper_belt_object" title="Classical Kuiper belt object">Cubewanos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plutino" title="Plutino">Plutinos</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Detached_object" title="Detached object">Detached objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sednoid" title="Sednoid">Sednoids</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">Scattered disc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" title="Hills cloud">Hills cloud</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;;;;width:50%;"><div>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Rings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter">Jovian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Saturnian</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Rhea" title="Rings of Rhea">Rhean</a>)</span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Chariklo" title="Rings of Chariklo">Charikloan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2060_Chiron#Rings" title="2060 Chiron">Chironean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus">Uranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune">Neptunian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Haumea#Ring" title="Haumea">Haumean</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_Solar_System_objects" title="List of hypothetical Solar System objects">Hypothetical <br />objects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five-planet_Nice_model" title="Five-planet Nice model">Fifth giant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phaeton_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Phaeton (hypothetical planet)">Phaeton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planet_Nine" title="Planet Nine">Planet Nine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planet_V" title="Planet V">Planet V</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planets_beyond_Neptune#Planet_X" title="Planets beyond Neptune">Planet X</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subsatellite" title="Subsatellite">Subsatellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theia_(planet)" title="Theia (planet)">Theia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tyche_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Tyche (hypothetical planet)">Tyche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Vulcan (hypothetical planet)">Vulcan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanoid" title="Vulcanoid">Vulcanoids</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Exploration</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration" title="Outline of space exploration">outline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_and_exploration_of_the_Solar_System" title="Discovery and exploration of the Solar System">Discovery</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historical_models_of_the_Solar_System" title="Historical models of the Solar System">historical models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons" title="Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" title="Space probe">Space probes</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration" title="Timeline of Solar System exploration">timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_probes" title="List of Solar System probes">list</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space stations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">list</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight_programs" title="Human spaceflight programs">programs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mercury" title="Exploration of Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observations_and_explorations_of_Venus" title="Observations and explorations of Venus">Venus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Moon" title="Exploration of the Moon">Moon</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_resources" title="Lunar resources">mining</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Mars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)#Exploration" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid#Exploration" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">mining</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_comets" title="List of missions to comets">Comets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Jupiter" title="Exploration of Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Saturn" title="Exploration of Saturn">Saturn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Uranus" title="Exploration of Uranus">Uranus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Neptune" title="Exploration of Neptune">Neptune</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Pluto" title="Exploration of Pluto">Pluto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deep_space_exploration" title="Deep space exploration">Deep space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Colonization</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Formation <br />and <br />evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">Accretion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk#Excretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Excretion disk</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Circumplanetary_disk" title="Circumplanetary disk">Circumplanetary disk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_disc" title="Circumstellar disc">Circumstellar disc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coatlicue_(star)" title="Coatlicue (star)">Coatlicue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Debris_disk" title="Debris disk">Debris disk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Detached_object" title="Detached object">Detached object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Disrupted_planet" title="Disrupted planet">Disrupted planet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanetary_Circumstellar_Environments_and_Disk_Explorer" title="Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer">EXCEDE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exozodiacal_dust" title="Exozodiacal dust">Exozodiacal dust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_materials" title="Extraterrestrial materials">Extraterrestrial materials</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sample-return_mission" title="Sample-return mission">Sample-return mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_sample_curation" title="Extraterrestrial sample curation">Sample curation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giant-impact_hypothesis" title="Giant-impact hypothesis">Giant-impact hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">Gravitational collapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" title="Hills cloud">Hills cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_dust_cloud" title="Interplanetary dust cloud">Interplanetary dust cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_cloud" title="Interstellar cloud">Interstellar cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space#Interstellar_space" title="Outer space">Interstellar space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision#Formation_of_planets" title="Stellar collision">Merging stars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">Outer space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_migration" title="Planetary migration">Planetary migration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Formation_of_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">Planet formation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_pile" title="Rubble pile">Rubble pile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">Scattered disc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Star formation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;padding:0.4em;line-height:1.25em;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Solar_System" title="Outline of the Solar System">Outline of the Solar System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/File:Solar_system.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Solar system.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/22px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="28" class="noviewer" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/File:Crab_Nebula.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Crab Nebula.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/28px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" class="image"><img alt="The Earth seen from Apollo 17 with transparent background.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" data-file-width="2690" data-file-height="2700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></li></ul>
<p><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Interstellar_Cloud" title="Local Interstellar Cloud">Local Interstellar Cloud</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Bubble" title="Local Bubble">Local Bubble</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Gould_Belt" title="Gould Belt">Gould Belt</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Orion_Arm" title="Orion Arm">Orion Arm</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Satellite_galaxies_of_the_Milky_Way" title="Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way">Milky Way subgroup</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Sheet" title="Local Sheet">Local Sheet</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Virgo_Supercluster" title="Virgo Supercluster">Virgo Supercluster</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Laniakea_Supercluster" title="Laniakea Supercluster">Laniakea Supercluster</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Pisces%E2%80%93Cetus_Supercluster_Complex" title="Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex">Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/KBC_Void" title="KBC Void">KBC Void</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">Observable universe</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">Each arrow (<span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span>) may be read as "within" or "part of".</span>
</p>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752783#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752783#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752783#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" class="noprint" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National libraries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4144455-3">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548321905171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85080584">United States</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10639262">National Archives (US)</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>'
|
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node ($1) (tor_exit_node) |
false
|
Unix timestamp of change ($1) (timestamp) |
1647610288
|
