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'{{Expand French|topic=hist}}
{{Short description|Ancient synagogue in Syria}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Dura-Europos Synagogue
|native_name=
|alternate_name=
|image = Doura Europos synagogue courtyard.jpg
|alt=
|caption = Courtyard, western porch and prayer hall
|map_type = Syria
|map_alt=
|map_size = 220
|location=[[Dura-Europos]]
|region=[[Deir ez-Zor Governorate]], [[Syria]]
|coordinates = {{coord|34.7474|40.7272|display=inline}}
|type=[[Synagogue]]
|part_of=
|length=
|width=
|area=
|height=
|builder=
|material=
|built=c. 244 CE
|abandoned=256-257 CE
|epochs=[[Classical antiquity]]
|cultures=[[Jews|Jewish]], [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]], [[Sassanid]]
|dependency_of=
|occupants=
|event=
|excavations=
|archaeologists=
|condition = destroyed
|ownership=
|public_access=
|website=
|notes=
|discovered=1932}}
The '''Dura-Europos synagogue''' was an ancient [[synagogue]] uncovered at [[Dura-Europos]], [[Syria]], in 1932. The synagogue contains a forecourt and house of assembly with painted walls depicting people and animals, and a [[Torah]] shrine in the western wall facing [[Jerusalem]]. It was built backing on to the city wall, which was important in its survival. The last phase of construction was dated by an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] inscription to 244 CE, making it one of the [[oldest synagogues in the world]]. It was unique among the many ancient synagogues that have emerged from [[Archaeological excavation|archaeological excavations]] as the structure was preserved virtually intact, and it had extensive [[Figurative art|figurative]] wall-paintings, which came as a considerable surprise to scholars. These paintings are now displayed in the [[National Museum of Damascus]].
Dura-Europos was a small garrison and trading city on the [[river Euphrates]], and usually on the frontier between the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] and the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and finally the [[Sassanid Empire]]s of [[Persia]]. It changed hands at various points but was Roman from 165 AD. Before the final Persian destruction of the town in 256-257 AD, parts of the synagogue which abutted the main city wall were apparently requisitioned and filled with sand as a defensive measure. The city was abandoned after its fall and never resettled, and the lower walls of the rooms remained buried and largely intact until excavated. The short measure of time during which it was used ensured that it would have limited impact upon Jewish or Christian art. The excavations also discovered very important wall-paintings from places of worship of Christianity at the [[Dura-Europos church]]. In addition, there were wall paintings edifying [[Mithraism]], and fragmentary Christian texts in [[Hebrew]].
In the [[Syrian Civil War]], the site was occupied by [[ISIL]], and what was left of the synagogue and a number of other buildings there appear to have been destroyed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Curry|first=Andrew|date=1 September 2015|title=Here Are the Ancient Sites ISIS Has Damaged and Destroyed|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813194747/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 13, 2019|access-date=2020-12-25|website=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic Society}}</ref>
== Torah shrine ==
[[File:Dura-Europos archival photograph, Synagogue, west wall, aedicula, general view Synagogue.jpg|thumb|The [[Torah shrine]], Dura-Europos]]
The decoration of the [[Torah shrine]] consists of two elements. The first one includes, "the uppermost step of the niche-block, the columns of the facade, and the intrados of the archivolt."<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Kraeling |first=Carl H. (Carl Hermann) |url=http://archive.org/details/synagogue0000krae |title=The synagogue |date=1979 |publisher=New York : Ktav Pub. House |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-87068-331-2}}</ref> The second one involves important religious scenes, objects and pictures of Jewish worship.
The interior of the niche consists of three parts: the conch had a light-blue color that faded all at once after the excavation. The outer surface of the shell is a rich green color. The columns and the bottom of the niche are painted to look like marble reventments. The bottom of the niche consists of five rectangular panels that are framed on top and bottom by pink bands, and there are red vertical bands to separate them from each other. Out of the five panels, one and five are a pair and two and four are another pair: they are all designed by the same fashion. For the first and the fifth panel, the artists used black diagonal lines to divide triangular patterned designs. Opposing triangles on the top and the bottom of the panel has red stripes and are inscribed with peltae. Opposing triangles on the sides of the panels are decorated with brown-lined irregular concentric shapes, with a green dot in the middle of each. On the second and the fourth panels, the outer frame is decorated with red and pink bands, and alternating red dots and strokes against the white background, with bead-and-reel designs on the corners. On the corners of the strips, there are three-petal like strokes. Inside the frame, there are wavy green and dark green curvy lines of different thickness drawn from the top left and right corners of the panel towards the middle. The central panel of the niche consists of a veined black diamond with a yellow circle in the middle. The diamond is framed with the same bead-and-reel design that surrounded the second and the fourth panels. The four triangles that are on the side of the diamond are decorated in brown colors.
The figural decoration above the niche on the front face of the arch is particularly significant. The spandrels formed a rectangle that is 1.47m wide and 1.06m high, framed by a pink border that is 0.04m-0.05m wide. On the left side of the front face is a representation of a menorah, and on the right side was a depiction of the [[Binding of Isaac|sacrifice of Isaac.]] Depicted in the central position was a columned building with an arched doorway. <!-- Inside the pink border there is a -->
==Wall paintings==
The paintings cover the walls of the main "Assembly Room", using three levels of pictures over a [[dado (architecture)|dado]] frieze of symbols in most places, reaching a height of about 7 metres.<ref name=":6" /> Stylistically they are provincial versions of contemporary [[Graeco-Roman]] style and technique; several different artists seem to have worked on them. Technically they are not [[fresco]] (paint fused into wet plaster) but [[tempera]] over plaster. Earlier parts of the building have decorative painting with no figures. Some of the paintings have figures whose eyes have been scratched out, especially those in Persian costume.
===Iconography===
Scholars cannot agree on the subjects of some scenes, because of damage, or the lack of comparative examples.
The scenes depicted are drawn from the [[Hebrew Bible]] and include many narrative scenes, and some single figure "portraits"—58 scenes in total, probably representing about 60% of the original number. They include the [[Binding of Isaac]] and other [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] stories, [[Moses]] receiving the [[Tablets of the Law]], Moses leading the [[Hebrews]] out of [[Egypt]], Moses at the [[burning bush]], the visions of [[Ezekiel]], a figure of [[Enoch]] or possibly [[Abraham]], [[Massah and Meribah|the water miracle in the desert]], the return of [[Ark of the Covenant|Ark]] from the temple of [[Dagon]], [[Ezra]] with the scrolls and many others.<ref>Thorleif Boman. (1970). ''Hebrew Thought Compared with Greek''. New York: W.W. Norton paperback by arrangement with Westminster Press. ISBN 9780393005349. p. 113. [https://archive.org/details/hebrewthoughtcom0000boma The Internet Archive website] and [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Hebrew_Thought_Compared_with_Greek/aYm6qSGwJeoC?hl=en Google Books ] Retrieved 4 February 2024.</ref> The [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]] [[motif (visual arts)|motif]] is used to represent divine intervention or approval in several paintings.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Synagogue|last=Kraeling|first=C H|publisher=Ktav Pub. House|year=1979|isbn=9780870683312|edition=Augmented|series=Excavations at Dura-Europos|location=New York|pages=57}}</ref>
There have been scholarly debates questioning the wall paintings' influence over later Jewish and/or Christian iconography, which have been held due to the relevance of such early depictions of the biblical narrative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gutmann|first=Joseph|date=1988|title=The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art|journal=Artibus et Historiae|volume=9|issue=17|pages=25–29|doi=10.2307/1483314 |jstor=1483314}}</ref>
[[File:Western Wall Scenes Labeled.png|thumb|Western wall paintings schematic breaks the wall into discrete sections designated by whichever biblical scene or figure each painting portrays<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Susan M. |title=My Dura-Europos: the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935 |date=2011 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |others=Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman |isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8 |location=Detroit [Mich.] |pages=231 |oclc=695683643}}</ref>]]
Depictions of [[Moses]] and the [[Book of Exodus]] occupy significant swathes of space in the paintings on the Western Wall of the synagogue - of the 12 discrete paintings identified in the Hopkins schematic, 3 center on the narrative of Moses' life, with a total of 7 depictions of Moses across the western wall. Some paintings contain multiple representations of Moses within one distinct scene.<ref name=":5" />
[[File:AHSC ORPHANS 1071314236.jpg|thumb|Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea, a temple<ref>{{Cite web |last=Artstor |title=Artstor |url=https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=library.artstor.org |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Dura-Europos wall painting Aramaic Moses inscription.png|thumb|[[Susan M. Hopkins|Susan Hopkins]] pointing to the figure of Moses with the detail showing the Aramaic inscription<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Susan M. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/695683643 |title=My Dura-Europos : the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935 |date=2011 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |others=Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman |isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8 |location=Detroit [Mich.] |pages=220 |oclc=695683643}}</ref>]]
The painting of Moses leading the [[Israelites]] out of Egypt features multiple Moses figures, much like the painting labeled ''WC4''. Between the first Moses's legs is an inscription in [[Aramaic]] reading, "Moses, when he went out from Egypt and cleft the sea."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Susan M. |title=My Dura-Europos: the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935 |date=2011 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |others=Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman |isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8 |location=Detroit [Mich.] |pages=219 |oclc=695683643}}</ref> This inscription firmly identifies the murals as depicting the story of Moses leading the Israelites [[Crossing the Red Sea|across the Red Sea]] from the Book of Exodus. First (on the right) Moses is seen raising a club-like staff and facing to the left, leading an army of Israelites behind him. Second, Moses is seen lowering his staff over the Red Sea, causing its parted waters to close and engulf the pursuing Egyptian army. Here he is facing to the right of the painting. And finally, Moses is seen looking to the left at his safely absconded Israelites, holding his staff at his side, pointed downward.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sivan |first=Hagith |date=2019 |title=Retelling the Story of Moses at Dura Europos Synagogue |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/retelling-the-story-of-moses-at-dura-europos-synagogue |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.thetorah.com}}</ref>
[[File:Yale_1935.51.jpg|thumb|Relief [[Statue of Hercules, Dura-Europos|depicting Hercules]], [[Temple of Zeus Theos, Dura-Europos|Temple of Zeus]]]]
The synagogue paintings' portrayal of Moses and the Israelites each contain influences from the concurrent Roman military culture. Moses is portrayed as the leader of the Israelites who are shown not as civilians or slaves, but as an armed military force. In this context, Moses' powerful stance and comparatively large size present him as the military leader of the Israelites. His long club-like rod or staff and bearded visage have been compared to a relief of [[Hercules]] from the 2nd-century Durene [[Temple of Zeus Theos, Dura-Europos|temple of Zeus]], built during the 114 CE Roman occupation of the city.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Weisman |first=Stefanie H. |date=2012 |title=Militarism in the Wall Paintings of the Dura-Europos Synagogue: A New Perspective on Jewish Life on the Roman Frontier |jstor=10.5703/shofar.30.3.1 |journal=Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies |volume=30 |issue=3 |page=13|doi=10.1353/sho.2012.0054 |s2cid=143836446 }}</ref>
The mass of Israelites positioned to his left carry shields and spears. Their shields are layered and overlapped over one another to form a physical barrier, much like the Roman shield wall formations of the [[phalanx]] and the [[Testudo formation|testudo]]. Behind the Israelite soldiers stand figures representing the twelve Elders of Israel, each holding a pole with a square banner or flag, resembling the Roman [[vexillum]], the military standards of the [[Roman army]].<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kraeling |first=Carl H. |title=The synagogue |date=1979 |publisher=Ktav Pub. House |isbn=0-87068-331-4 |edition=Augmented |location=New York |pages=83–84 |oclc=4549881}}</ref>
Below the painting of Moses and the Israelites is a painting of a temple, portrayed explicitly as a contemporary Roman-style temple. The temple's pediment is low and is decorated with a [[rinceau]] design, often and originally found in Roman buildings. The temple also features [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns, characteristic of both earlier Hellenistic and contemporary [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman architecture]]. At either end of each of the temple's two pediments are [[Acroterion|acroteria]] in the form of winged victory or [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] figures. Both the architectural ornament of the acroteria and the Nike symbol stem are characteristic of [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] and contemporary Roman architecture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berger |first=Pamela C. |title=Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity |date=2011 |publisher=McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College |editor=Lisa R. Brody |editor2=Gail L. Hoffman |isbn=978-1-892850-16-4 |location=Chestnut Hill, MA |page=132 |oclc=670480460}}</ref>
====Consecration of the Tabernacle mural====
[[File:Herod's Temple.jpg|thumb|Consecration of the [[Tabernacle]] (c. 245-256 CE)]]
Located on the western wall of the synagogue, just left of the [[Torah]] [[Torah ark|niche]], is a mural depicting the [[Tabernacle]]. The artist did not follow the biblical description of the Tabernacle as a tent, but rather was inspired by [[Roman temple|Roman temples]], and includes a [[cella]], [[pediment]] and capitals of the [[Corinthian order]]. The local Jewish population did not mind illustrating the Tabernacle based on Roman civil architecture for unknown reasons. Coins showing similar structures were found in Dura-Europos, and the painter might have used them as models.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |editor=Berger, P. |editor2=Brody, L. |title=Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity|publisher=Mcmullen Museum Of Art, Boston College|date=2011|isbn=978-1892850164|pages=123–140|chapter=The Temples/Tabernacles in the Dura-Europos Synagogue Paintings}}</ref>
In this particular work, [[Aaron]] is depicted standing just to the right of the door of the tent of meeting, denoted by the [[Greek alphabet]] inscription {{lang|grc|ΑΡΩΝ}} ("ARON").<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Renov|first1=I.|last2=Avi-Yonah|first2=M.|date=1970|title=A View of Herod's Temple from Nicanor's Gate in a Mural Panel of the Dura-Europos Synagogue|journal=Israel Exploration Journal|volume=20|issue=1/2|pages=67–74|jstor=27925212}}</ref> He is dressed in contemporary Persian or Sassanid style, but with the same colors mentioned in the Book of Exodus: gold, blue, and purple. The [[Ephod]] worn by the high priest as described in the Bible is not shown.<ref name=":4" />
To the bottom left, there is a young priest leading a cow, which is the special sacrificial [[red heifer]]. A dorsal band decorates its body. The two animals just to the left of Aaron, a bull and a ram, are [[Korban|atonement sacrifice]]s for Aaron to be made on [[Yom Kippur]].<ref name=":0" />
{{Gallery
|title=Selected paintings of the Dura-Europos synagogue
|width=160 | height=170
|align=center
|footer=
|3=File:Dura Europos fresco worshipping gold calf.jpg|4=[[Golden Calf]]|5=File:Dura Synagogue WC3 David anointed by Samuel.jpg|6=[[Samuel]] [[Anointing|anoints]] [[King David|David]]|7=File:Mordecai and Esther.jpg|8=[[Mordecai]] and [[Esther]]|9=File:Dura Synagogue ciborium.jpg|10=The Ciborium; [[Herod's Temple]] appears on top, in a similar style as depicted on the [[Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage|Bar-Kokhva revolt coins]]|File:Dura Europos fresco Moses from river.jpg|[[Pharaoh's daughter (Exodus)|Pharaoh's daughter]] [[Finding of Moses|finds]] [[Moses]]}}
== Ceiling ==
The ceiling was believed to have been created between 244 CE and 245 CE; it was part of the retransformation from which the Dura-Europos synagogue derived. It was around 7m tall and had dimensions of 13.65m x 7.68m,<ref name=":6" /> like the assembly hall. It was later found out that the previous synagogue was also decorated similarly, including tiles decorated with fruits, shapes, and flowers.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=STERN |first=KAREN B. |date=2010 |title=Mapping Devotion in Roman Dura Europos: A Reconsideration of the Synagogue Ceiling |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25684291 |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=473–504 |doi=10.3764/aja.114.3.473 |jstor=25684291 |s2cid=191387664 |issn=0002-9114}}</ref> However, the Dura-Europos synagogue's ceiling was made up of even smaller tiles than the previous ceiling; it occupied a larger space and had a wider variety of tile inscriptions.<ref name=":7" />
The synagogue's ceiling is made up of repeated tiles and inscriptions. The ceiling is often compared to aerial mosaics, similar to coffered ceilings that supported the tiles,<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=GOODENOUGH |first=E. R. |date=1961 |title=Judaism at Dura-Europos |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27924866 |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=161–170 |jstor=27924866 |issn=0021-2059}}</ref> which were already discovered in western societies, such as Roman and Hellenistic cities.<ref name=":7" /> The original placement of the tiles, between 244 CE and 245 CE, has not been clearly stated, but each tile was around 0.37 to 0.42 m2 and about 0.045 m in depth.<ref name=":6" /> They were formed out of terracotta, which was heated, then decorated and plastered to the above ceiling. Imprints of brick and wooden beams were located on the ceiling tile at the time of the synagogue's build and made the tiles' placement clearer.<ref name=":7" />
[[File:Tile with capricorn.jpg|thumb|A Capricorn Tile from the Dura-Europos synagogue Ceiling]]
The tiles are consistent with either pictorial images or inscriptions being displayed. There were about 20 different pictorial tiles that were repeated across the ceiling.<ref name=":7" /> They varied from sea animals, land animals, grains, and vegetation to faces and females.<ref name=":6" /> Often displayed are female faces, which have been counted to recur 23 times on the ceiling and usually follow a particular pattern.<ref name=":7" /> The available prototypes are considered goddesses such as "Flora"<ref name=":7" /> or "Demeter-Persephone."<ref name=":6" /> Female faces were among the most popular pictorial tiles. Other popular pictorial types include vegetation, which consists of about 41 roses/flowers, a centaur, and pinecones, among others.<ref name=":7" /> Other tiles have a goat's head attached to a fishtail, which is often classified as a sea-goat;<ref name=":6" /> others are thought to represent Capricorn and Pisces.<ref name=":6" /> Another theme was the evil eye; an example is a tile featuring a double-lidded eye with a snake on either side.<ref name=":7" /> The same tile also had a scab, which was thought to be a scorpion, and three nails above the eye, with the inscription "IAO".<ref name=":7" /> Several tiles, both inscribed and pictorials, had mystical and symbolic meanings. Even though it is debated, some scholars claim that the entirety of the ceiling symbolizes heaven and eternal immortality.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Garte |first=Edna |date=1973 |title=The Theme of Resurrection in the Dura-Europos Synagogue Paintings |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453575 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.2307/1453575 |jstor=1453575 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> However, some uncertainty remains due to the paint not being recognizable on the tile after sun exposure.<ref name=":7" /> A total of 234 tiles were discovered and brought back at the time of discovery.<ref name=":7" /> However, there may be more that were destroyed and different designs that had not been discovered.
The inscribed tiles were written in Greek or Aramaic and followed a specific prototype.<ref name=":7" /> The tiles saved were mainly in Greek; the prototype was the tile painted black, with a black and red leafy wreath on it, where text was confined.<ref name=":7" /> One of the first tiles discovered, in Greek, reads "(Samuel [son] of Yedaya, elder of the Jews founded [the building])",<ref name=":7" /> naming Archisynagogue Samuel<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Fischer |first=James A. |title=The Synagogue Paintings of Dura-Europos |date=1955 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43710126 |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=69–75 |jstor=43710126 |issn=0008-7912}}</ref> as the 'founder'<ref name=":9" /> in 245 AD.<ref name=":10" /> Often names were mentioned, and it suggested that they were donors<ref name=":8" /> or people involved in the creation, reconstruction, or decoration of the synagogue; it is not clear what their roles were, but their involvement is evident.<ref name=":7" />
==Cultural context and purpose of the murals==
Because of the paintings adorning the walls, the synagogue was at first mistaken for a Greek temple, though this was quickly corrected by the vice-director of excavations [[Robert du Mesnil du Buisson]] in ''Les peintures de la synagogue de Doura-Europos'' (Rome, 1939). Mesnil also made detailed comparisons of the [[frieze]]s from the Dura synagogue with those of the [[mithraeum]], the Christian baptistery, and the temple of the [[Palmyra|Palmyrene]] gods.<ref>Guitty Azarpay ''Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art'' 1981 Page 147 "For a comparison of the arrangement of the friezes from the Dura synagogue and those of the mithraeum, the Christian baptistery and the temple of the Palmyrene gods, see Comte R. Du Mesnil du Buisson, Les peintures de la synagogue de ..."</ref>
Scholars think the paintings were used as an instructional display to educate and teach the history and laws of the religion. Some think that this synagogue was painted in order to compete with the many other religions practiced in Dura-Europos; the new (and considerably smaller) Christian [[Dura-Europos church]] appears to have opened shortly before the surviving paintings were begun in the synagogue. The large-scale pictorial art in the synagogue came as a surprise to scholars, although they already suspected that there was a tradition of Jewish narrative religious art at this period, which at the time of the discovery were thought to have all been lost, leaving only traces in later Christian art. The discovery of the synagogue helps to dispel narrow interpretations of Judaism's historical prohibition of visual images.
==Relationship to early Christian art and late Jewish art==
[[File:Sacrifice of Isaac at Dura-Europos.png|thumb|The sacrifice of Isaac according to the Dura synagogue]]
[[File:Sacrifice of Isaac in the Leon bible.png|thumb|The sacrifice of Isaac in the León Bible of 960]]
The synagogue of [[Dura-Europos]] offers negligible influence on later Christian and Jewish artwork.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Elsner|first1=Jaś|last2=Elsner|first2=Jas|date=2003|title=Archaeologies and Agendas: Reflections on Late Ancient Jewish Art and Early Christian Art|journal=The Journal of Roman Studies|volume=93|pages=114–128|doi=10.2307/3184641|issn=0075-4358|jstor=3184641|s2cid=162959125 }}</ref> The time that the Dura-Europos synagogue was active was not long as it was buried as part of the Roman defense against [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] troops in 256 A.D.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Gutmann|first=Joseph|date=1988|title=The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art|journal=Artibus et Historiae|volume=9|issue=17|pages=25–29|doi=10.2307/1483314|issn=0391-9064|jstor=1483314}}</ref> The Dura-Europos Synagogue remains the earliest example of Jewish artwork available for study.<ref name=":2" /> It contains not only [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] and [[Roman art|Roman]] influences, but [[Sasanian art|Sasanian]] as well.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Ancient jewish art and archaeology in the diaspora|last=Rachel|first=Hachlili|date=1998|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004108783|oclc=470279305}}</ref>
The layout of the paintings suggest that they were inspired by a copybook with examples and formulae.<ref name=":3" /> While there are similarities to other works of antiquity, the differences between each work bear too much difference in order for one to be considered influential. There have been attempts to link these works, but they have proven largely unsuccessful.
The [[León Bible of 960|Leon Bible]], as an example, which was written ca. 960, had in common with Dura-Europos the scene of the [[sacrifice of Isaac]]. However, the León Bible showed key differences. Their position in the León Bible shows them facing the viewer, whereas Dura Europos they are not. In the León Bible, the [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]] bestows the ''benedictio latina'', whereas in Dura-Europos it makes an appearance with no such manuscript. The Dura painting shows [[Abraham|Abraham's]] hand free of [[Isaac]]'s hair, whereas in the León miniature, it is grasping it. Finally, in the Dura painting Abraham is using a knife as opposed to the sword he uses in the León Bible.<ref name=":1" />
==See also==
* [[Oldest synagogues in the world]]
* [[Zodiac Synagogue mosaic]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
*Hachlili, Rachel. ''Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora, Part 1'', BRILL, 1998, {{ISBN|90-04-10878-5}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-10878-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=cKGpa-FJ3XsC&dq=%22hand+of+God%22+art&pg=PA96 Google books]
*Kessler, Edward in Sawyer, John FA. ''The Blackwell companion to the Bible and culture'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, {{ISBN|1-4051-0136-9}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4051-0136-3}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=EjoKdj4lQz8C&dq=Dura+Europas+Hand+of+God&pg=PA131 Google books]
*Kraeling, C H, The Synagogue, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956
*Gutmann, Joseph, ed., The Dura Europos Synagogue: A Re-evaluation (1932-1992), Scholars Press, 1992 (with a new introduction);
* [[Kurt Weitzmann|Weitzmann, Kurt]], ed., ''[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533 Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century]'', no. 341 & 358, pp. 366–370, 1979, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, {{ISBN|9780870991790}}; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries.
* Young, Penny, 2014 Dura Europos A City for Everyman, Twopenny Press
==External links==
{{Commons category|Dura-Europos synagogue}}
*[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/docLib/20100813_SchapiroDura20100816.pdf 1968 Symposium talks, by Morton Smith and Meyer Schapiro]
{{Dura Europos}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dura-Europos Synagogue}}
[[Category:Former synagogues in Syria]]
[[Category:Fresco paintings in Syria]]
[[Category:3rd-century paintings]]
[[Category:3rd-century religious buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Ancient synagogues]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures destroyed by ISIL]]
[[Category:Jewish Syrian history]]
[[Category:Roman Empire art]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Syria]]
[[Category:Dura-Europos|Synagogue]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Deir ez-Zor Governorate]]
[[Category:Jewish art]]
[[Category:1932 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Antisemitism in Syria]]'
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{{Short description|Ancient synagogue in Syria}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Dura-Europos Synagogue
|native_name=
|alternate_name=
|image = Doura Europos synagogue courtyard.jpg
|alt=
|caption = Courtyard, western porch and prayer hall
|map_type = Syria
|map_alt=
|map_size = 220
|location=[[Dura-Europos]]
|region=[[Deir ez-Zor Governorate]], [[Syria]]
|coordinates = {{coord|34.7474|40.7272|display=inline}}
|type=[[Synagogue]]
|part_of=
|length=
|width=
|area=
|height=
|builder=
|material=
|built=c. 244 CE
|abandoned=256-257 CE
|epochs=[[Classical antiquity]]
|cultures=[[Jews|Jewish]], [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]], [[Sassanid]]
|dependency_of=
|occupants=
|event=
|excavations=
|archaeologists=
|condition = destroyed
|ownership=
|public_access=
|website=
|notes=
|discovered=1932}}
The '''Dura-Europos synagogue''' was an ancient [[synagogue]] uncovered at [[Dura-Europos]], [[Syria]], in 1932. The synagogue contains a forecourt and house of assembly with painted walls depicting people and animals, and a [[Torah]] shrine in the western wall facing [[Jerusalem]]. It was built backing on to the city wall, which was important in its survival. The last phase of construction was dated by an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] inscription to 244 CE, making it one of the [[oldest synagogues in the world]]. It was unique among the many ancient synagogues that have emerged from [[Archaeological excavation|archaeological excavations]] as the structure was preserved virtually intact, and it had extensive [[Figurative art|figurative]] wall-paintings, which came as a considerable surprise to scholars. These paintings are now displayed in the [[National Museum of Damascus]].
Dura-Europos was a small garrison and trading city on the [[river Euphrates]], and usually on the frontier between the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] and the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and finally the [[Sassanid Empire]]s of [[Persia]]. It changed hands at various points but was Roman from 165 AD. Before the final Persian destruction of the town in 256-257 AD, parts of the synagogue which abutted the main city wall were apparently requisitioned and filled with sand as a defensive measure. The city was abandoned after its fall and never resettled, and the lower walls of the rooms remained buried and largely intact until excavated. The short measure of time during which it was used ensured that it would have limited impact upon Jewish or Christian art. The excavations also discovered very important wall-paintings from places of worship of Christianity at the [[Dura-Europos church]]. In addition, there were wall paintings edifying [[Mithraism]], and fragmentary Christian texts in [[Hebrew]].
In the [[Syrian Civil War]], the site was occupied by [[ISIL]], and what was left of the synagogue and a number of other buildings there appear to have been destroyed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Curry|first=Andrew|date=1 September 2015|title=Here Are the Ancient Sites ISIS Has Damaged and Destroyed|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813194747/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 13, 2019|access-date=2020-12-25|website=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic Society}}</ref>
== Jewish community of Dura Europos ==
[[File:Image-Diaspora synagogues in Antiquity.png|thumb|center|upright=3.5|On this map, Dura Europos is located in the far east. The remaining dots indicate the location of other synagogues in the Jewish Diaspora during the first two centuries.]]
The presence of a Jewish community in Dura Europos long preceded the construction of the synagogue. The cities of Mesopotamia had flourishing Jewish communities, whose members descended both from exiles during the time of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] and from refugees from the [[Jewish–Roman wars]] under [[Vespasian]] and [[Hadrian]]. The Jewish diaspora had an official representative in the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and then [[Sasanian Empire]]s, the [[exilarch]], necessarily of Davidic descent. The towns of [[Sura (city)|Sura]] and [[Nehardea]] were home to [[Talmudic academies in Babylonia|Talmudic academies]] whose fame can even exceed that of Palestine's, thanks to the respective influence of [[Abba Arika]] (Rav) and [[Rabbi Chila]].<ref name="Rajna115">{{Harvsp|Sed Rajna|Amishai-Maisels|Jarrassé|Klein|1995|p=115}}</ref> Important caravan town on the [[Euphrates]], Dura Europos very likely had a Jewish community from the 2 or 1 centuries AD. There is nevertheless no archaeological trace of a religious organization before the installation of the synagogue.<ref>{{Harvsp|White|1990|p=93}}</ref>
== Architecture of the synagogue ==
[[File:Dura-Europos plan.png|thumb|Map of Dura Europos and location of the synagogue in islet L7.]]
The synagogue is a building belonging to the L7 block of Dura Europos:<ref>{{Harvsp|White|1997|p=276}}; {{Harvsp|Hachlili|1998|p=39}}</ref> the city was organized according to a [[Hippodamian plan]] of regular rectangular blocks of 35-70 m since its development by the [[Seleucids]],<ref name="LericheClio">{{cite journal|url=http://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/doura-europos_sur_l_euphrate.asp|title=Doura-Europos sur l'Euphrate|first1= Pierre |last1= Leriche|work= Le Monde de Clio|date= January 1994|accessdate= 7 June 2011}}</ref> which archaeologists have arbitrarily numbered for more convenient reference. This islet L7 is located in the first north-south row, and the second east-west row north of the [[Decumanus Maximus]]: it is therefore bordered to the west by the street along the rampart, between the towers 19 and 20, and on the other sides respectively by streets A to the east, 2 to the south and 4 to the north.
It was originally a residential block comprising up to ten separate units (designated by the letters A to I on the map below),{{efn|The residential blocks of Dura Europos consisted on average of eight dwellings of 300 square m each.}} one of which was dedicated to the needs of the Jewish community and transformed into a building of worship. This location on the outskirts of the city, as well as modesty of the first building, are often used as an argument to emphasize the small size of the community.<ref name="Rajna115" /> With the expansions and reconstructions made necessary by its development, the synagogue ended up becoming the central nucleus and the most important building of a small Jewish quarter. The last state of the building, with its famous frescoes, is thus the second phase of the second synagogue to occupy the place.
{{-}}
<gallery mode=packed heights=200>
File:Dura Europos synagogue isometric view.jpg|Isometric reconstruction of the L7 islet in Dura-Europos.
File:Dura Europos L7 City Block.svg|Plan of islet L7 in Dura-Europos, with the synagogue (in red) and its outbuildings (in pink). According to the plan of NC Andrews (1941) taken up in {{harvsp|Hachlili|1998|p=41}}.
File:Dura Europos synagogue I plan.svg|Restored plan of the first synagogue. <br>1. Central courtyard<br>2. Community assembly hall<br>3. Corridor<br>4. Reception hall <br>5. Reception hall<br>6. Residential room<br>7. Auxiliary room to the assembly hall<br>Plan based on notes by Henry Pearson (circa 1936) as mentioned in {{harvsp|Hopkins|1979}}.
</gallery>
== Torah shrine ==
[[File:Dura-Europos archival photograph, Synagogue, west wall, aedicula, general view Synagogue.jpg|thumb|The [[Torah shrine]], Dura-Europos]]
The decoration of the [[Torah shrine]] consists of two elements. The first one includes, "the uppermost step of the niche-block, the columns of the facade, and the intrados of the archivolt."<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Kraeling |first=Carl H. (Carl Hermann) |url=http://archive.org/details/synagogue0000krae |title=The synagogue |date=1979 |publisher=New York : Ktav Pub. House |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-87068-331-2}}</ref> The second one involves important religious scenes, objects and pictures of Jewish worship.
The interior of the niche consists of three parts: the conch had a light-blue color that faded all at once after the excavation. The outer surface of the shell is a rich green color. The columns and the bottom of the niche are painted to look like marble reventments. The bottom of the niche consists of five rectangular panels that are framed on top and bottom by pink bands, and there are red vertical bands to separate them from each other. Out of the five panels, one and five are a pair and two and four are another pair: they are all designed by the same fashion. For the first and the fifth panel, the artists used black diagonal lines to divide triangular patterned designs. Opposing triangles on the top and the bottom of the panel has red stripes and are inscribed with peltae. Opposing triangles on the sides of the panels are decorated with brown-lined irregular concentric shapes, with a green dot in the middle of each. On the second and the fourth panels, the outer frame is decorated with red and pink bands, and alternating red dots and strokes against the white background, with bead-and-reel designs on the corners. On the corners of the strips, there are three-petal like strokes. Inside the frame, there are wavy green and dark green curvy lines of different thickness drawn from the top left and right corners of the panel towards the middle. The central panel of the niche consists of a veined black diamond with a yellow circle in the middle. The diamond is framed with the same bead-and-reel design that surrounded the second and the fourth panels. The four triangles that are on the side of the diamond are decorated in brown colors.
The figural decoration above the niche on the front face of the arch is particularly significant. The spandrels formed a rectangle that is 1.47m wide and 1.06m high, framed by a pink border that is 0.04m-0.05m wide. On the left side of the front face is a representation of a menorah, and on the right side was a depiction of the [[Binding of Isaac|sacrifice of Isaac.]] Depicted in the central position was a columned building with an arched doorway. <!-- Inside the pink border there is a -->
==Wall paintings==
The paintings cover the walls of the main "Assembly Room", using three levels of pictures over a [[dado (architecture)|dado]] frieze of symbols in most places, reaching a height of about 7 metres.<ref name=":6" /> Stylistically they are provincial versions of contemporary [[Graeco-Roman]] style and technique; several different artists seem to have worked on them. Technically they are not [[fresco]] (paint fused into wet plaster) but [[tempera]] over plaster. Earlier parts of the building have decorative painting with no figures. Some of the paintings have figures whose eyes have been scratched out, especially those in Persian costume.
===Iconography===
Scholars cannot agree on the subjects of some scenes, because of damage, or the lack of comparative examples.
The scenes depicted are drawn from the [[Hebrew Bible]] and include many narrative scenes, and some single figure "portraits"—58 scenes in total, probably representing about 60% of the original number. They include the [[Binding of Isaac]] and other [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] stories, [[Moses]] receiving the [[Tablets of the Law]], Moses leading the [[Hebrews]] out of [[Egypt]], Moses at the [[burning bush]], the visions of [[Ezekiel]], a figure of [[Enoch]] or possibly [[Abraham]], [[Massah and Meribah|the water miracle in the desert]], the return of [[Ark of the Covenant|Ark]] from the temple of [[Dagon]], [[Ezra]] with the scrolls and many others.<ref>Thorleif Boman. (1970). ''Hebrew Thought Compared with Greek''. New York: W.W. Norton paperback by arrangement with Westminster Press. ISBN 9780393005349. p. 113. [https://archive.org/details/hebrewthoughtcom0000boma The Internet Archive website] and [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Hebrew_Thought_Compared_with_Greek/aYm6qSGwJeoC?hl=en Google Books ] Retrieved 4 February 2024.</ref> The [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]] [[motif (visual arts)|motif]] is used to represent divine intervention or approval in several paintings.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Synagogue|last=Kraeling|first=C H|publisher=Ktav Pub. House|year=1979|isbn=9780870683312|edition=Augmented|series=Excavations at Dura-Europos|location=New York|pages=57}}</ref>
There have been scholarly debates questioning the wall paintings' influence over later Jewish and/or Christian iconography, which have been held due to the relevance of such early depictions of the biblical narrative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gutmann|first=Joseph|date=1988|title=The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art|journal=Artibus et Historiae|volume=9|issue=17|pages=25–29|doi=10.2307/1483314 |jstor=1483314}}</ref>
[[File:Western Wall Scenes Labeled.png|thumb|Western wall paintings schematic breaks the wall into discrete sections designated by whichever biblical scene or figure each painting portrays<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Susan M. |title=My Dura-Europos: the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935 |date=2011 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |others=Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman |isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8 |location=Detroit [Mich.] |pages=231 |oclc=695683643}}</ref>]]
Depictions of [[Moses]] and the [[Book of Exodus]] occupy significant swathes of space in the paintings on the Western Wall of the synagogue - of the 12 discrete paintings identified in the Hopkins schematic, 3 center on the narrative of Moses' life, with a total of 7 depictions of Moses across the western wall. Some paintings contain multiple representations of Moses within one distinct scene.<ref name=":5" />
[[File:AHSC ORPHANS 1071314236.jpg|thumb|Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea, a temple<ref>{{Cite web |last=Artstor |title=Artstor |url=https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=library.artstor.org |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Dura-Europos wall painting Aramaic Moses inscription.png|thumb|[[Susan M. Hopkins|Susan Hopkins]] pointing to the figure of Moses with the detail showing the Aramaic inscription<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Susan M. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/695683643 |title=My Dura-Europos : the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935 |date=2011 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |others=Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman |isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8 |location=Detroit [Mich.] |pages=220 |oclc=695683643}}</ref>]]
The painting of Moses leading the [[Israelites]] out of Egypt features multiple Moses figures, much like the painting labeled ''WC4''. Between the first Moses's legs is an inscription in [[Aramaic]] reading, "Moses, when he went out from Egypt and cleft the sea."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Susan M. |title=My Dura-Europos: the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935 |date=2011 |publisher=Wayne State University Press |others=Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman |isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8 |location=Detroit [Mich.] |pages=219 |oclc=695683643}}</ref> This inscription firmly identifies the murals as depicting the story of Moses leading the Israelites [[Crossing the Red Sea|across the Red Sea]] from the Book of Exodus. First (on the right) Moses is seen raising a club-like staff and facing to the left, leading an army of Israelites behind him. Second, Moses is seen lowering his staff over the Red Sea, causing its parted waters to close and engulf the pursuing Egyptian army. Here he is facing to the right of the painting. And finally, Moses is seen looking to the left at his safely absconded Israelites, holding his staff at his side, pointed downward.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sivan |first=Hagith |date=2019 |title=Retelling the Story of Moses at Dura Europos Synagogue |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/retelling-the-story-of-moses-at-dura-europos-synagogue |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.thetorah.com}}</ref>
[[File:Yale_1935.51.jpg|thumb|Relief [[Statue of Hercules, Dura-Europos|depicting Hercules]], [[Temple of Zeus Theos, Dura-Europos|Temple of Zeus]]]]
The synagogue paintings' portrayal of Moses and the Israelites each contain influences from the concurrent Roman military culture. Moses is portrayed as the leader of the Israelites who are shown not as civilians or slaves, but as an armed military force. In this context, Moses' powerful stance and comparatively large size present him as the military leader of the Israelites. His long club-like rod or staff and bearded visage have been compared to a relief of [[Hercules]] from the 2nd-century Durene [[Temple of Zeus Theos, Dura-Europos|temple of Zeus]], built during the 114 CE Roman occupation of the city.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Weisman |first=Stefanie H. |date=2012 |title=Militarism in the Wall Paintings of the Dura-Europos Synagogue: A New Perspective on Jewish Life on the Roman Frontier |jstor=10.5703/shofar.30.3.1 |journal=Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies |volume=30 |issue=3 |page=13|doi=10.1353/sho.2012.0054 |s2cid=143836446 }}</ref>
The mass of Israelites positioned to his left carry shields and spears. Their shields are layered and overlapped over one another to form a physical barrier, much like the Roman shield wall formations of the [[phalanx]] and the [[Testudo formation|testudo]]. Behind the Israelite soldiers stand figures representing the twelve Elders of Israel, each holding a pole with a square banner or flag, resembling the Roman [[vexillum]], the military standards of the [[Roman army]].<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kraeling |first=Carl H. |title=The synagogue |date=1979 |publisher=Ktav Pub. House |isbn=0-87068-331-4 |edition=Augmented |location=New York |pages=83–84 |oclc=4549881}}</ref>
Below the painting of Moses and the Israelites is a painting of a temple, portrayed explicitly as a contemporary Roman-style temple. The temple's pediment is low and is decorated with a [[rinceau]] design, often and originally found in Roman buildings. The temple also features [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns, characteristic of both earlier Hellenistic and contemporary [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman architecture]]. At either end of each of the temple's two pediments are [[Acroterion|acroteria]] in the form of winged victory or [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] figures. Both the architectural ornament of the acroteria and the Nike symbol stem are characteristic of [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] and contemporary Roman architecture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berger |first=Pamela C. |title=Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity |date=2011 |publisher=McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College |editor=Lisa R. Brody |editor2=Gail L. Hoffman |isbn=978-1-892850-16-4 |location=Chestnut Hill, MA |page=132 |oclc=670480460}}</ref>
====Consecration of the Tabernacle mural====
[[File:Herod's Temple.jpg|thumb|Consecration of the [[Tabernacle]] (c. 245-256 CE)]]
Located on the western wall of the synagogue, just left of the [[Torah]] [[Torah ark|niche]], is a mural depicting the [[Tabernacle]]. The artist did not follow the biblical description of the Tabernacle as a tent, but rather was inspired by [[Roman temple|Roman temples]], and includes a [[cella]], [[pediment]] and capitals of the [[Corinthian order]]. The local Jewish population did not mind illustrating the Tabernacle based on Roman civil architecture for unknown reasons. Coins showing similar structures were found in Dura-Europos, and the painter might have used them as models.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |editor=Berger, P. |editor2=Brody, L. |title=Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity|publisher=Mcmullen Museum Of Art, Boston College|date=2011|isbn=978-1892850164|pages=123–140|chapter=The Temples/Tabernacles in the Dura-Europos Synagogue Paintings}}</ref>
In this particular work, [[Aaron]] is depicted standing just to the right of the door of the tent of meeting, denoted by the [[Greek alphabet]] inscription {{lang|grc|ΑΡΩΝ}} ("ARON").<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Renov|first1=I.|last2=Avi-Yonah|first2=M.|date=1970|title=A View of Herod's Temple from Nicanor's Gate in a Mural Panel of the Dura-Europos Synagogue|journal=Israel Exploration Journal|volume=20|issue=1/2|pages=67–74|jstor=27925212}}</ref> He is dressed in contemporary Persian or Sassanid style, but with the same colors mentioned in the Book of Exodus: gold, blue, and purple. The [[Ephod]] worn by the high priest as described in the Bible is not shown.<ref name=":4" />
To the bottom left, there is a young priest leading a cow, which is the special sacrificial [[red heifer]]. A dorsal band decorates its body. The two animals just to the left of Aaron, a bull and a ram, are [[Korban|atonement sacrifice]]s for Aaron to be made on [[Yom Kippur]].<ref name=":0" />
{{Gallery
|title=Selected paintings of the Dura-Europos synagogue
|width=160 | height=170
|align=center
|footer=
|3=File:Dura Europos fresco worshipping gold calf.jpg|4=[[Golden Calf]]|5=File:Dura Synagogue WC3 David anointed by Samuel.jpg|6=[[Samuel]] [[Anointing|anoints]] [[King David|David]]|7=File:Mordecai and Esther.jpg|8=[[Mordecai]] and [[Esther]]|9=File:Dura Synagogue ciborium.jpg|10=The Ciborium; [[Herod's Temple]] appears on top, in a similar style as depicted on the [[Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage|Bar-Kokhva revolt coins]]|File:Dura Europos fresco Moses from river.jpg|[[Pharaoh's daughter (Exodus)|Pharaoh's daughter]] [[Finding of Moses|finds]] [[Moses]]}}
== Ceiling ==
The ceiling was believed to have been created between 244 CE and 245 CE; it was part of the retransformation from which the Dura-Europos synagogue derived. It was around 7m tall and had dimensions of 13.65m x 7.68m,<ref name=":6" /> like the assembly hall. It was later found out that the previous synagogue was also decorated similarly, including tiles decorated with fruits, shapes, and flowers.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=STERN |first=KAREN B. |date=2010 |title=Mapping Devotion in Roman Dura Europos: A Reconsideration of the Synagogue Ceiling |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25684291 |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=473–504 |doi=10.3764/aja.114.3.473 |jstor=25684291 |s2cid=191387664 |issn=0002-9114}}</ref> However, the Dura-Europos synagogue's ceiling was made up of even smaller tiles than the previous ceiling; it occupied a larger space and had a wider variety of tile inscriptions.<ref name=":7" />
The synagogue's ceiling is made up of repeated tiles and inscriptions. The ceiling is often compared to aerial mosaics, similar to coffered ceilings that supported the tiles,<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=GOODENOUGH |first=E. R. |date=1961 |title=Judaism at Dura-Europos |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27924866 |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=161–170 |jstor=27924866 |issn=0021-2059}}</ref> which were already discovered in western societies, such as Roman and Hellenistic cities.<ref name=":7" /> The original placement of the tiles, between 244 CE and 245 CE, has not been clearly stated, but each tile was around 0.37 to 0.42 m2 and about 0.045 m in depth.<ref name=":6" /> They were formed out of terracotta, which was heated, then decorated and plastered to the above ceiling. Imprints of brick and wooden beams were located on the ceiling tile at the time of the synagogue's build and made the tiles' placement clearer.<ref name=":7" />
[[File:Tile with capricorn.jpg|thumb|A Capricorn Tile from the Dura-Europos synagogue Ceiling]]
The tiles are consistent with either pictorial images or inscriptions being displayed. There were about 20 different pictorial tiles that were repeated across the ceiling.<ref name=":7" /> They varied from sea animals, land animals, grains, and vegetation to faces and females.<ref name=":6" /> Often displayed are female faces, which have been counted to recur 23 times on the ceiling and usually follow a particular pattern.<ref name=":7" /> The available prototypes are considered goddesses such as "Flora"<ref name=":7" /> or "Demeter-Persephone."<ref name=":6" /> Female faces were among the most popular pictorial tiles. Other popular pictorial types include vegetation, which consists of about 41 roses/flowers, a centaur, and pinecones, among others.<ref name=":7" /> Other tiles have a goat's head attached to a fishtail, which is often classified as a sea-goat;<ref name=":6" /> others are thought to represent Capricorn and Pisces.<ref name=":6" /> Another theme was the evil eye; an example is a tile featuring a double-lidded eye with a snake on either side.<ref name=":7" /> The same tile also had a scab, which was thought to be a scorpion, and three nails above the eye, with the inscription "IAO".<ref name=":7" /> Several tiles, both inscribed and pictorials, had mystical and symbolic meanings. Even though it is debated, some scholars claim that the entirety of the ceiling symbolizes heaven and eternal immortality.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Garte |first=Edna |date=1973 |title=The Theme of Resurrection in the Dura-Europos Synagogue Paintings |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453575 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.2307/1453575 |jstor=1453575 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> However, some uncertainty remains due to the paint not being recognizable on the tile after sun exposure.<ref name=":7" /> A total of 234 tiles were discovered and brought back at the time of discovery.<ref name=":7" /> However, there may be more that were destroyed and different designs that had not been discovered.
The inscribed tiles were written in Greek or Aramaic and followed a specific prototype.<ref name=":7" /> The tiles saved were mainly in Greek; the prototype was the tile painted black, with a black and red leafy wreath on it, where text was confined.<ref name=":7" /> One of the first tiles discovered, in Greek, reads "(Samuel [son] of Yedaya, elder of the Jews founded [the building])",<ref name=":7" /> naming Archisynagogue Samuel<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Fischer |first=James A. |title=The Synagogue Paintings of Dura-Europos |date=1955 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43710126 |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=69–75 |jstor=43710126 |issn=0008-7912}}</ref> as the 'founder'<ref name=":9" /> in 245 AD.<ref name=":10" /> Often names were mentioned, and it suggested that they were donors<ref name=":8" /> or people involved in the creation, reconstruction, or decoration of the synagogue; it is not clear what their roles were, but their involvement is evident.<ref name=":7" />
==Cultural context and purpose of the murals==
Because of the paintings adorning the walls, the synagogue was at first mistaken for a Greek temple, though this was quickly corrected by the vice-director of excavations [[Robert du Mesnil du Buisson]] in ''Les peintures de la synagogue de Doura-Europos'' (Rome, 1939). Mesnil also made detailed comparisons of the [[frieze]]s from the Dura synagogue with those of the [[mithraeum]], the Christian baptistery, and the temple of the [[Palmyra|Palmyrene]] gods.<ref>Guitty Azarpay ''Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art'' 1981 Page 147 "For a comparison of the arrangement of the friezes from the Dura synagogue and those of the mithraeum, the Christian baptistery and the temple of the Palmyrene gods, see Comte R. Du Mesnil du Buisson, Les peintures de la synagogue de ..."</ref>
Scholars think the paintings were used as an instructional display to educate and teach the history and laws of the religion. Some think that this synagogue was painted in order to compete with the many other religions practiced in Dura-Europos; the new (and considerably smaller) Christian [[Dura-Europos church]] appears to have opened shortly before the surviving paintings were begun in the synagogue. The large-scale pictorial art in the synagogue came as a surprise to scholars, although they already suspected that there was a tradition of Jewish narrative religious art at this period, which at the time of the discovery were thought to have all been lost, leaving only traces in later Christian art. The discovery of the synagogue helps to dispel narrow interpretations of Judaism's historical prohibition of visual images.
==Relationship to early Christian art and late Jewish art==
[[File:Sacrifice of Isaac at Dura-Europos.png|thumb|The sacrifice of Isaac according to the Dura synagogue]]
[[File:Sacrifice of Isaac in the Leon bible.png|thumb|The sacrifice of Isaac in the León Bible of 960]]
The synagogue of [[Dura-Europos]] offers negligible influence on later Christian and Jewish artwork.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Elsner|first1=Jaś|last2=Elsner|first2=Jas|date=2003|title=Archaeologies and Agendas: Reflections on Late Ancient Jewish Art and Early Christian Art|journal=The Journal of Roman Studies|volume=93|pages=114–128|doi=10.2307/3184641|issn=0075-4358|jstor=3184641|s2cid=162959125 }}</ref> The time that the Dura-Europos synagogue was active was not long as it was buried as part of the Roman defense against [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] troops in 256 A.D.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Gutmann|first=Joseph|date=1988|title=The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art|journal=Artibus et Historiae|volume=9|issue=17|pages=25–29|doi=10.2307/1483314|issn=0391-9064|jstor=1483314}}</ref> The Dura-Europos Synagogue remains the earliest example of Jewish artwork available for study.<ref name=":2" /> It contains not only [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] and [[Roman art|Roman]] influences, but [[Sasanian art|Sasanian]] as well.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Ancient jewish art and archaeology in the diaspora|last=Rachel|first=Hachlili|date=1998|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004108783|oclc=470279305}}</ref>
The layout of the paintings suggest that they were inspired by a copybook with examples and formulae.<ref name=":3" /> While there are similarities to other works of antiquity, the differences between each work bear too much difference in order for one to be considered influential. There have been attempts to link these works, but they have proven largely unsuccessful.
The [[León Bible of 960|Leon Bible]], as an example, which was written ca. 960, had in common with Dura-Europos the scene of the [[sacrifice of Isaac]]. However, the León Bible showed key differences. Their position in the León Bible shows them facing the viewer, whereas Dura Europos they are not. In the León Bible, the [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]] bestows the ''benedictio latina'', whereas in Dura-Europos it makes an appearance with no such manuscript. The Dura painting shows [[Abraham|Abraham's]] hand free of [[Isaac]]'s hair, whereas in the León miniature, it is grasping it. Finally, in the Dura painting Abraham is using a knife as opposed to the sword he uses in the León Bible.<ref name=":1" />
==See also==
* [[Oldest synagogues in the world]]
* [[Zodiac Synagogue mosaic]]
==Notes ==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
== Sources ==
* {{cite book|language=en
|first1=R. |last1=Hachlili
|title=Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora
|location=Leiden
|year=1998
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKGpa-FJ3XsC&dq=%22hand+of+God%22+art&pg=PA96
|isbn=978-90-04-10878-3
}}
* {{cite book|language=en
|first1=C. |last1=Hopkins
|title=The Discovery of Dura-Europos
|publisher=B. Goldman
|year=1979
|url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryofdurae00clar}}
* {{cite book|language=en
|first1=L. M. |last1=White
|title=The Social Origins of Christian Architecture
|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press
|volume=1
|location=Valley Forge
|year=1990
}}
* {{cite book|language=en
|first1=L. M. |last1=White
|title=The Social Origins of Christian Architecture
|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press
|volume=2
|location=Valley Forge
|year=1997
}}
==Further reading==
*Kessler, Edward in Sawyer, John FA. ''The Blackwell companion to the Bible and culture'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, {{ISBN|1-4051-0136-9}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4051-0136-3}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=EjoKdj4lQz8C&dq=Dura+Europas+Hand+of+God&pg=PA131 Google books]
*Kraeling, C H, The Synagogue, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956
*Gutmann, Joseph, ed., The Dura Europos Synagogue: A Re-evaluation (1932-1992), Scholars Press, 1992 (with a new introduction);
* [[Kurt Weitzmann|Weitzmann, Kurt]], ed., ''[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533 Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century]'', no. 341 & 358, pp. 366–370, 1979, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, {{ISBN|9780870991790}}; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries.
* Young, Penny, 2014 Dura Europos A City for Everyman, Twopenny Press
==External links==
{{Commons category|Dura-Europos synagogue}}
*[http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/docLib/20100813_SchapiroDura20100816.pdf 1968 Symposium talks, by Morton Smith and Meyer Schapiro]
{{Dura Europos}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dura-Europos Synagogue}}
[[Category:Former synagogues in Syria]]
[[Category:Fresco paintings in Syria]]
[[Category:3rd-century paintings]]
[[Category:3rd-century religious buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Ancient synagogues]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures destroyed by ISIL]]
[[Category:Jewish Syrian history]]
[[Category:Roman Empire art]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Syria]]
[[Category:Dura-Europos|Synagogue]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Deir ez-Zor Governorate]]
[[Category:Jewish art]]
[[Category:1932 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Antisemitism in Syria]]'
|
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) |
'@@ -43,4 +43,23 @@
In the [[Syrian Civil War]], the site was occupied by [[ISIL]], and what was left of the synagogue and a number of other buildings there appear to have been destroyed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Curry|first=Andrew|date=1 September 2015|title=Here Are the Ancient Sites ISIS Has Damaged and Destroyed|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813194747/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 13, 2019|access-date=2020-12-25|website=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic Society}}</ref>
+
+== Jewish community of Dura Europos ==
+[[File:Image-Diaspora synagogues in Antiquity.png|thumb|center|upright=3.5|On this map, Dura Europos is located in the far east. The remaining dots indicate the location of other synagogues in the Jewish Diaspora during the first two centuries.]]
+
+The presence of a Jewish community in Dura Europos long preceded the construction of the synagogue. The cities of Mesopotamia had flourishing Jewish communities, whose members descended both from exiles during the time of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] and from refugees from the [[Jewish–Roman wars]] under [[Vespasian]] and [[Hadrian]]. The Jewish diaspora had an official representative in the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and then [[Sasanian Empire]]s, the [[exilarch]], necessarily of Davidic descent. The towns of [[Sura (city)|Sura]] and [[Nehardea]] were home to [[Talmudic academies in Babylonia|Talmudic academies]] whose fame can even exceed that of Palestine's, thanks to the respective influence of [[Abba Arika]] (Rav) and [[Rabbi Chila]].<ref name="Rajna115">{{Harvsp|Sed Rajna|Amishai-Maisels|Jarrassé|Klein|1995|p=115}}</ref> Important caravan town on the [[Euphrates]], Dura Europos very likely had a Jewish community from the 2 or 1 centuries AD. There is nevertheless no archaeological trace of a religious organization before the installation of the synagogue.<ref>{{Harvsp|White|1990|p=93}}</ref>
+
+== Architecture of the synagogue ==
+[[File:Dura-Europos plan.png|thumb|Map of Dura Europos and location of the synagogue in islet L7.]]
+
+The synagogue is a building belonging to the L7 block of Dura Europos:<ref>{{Harvsp|White|1997|p=276}}; {{Harvsp|Hachlili|1998|p=39}}</ref> the city was organized according to a [[Hippodamian plan]] of regular rectangular blocks of 35-70 m since its development by the [[Seleucids]],<ref name="LericheClio">{{cite journal|url=http://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/doura-europos_sur_l_euphrate.asp|title=Doura-Europos sur l'Euphrate|first1= Pierre |last1= Leriche|work= Le Monde de Clio|date= January 1994|accessdate= 7 June 2011}}</ref> which archaeologists have arbitrarily numbered for more convenient reference. This islet L7 is located in the first north-south row, and the second east-west row north of the [[Decumanus Maximus]]: it is therefore bordered to the west by the street along the rampart, between the towers 19 and 20, and on the other sides respectively by streets A to the east, 2 to the south and 4 to the north.
+
+It was originally a residential block comprising up to ten separate units (designated by the letters A to I on the map below),{{efn|The residential blocks of Dura Europos consisted on average of eight dwellings of 300 square m each.}} one of which was dedicated to the needs of the Jewish community and transformed into a building of worship. This location on the outskirts of the city, as well as modesty of the first building, are often used as an argument to emphasize the small size of the community.<ref name="Rajna115" /> With the expansions and reconstructions made necessary by its development, the synagogue ended up becoming the central nucleus and the most important building of a small Jewish quarter. The last state of the building, with its famous frescoes, is thus the second phase of the second synagogue to occupy the place.
+{{-}}
+
+<gallery mode=packed heights=200>
+File:Dura Europos synagogue isometric view.jpg|Isometric reconstruction of the L7 islet in Dura-Europos.
+File:Dura Europos L7 City Block.svg|Plan of islet L7 in Dura-Europos, with the synagogue (in red) and its outbuildings (in pink). According to the plan of NC Andrews (1941) taken up in {{harvsp|Hachlili|1998|p=41}}.
+File:Dura Europos synagogue I plan.svg|Restored plan of the first synagogue. <br>1. Central courtyard<br>2. Community assembly hall<br>3. Corridor<br>4. Reception hall <br>5. Reception hall<br>6. Residential room<br>7. Auxiliary room to the assembly hall<br>Plan based on notes by Henry Pearson (circa 1936) as mentioned in {{harvsp|Hopkins|1979}}.
+</gallery>
== Torah shrine ==
@@ -115,10 +134,44 @@
* [[Oldest synagogues in the world]]
* [[Zodiac Synagogue mosaic]]
+
+==Notes ==
+{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
+
+== Sources ==
+* {{cite book|language=en
+|first1=R. |last1=Hachlili
+|title=Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora
+|location=Leiden
+|year=1998
+|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKGpa-FJ3XsC&dq=%22hand+of+God%22+art&pg=PA96
+|isbn=978-90-04-10878-3
+}}
+* {{cite book|language=en
+|first1=C. |last1=Hopkins
+|title=The Discovery of Dura-Europos
+|publisher=B. Goldman
+|year=1979
+|url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryofdurae00clar}}
+* {{cite book|language=en
+|first1=L. M. |last1=White
+|title=The Social Origins of Christian Architecture
+|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press
+|volume=1
+|location=Valley Forge
+|year=1990
+}}
+* {{cite book|language=en
+|first1=L. M. |last1=White
+|title=The Social Origins of Christian Architecture
+|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press
+|volume=2
+|location=Valley Forge
+|year=1997
+}}
==Further reading==
-*Hachlili, Rachel. ''Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora, Part 1'', BRILL, 1998, {{ISBN|90-04-10878-5}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-10878-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=cKGpa-FJ3XsC&dq=%22hand+of+God%22+art&pg=PA96 Google books]
*Kessler, Edward in Sawyer, John FA. ''The Blackwell companion to the Bible and culture'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, {{ISBN|1-4051-0136-9}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4051-0136-3}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=EjoKdj4lQz8C&dq=Dura+Europas+Hand+of+God&pg=PA131 Google books]
*Kraeling, C H, The Synagogue, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956
'
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0 => '',
1 => '== Jewish community of Dura Europos ==',
2 => '[[File:Image-Diaspora synagogues in Antiquity.png|thumb|center|upright=3.5|On this map, Dura Europos is located in the far east. The remaining dots indicate the location of other synagogues in the Jewish Diaspora during the first two centuries.]]',
3 => '',
4 => 'The presence of a Jewish community in Dura Europos long preceded the construction of the synagogue. The cities of Mesopotamia had flourishing Jewish communities, whose members descended both from exiles during the time of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] and from refugees from the [[Jewish–Roman wars]] under [[Vespasian]] and [[Hadrian]]. The Jewish diaspora had an official representative in the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and then [[Sasanian Empire]]s, the [[exilarch]], necessarily of Davidic descent. The towns of [[Sura (city)|Sura]] and [[Nehardea]] were home to [[Talmudic academies in Babylonia|Talmudic academies]] whose fame can even exceed that of Palestine's, thanks to the respective influence of [[Abba Arika]] (Rav) and [[Rabbi Chila]].<ref name="Rajna115">{{Harvsp|Sed Rajna|Amishai-Maisels|Jarrassé|Klein|1995|p=115}}</ref> Important caravan town on the [[Euphrates]], Dura Europos very likely had a Jewish community from the 2 or 1 centuries AD. There is nevertheless no archaeological trace of a religious organization before the installation of the synagogue.<ref>{{Harvsp|White|1990|p=93}}</ref>',
5 => '',
6 => '== Architecture of the synagogue ==',
7 => '[[File:Dura-Europos plan.png|thumb|Map of Dura Europos and location of the synagogue in islet L7.]]',
8 => '',
9 => 'The synagogue is a building belonging to the L7 block of Dura Europos:<ref>{{Harvsp|White|1997|p=276}}; {{Harvsp|Hachlili|1998|p=39}}</ref> the city was organized according to a [[Hippodamian plan]] of regular rectangular blocks of 35-70 m since its development by the [[Seleucids]],<ref name="LericheClio">{{cite journal|url=http://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/doura-europos_sur_l_euphrate.asp|title=Doura-Europos sur l'Euphrate|first1= Pierre |last1= Leriche|work= Le Monde de Clio|date= January 1994|accessdate= 7 June 2011}}</ref> which archaeologists have arbitrarily numbered for more convenient reference. This islet L7 is located in the first north-south row, and the second east-west row north of the [[Decumanus Maximus]]: it is therefore bordered to the west by the street along the rampart, between the towers 19 and 20, and on the other sides respectively by streets A to the east, 2 to the south and 4 to the north.',
10 => '',
11 => 'It was originally a residential block comprising up to ten separate units (designated by the letters A to I on the map below),{{efn|The residential blocks of Dura Europos consisted on average of eight dwellings of 300 square m each.}} one of which was dedicated to the needs of the Jewish community and transformed into a building of worship. This location on the outskirts of the city, as well as modesty of the first building, are often used as an argument to emphasize the small size of the community.<ref name="Rajna115" /> With the expansions and reconstructions made necessary by its development, the synagogue ended up becoming the central nucleus and the most important building of a small Jewish quarter. The last state of the building, with its famous frescoes, is thus the second phase of the second synagogue to occupy the place.',
12 => '{{-}}',
13 => '',
14 => '<gallery mode=packed heights=200>',
15 => 'File:Dura Europos synagogue isometric view.jpg|Isometric reconstruction of the L7 islet in Dura-Europos.',
16 => 'File:Dura Europos L7 City Block.svg|Plan of islet L7 in Dura-Europos, with the synagogue (in red) and its outbuildings (in pink). According to the plan of NC Andrews (1941) taken up in {{harvsp|Hachlili|1998|p=41}}.',
17 => 'File:Dura Europos synagogue I plan.svg|Restored plan of the first synagogue. <br>1. Central courtyard<br>2. Community assembly hall<br>3. Corridor<br>4. Reception hall <br>5. Reception hall<br>6. Residential room<br>7. Auxiliary room to the assembly hall<br>Plan based on notes by Henry Pearson (circa 1936) as mentioned in {{harvsp|Hopkins|1979}}.',
18 => '</gallery>',
19 => '',
20 => '==Notes ==',
21 => '{{notelist}}',
22 => '',
23 => '== Sources ==',
24 => '* {{cite book|language=en',
25 => '|first1=R. |last1=Hachlili',
26 => '|title=Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora',
27 => '|location=Leiden',
28 => '|year=1998',
29 => '|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKGpa-FJ3XsC&dq=%22hand+of+God%22+art&pg=PA96',
30 => '|isbn=978-90-04-10878-3',
31 => '}}',
32 => '* {{cite book|language=en',
33 => '|first1=C. |last1=Hopkins',
34 => '|title=The Discovery of Dura-Europos',
35 => '|publisher=B. Goldman',
36 => '|year=1979',
37 => '|url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryofdurae00clar}}',
38 => '* {{cite book|language=en',
39 => '|first1=L. M. |last1=White',
40 => '|title=The Social Origins of Christian Architecture',
41 => '|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press',
42 => '|volume=1',
43 => '|location=Valley Forge',
44 => '|year=1990',
45 => '}}',
46 => '* {{cite book|language=en',
47 => '|first1=L. M. |last1=White',
48 => '|title=The Social Origins of Christian Architecture',
49 => '|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press',
50 => '|volume=2',
51 => '|location=Valley Forge',
52 => '|year=1997',
53 => '}}'
]
|
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0 => '*Hachlili, Rachel. ''Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora, Part 1'', BRILL, 1998, {{ISBN|90-04-10878-5}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-10878-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=cKGpa-FJ3XsC&dq=%22hand+of+God%22+art&pg=PA96 Google books]'
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<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient synagogue in Syria</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066479718">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Dura-Europos Synagogue</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Doura_Europos_synagogue_courtyard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Doura_Europos_synagogue_courtyard.jpg/220px-Doura_Europos_synagogue_courtyard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Doura_Europos_synagogue_courtyard.jpg/330px-Doura_Europos_synagogue_courtyard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Doura_Europos_synagogue_courtyard.jpg/440px-Doura_Europos_synagogue_courtyard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Courtyard, western porch and prayer hall</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r997900035">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:220px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:220px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:220px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dura-Europos synagogue is located in Syria"><img alt="Dura-Europos synagogue is located in Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/220px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/330px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/440px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="806" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:50.939%;left:74.708%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Dura-Europos synagogue"><img alt="Dura-Europos synagogue" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Syria</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate" title="Deir ez-Zor Governorate">Deir ez-Zor Governorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion load-gadget" data-gadget="WikiMiniAtlas"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Dura-Europos_synagogue&params=34.7474_N_40.7272_E_type:landmark"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">34°44′51″N</span> <span class="longitude">40°43′38″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">34.7474°N 40.7272°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">34.7474; 40.7272</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founded</th><td class="infobox-data">c. 244 CE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Abandoned</th><td class="infobox-data">256-257 CE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Periods</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultures</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanid</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Site notes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discovered</th><td class="infobox-data">1932</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Condition</th><td class="infobox-data">destroyed</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <b>Dura-Europos synagogue</b> was an ancient <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a> uncovered at <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, in 1932. The synagogue contains a forecourt and house of assembly with painted walls depicting people and animals, and a <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> shrine in the western wall facing <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. It was built backing on to the city wall, which was important in its survival. The last phase of construction was dated by an <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> inscription to 244 CE, making it one of the <a href="/wiki/Oldest_synagogues_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Oldest synagogues in the world">oldest synagogues in the world</a>. It was unique among the many ancient synagogues that have emerged from <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">archaeological excavations</a> as the structure was preserved virtually intact, and it had extensive <a href="/wiki/Figurative_art" title="Figurative art">figurative</a> wall-paintings, which came as a considerable surprise to scholars. These paintings are now displayed in the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Damascus" title="National Museum of Damascus">National Museum of Damascus</a>.
</p><p>Dura-Europos was a small garrison and trading city on the <a href="/wiki/River_Euphrates" class="mw-redirect" title="River Euphrates">river Euphrates</a>, and usually on the frontier between the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> and finally the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empires</a> of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>. It changed hands at various points but was Roman from 165 AD. Before the final Persian destruction of the town in 256-257 AD, parts of the synagogue which abutted the main city wall were apparently requisitioned and filled with sand as a defensive measure. The city was abandoned after its fall and never resettled, and the lower walls of the rooms remained buried and largely intact until excavated. The short measure of time during which it was used ensured that it would have limited impact upon Jewish or Christian art. The excavations also discovered very important wall-paintings from places of worship of Christianity at the <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos_church" title="Dura-Europos church">Dura-Europos church</a>. In addition, there were wall paintings edifying <a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a>, and fragmentary Christian texts in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>.
</p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>, the site was occupied by <a href="/wiki/ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIL">ISIL</a>, and what was left of the synagogue and a number of other buildings there appear to have been destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Jewish_community_of_Dura_Europos"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Jewish community of Dura Europos</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Architecture_of_the_synagogue"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Architecture of the synagogue</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Torah_shrine"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Torah shrine</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Wall_paintings"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Wall paintings</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Iconography"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Iconography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Consecration_of_the_Tabernacle_mural"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Consecration of the Tabernacle mural</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ceiling"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Ceiling</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Cultural_context_and_purpose_of_the_murals"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Cultural context and purpose of the murals</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Relationship_to_early_Christian_art_and_late_Jewish_art"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Relationship to early Christian art and late Jewish art</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Jewish_community_of_Dura_Europos">Jewish community of Dura Europos</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Jewish community of Dura Europos" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Jewish community of Dura Europos"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image-Diaspora_synagogues_in_Antiquity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Image-Diaspora_synagogues_in_Antiquity.png/770px-Image-Diaspora_synagogues_in_Antiquity.png" decoding="async" width="770" height="462" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Image-Diaspora_synagogues_in_Antiquity.png/1155px-Image-Diaspora_synagogues_in_Antiquity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Image-Diaspora_synagogues_in_Antiquity.png/1540px-Image-Diaspora_synagogues_in_Antiquity.png 2x" data-file-width="1770" data-file-height="1062" /></a><figcaption>On this map, Dura Europos is located in the far east. The remaining dots indicate the location of other synagogues in the Jewish Diaspora during the first two centuries.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The presence of a Jewish community in Dura Europos long preceded the construction of the synagogue. The cities of Mesopotamia had flourishing Jewish communities, whose members descended both from exiles during the time of <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> and from refugees from the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> under <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>. The Jewish diaspora had an official representative in the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empires</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Exilarch" title="Exilarch">exilarch</a>, necessarily of Davidic descent. The towns of <a href="/wiki/Sura_(city)" title="Sura (city)">Sura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nehardea" title="Nehardea">Nehardea</a> were home to <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Babylonia" title="Talmudic academies in Babylonia">Talmudic academies</a> whose fame can even exceed that of Palestine's, thanks to the respective influence of <a href="/wiki/Abba_Arika" class="mw-redirect" title="Abba Arika">Abba Arika</a> (Rav) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rabbi_Chila&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rabbi Chila (page does not exist)">Rabbi Chila</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rajna115_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rajna115-2">[2]</a></sup> Important caravan town on the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, Dura Europos very likely had a Jewish community from the 2 or 1 centuries AD. There is nevertheless no archaeological trace of a religious organization before the installation of the synagogue.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Architecture_of_the_synagogue">Architecture of the synagogue</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Architecture of the synagogue" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Architecture of the synagogue"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura-Europos_plan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Dura-Europos_plan.png/220px-Dura-Europos_plan.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Dura-Europos_plan.png/330px-Dura-Europos_plan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Dura-Europos_plan.png/440px-Dura-Europos_plan.png 2x" data-file-width="3112" data-file-height="3265" /></a><figcaption>Map of Dura Europos and location of the synagogue in islet L7.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The synagogue is a building belonging to the L7 block of Dura Europos:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> the city was organized according to a <a href="/wiki/Hippodamian_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippodamian plan">Hippodamian plan</a> of regular rectangular blocks of 35-70 m since its development by the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-LericheClio_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LericheClio-5">[5]</a></sup> which archaeologists have arbitrarily numbered for more convenient reference. This islet L7 is located in the first north-south row, and the second east-west row north of the <a href="/wiki/Decumanus_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Decumanus Maximus">Decumanus Maximus</a>: it is therefore bordered to the west by the street along the rampart, between the towers 19 and 20, and on the other sides respectively by streets A to the east, 2 to the south and 4 to the north.
</p><p>It was originally a residential block comprising up to ten separate units (designated by the letters A to I on the map below),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[a]</a></sup> one of which was dedicated to the needs of the Jewish community and transformed into a building of worship. This location on the outskirts of the city, as well as modesty of the first building, are often used as an argument to emphasize the small size of the community.<sup id="cite_ref-Rajna115_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rajna115-2">[2]</a></sup> With the expansions and reconstructions made necessary by its development, the synagogue ended up becoming the central nucleus and the most important building of a small Jewish quarter. The last state of the building, with its famous frescoes, is thus the second phase of the second synagogue to occupy the place.
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 375.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura_Europos_synagogue_isometric_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Isometric reconstruction of the L7 islet in Dura-Europos."><img alt="Isometric reconstruction of the L7 islet in Dura-Europos." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dura_Europos_synagogue_isometric_view.jpg/563px-Dura_Europos_synagogue_isometric_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="376" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dura_Europos_synagogue_isometric_view.jpg/844px-Dura_Europos_synagogue_isometric_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dura_Europos_synagogue_isometric_view.jpg/1125px-Dura_Europos_synagogue_isometric_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Isometric reconstruction of the L7 islet in Dura-Europos.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 309.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura_Europos_L7_City_Block.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plan of islet L7 in Dura-Europos, with the synagogue (in red) and its outbuildings (in pink). According to the plan of NC Andrews (1941) taken up in Hachlili 1998, p. 41."><img alt="Plan of islet L7 in Dura-Europos, with the synagogue (in red) and its outbuildings (in pink). According to the plan of NC Andrews (1941) taken up in Hachlili 1998, p. 41." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Dura_Europos_L7_City_Block.svg/464px-Dura_Europos_L7_City_Block.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Dura_Europos_L7_City_Block.svg/696px-Dura_Europos_L7_City_Block.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Dura_Europos_L7_City_Block.svg/928px-Dura_Europos_L7_City_Block.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="348" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Plan of islet L7 in Dura-Europos, with the synagogue (in red) and its outbuildings (in pink). According to the plan of NC Andrews (1941) taken up in <a href="#CITEREFHachlili1998">Hachlili 1998</a>, p. 41.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 144.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura_Europos_synagogue_I_plan.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Restored plan of the first synagogue. 1. Central courtyard 2. Community assembly hall 3. Corridor 4. Reception hall 5. Reception hall 6. Residential room 7. Auxiliary room to the assembly hall Plan based on notes by Henry Pearson (circa 1936) as mentioned in Hopkins 1979."><img alt="Restored plan of the first synagogue. 1. Central courtyard 2. Community assembly hall 3. Corridor 4. Reception hall 5. Reception hall 6. Residential room 7. Auxiliary room to the assembly hall Plan based on notes by Henry Pearson (circa 1936) as mentioned in Hopkins 1979." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dura_Europos_synagogue_I_plan.svg/217px-Dura_Europos_synagogue_I_plan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="145" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dura_Europos_synagogue_I_plan.svg/325px-Dura_Europos_synagogue_I_plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dura_Europos_synagogue_I_plan.svg/434px-Dura_Europos_synagogue_I_plan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="162" data-file-height="224" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Restored plan of the first synagogue. <br />1. Central courtyard<br />2. Community assembly hall<br />3. Corridor<br />4. Reception hall <br />5. Reception hall<br />6. Residential room<br />7. Auxiliary room to the assembly hall<br />Plan based on notes by Henry Pearson (circa 1936) as mentioned in <a href="#CITEREFHopkins1979">Hopkins 1979</a>.</div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Torah_shrine">Torah shrine</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Torah shrine" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Torah shrine"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura-Europos_archival_photograph,_Synagogue,_west_wall,_aedicula,_general_view_Synagogue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Dura-Europos_archival_photograph%2C_Synagogue%2C_west_wall%2C_aedicula%2C_general_view_Synagogue.jpg/220px-Dura-Europos_archival_photograph%2C_Synagogue%2C_west_wall%2C_aedicula%2C_general_view_Synagogue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Dura-Europos_archival_photograph%2C_Synagogue%2C_west_wall%2C_aedicula%2C_general_view_Synagogue.jpg/330px-Dura-Europos_archival_photograph%2C_Synagogue%2C_west_wall%2C_aedicula%2C_general_view_Synagogue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Dura-Europos_archival_photograph%2C_Synagogue%2C_west_wall%2C_aedicula%2C_general_view_Synagogue.jpg/440px-Dura-Europos_archival_photograph%2C_Synagogue%2C_west_wall%2C_aedicula%2C_general_view_Synagogue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="1306" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Torah_shrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Torah shrine">Torah shrine</a>, Dura-Europos</figcaption></figure>
<p>The decoration of the <a href="/wiki/Torah_shrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Torah shrine">Torah shrine</a> consists of two elements. The first one includes, "the uppermost step of the niche-block, the columns of the facade, and the intrados of the archivolt."<sup id="cite_ref-:6_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[6]</a></sup> The second one involves important religious scenes, objects and pictures of Jewish worship.
</p><p>The interior of the niche consists of three parts: the conch had a light-blue color that faded all at once after the excavation. The outer surface of the shell is a rich green color. The columns and the bottom of the niche are painted to look like marble reventments. The bottom of the niche consists of five rectangular panels that are framed on top and bottom by pink bands, and there are red vertical bands to separate them from each other. Out of the five panels, one and five are a pair and two and four are another pair: they are all designed by the same fashion. For the first and the fifth panel, the artists used black diagonal lines to divide triangular patterned designs. Opposing triangles on the top and the bottom of the panel has red stripes and are inscribed with peltae. Opposing triangles on the sides of the panels are decorated with brown-lined irregular concentric shapes, with a green dot in the middle of each. On the second and the fourth panels, the outer frame is decorated with red and pink bands, and alternating red dots and strokes against the white background, with bead-and-reel designs on the corners. On the corners of the strips, there are three-petal like strokes. Inside the frame, there are wavy green and dark green curvy lines of different thickness drawn from the top left and right corners of the panel towards the middle. The central panel of the niche consists of a veined black diamond with a yellow circle in the middle. The diamond is framed with the same bead-and-reel design that surrounded the second and the fourth panels. The four triangles that are on the side of the diamond are decorated in brown colors.
</p><p>The figural decoration above the niche on the front face of the arch is particularly significant. The spandrels formed a rectangle that is 1.47m wide and 1.06m high, framed by a pink border that is 0.04m-0.05m wide. On the left side of the front face is a representation of a menorah, and on the right side was a depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Binding_of_Isaac" title="Binding of Isaac">sacrifice of Isaac.</a> Depicted in the central position was a columned building with an arched doorway.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Wall_paintings">Wall paintings</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Wall paintings" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Wall paintings"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The paintings cover the walls of the main "Assembly Room", using three levels of pictures over a <a href="/wiki/Dado_(architecture)" title="Dado (architecture)">dado</a> frieze of symbols in most places, reaching a height of about 7 metres.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[6]</a></sup> Stylistically they are provincial versions of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Graeco-Roman">Graeco-Roman</a> style and technique; several different artists seem to have worked on them. Technically they are not <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> (paint fused into wet plaster) but <a href="/wiki/Tempera" title="Tempera">tempera</a> over plaster. Earlier parts of the building have decorative painting with no figures. Some of the paintings have figures whose eyes have been scratched out, especially those in Persian costume.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Iconography">Iconography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Iconography" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Iconography"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Scholars cannot agree on the subjects of some scenes, because of damage, or the lack of comparative examples.
</p><p>The scenes depicted are drawn from the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> and include many narrative scenes, and some single figure "portraits"—58 scenes in total, probably representing about 60% of the original number. They include the <a href="/wiki/Binding_of_Isaac" title="Binding of Isaac">Binding of Isaac</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> stories, <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> receiving the <a href="/wiki/Tablets_of_the_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Tablets of the Law">Tablets of the Law</a>, Moses leading the <a href="/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrews</a> out of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Moses at the <a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">burning bush</a>, the visions of <a href="/wiki/Ezekiel" title="Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a>, a figure of <a href="/wiki/Enoch" title="Enoch">Enoch</a> or possibly <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massah_and_Meribah" title="Massah and Meribah">the water miracle in the desert</a>, the return of <a href="/wiki/Ark_of_the_Covenant" title="Ark of the Covenant">Ark</a> from the temple of <a href="/wiki/Dagon" title="Dagon">Dagon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a> with the scrolls and many others.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hand_of_God_(art)" title="Hand of God (art)">Hand of God</a> <a href="/wiki/Motif_(visual_arts)" title="Motif (visual arts)">motif</a> is used to represent divine intervention or approval in several paintings.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>There have been scholarly debates questioning the wall paintings' influence over later Jewish and/or Christian iconography, which have been held due to the relevance of such early depictions of the biblical narrative.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Wall_Scenes_Labeled.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Western_Wall_Scenes_Labeled.png/220px-Western_Wall_Scenes_Labeled.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Western_Wall_Scenes_Labeled.png/330px-Western_Wall_Scenes_Labeled.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Western_Wall_Scenes_Labeled.png/440px-Western_Wall_Scenes_Labeled.png 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>Western wall paintings schematic breaks the wall into discrete sections designated by whichever biblical scene or figure each painting portrays<sup id="cite_ref-:5_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-11">[10]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Depictions of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a> occupy significant swathes of space in the paintings on the Western Wall of the synagogue - of the 12 discrete paintings identified in the Hopkins schematic, 3 center on the narrative of Moses' life, with a total of 7 depictions of Moses across the western wall. Some paintings contain multiple representations of Moses within one distinct scene.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-11">[10]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236.jpg/220px-AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236.jpg/330px-AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236.jpg/440px-AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="763" /></a><figcaption>Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea, a temple<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura-Europos_wall_painting_Aramaic_Moses_inscription.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dura-Europos_wall_painting_Aramaic_Moses_inscription.png/220px-Dura-Europos_wall_painting_Aramaic_Moses_inscription.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dura-Europos_wall_painting_Aramaic_Moses_inscription.png/330px-Dura-Europos_wall_painting_Aramaic_Moses_inscription.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Dura-Europos_wall_painting_Aramaic_Moses_inscription.png/440px-Dura-Europos_wall_painting_Aramaic_Moses_inscription.png 2x" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Susan_M._Hopkins" title="Susan M. Hopkins">Susan Hopkins</a> pointing to the figure of Moses with the detail showing the Aramaic inscription<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>The painting of Moses leading the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> out of Egypt features multiple Moses figures, much like the painting labeled <i>WC4</i>. Between the first Moses's legs is an inscription in <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> reading, "Moses, when he went out from Egypt and cleft the sea."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a></sup> This inscription firmly identifies the murals as depicting the story of Moses leading the Israelites <a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea" title="Crossing the Red Sea">across the Red Sea</a> from the Book of Exodus. First (on the right) Moses is seen raising a club-like staff and facing to the left, leading an army of Israelites behind him. Second, Moses is seen lowering his staff over the Red Sea, causing its parted waters to close and engulf the pursuing Egyptian army. Here he is facing to the right of the painting. And finally, Moses is seen looking to the left at his safely absconded Israelites, holding his staff at his side, pointed downward.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yale_1935.51.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Yale_1935.51.jpg/220px-Yale_1935.51.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Yale_1935.51.jpg/330px-Yale_1935.51.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Yale_1935.51.jpg/440px-Yale_1935.51.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1382" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Relief <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Hercules,_Dura-Europos" title="Statue of Hercules, Dura-Europos">depicting Hercules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus_Theos,_Dura-Europos" title="Temple of Zeus Theos, Dura-Europos">Temple of Zeus</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The synagogue paintings' portrayal of Moses and the Israelites each contain influences from the concurrent Roman military culture. Moses is portrayed as the leader of the Israelites who are shown not as civilians or slaves, but as an armed military force. In this context, Moses' powerful stance and comparatively large size present him as the military leader of the Israelites. His long club-like rod or staff and bearded visage have been compared to a relief of <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a> from the 2nd-century Durene <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus_Theos,_Dura-Europos" title="Temple of Zeus Theos, Dura-Europos">temple of Zeus</a>, built during the 114 CE Roman occupation of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>The mass of Israelites positioned to his left carry shields and spears. Their shields are layered and overlapped over one another to form a physical barrier, much like the Roman shield wall formations of the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Testudo_formation" title="Testudo formation">testudo</a>. Behind the Israelite soldiers stand figures representing the twelve Elders of Israel, each holding a pole with a square banner or flag, resembling the Roman <a href="/wiki/Vexillum" title="Vexillum">vexillum</a>, the military standards of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-16">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Below the painting of Moses and the Israelites is a painting of a temple, portrayed explicitly as a contemporary Roman-style temple. The temple's pediment is low and is decorated with a <a href="/wiki/Rinceau" title="Rinceau">rinceau</a> design, often and originally found in Roman buildings. The temple also features <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian</a> columns, characteristic of both earlier Hellenistic and contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Roman architecture</a>. At either end of each of the temple's two pediments are <a href="/wiki/Acroterion" title="Acroterion">acroteria</a> in the form of winged victory or <a href="/wiki/Nike_(mythology)" title="Nike (mythology)">Nike</a> figures. Both the architectural ornament of the acroteria and the Nike symbol stem are characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a> and contemporary Roman architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Consecration_of_the_Tabernacle_mural">Consecration of the Tabernacle mural</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consecration of the Tabernacle mural" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Consecration of the Tabernacle mural"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herod%27s_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Herod%27s_Temple.jpg/220px-Herod%27s_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Herod%27s_Temple.jpg/330px-Herod%27s_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Herod%27s_Temple.jpg/440px-Herod%27s_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>Consecration of the <a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a> (c. 245-256 CE)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Located on the western wall of the synagogue, just left of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> <a href="/wiki/Torah_ark" title="Torah ark">niche</a>, is a mural depicting the <a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a>. The artist did not follow the biblical description of the Tabernacle as a tent, but rather was inspired by <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temples</a>, and includes a <a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">cella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pediment" title="Pediment">pediment</a> and capitals of the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian order</a>. The local Jewish population did not mind illustrating the Tabernacle based on Roman civil architecture for unknown reasons. Coins showing similar structures were found in Dura-Europos, and the painter might have used them as models.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>In this particular work, <a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aaron</a> is depicted standing just to the right of the door of the tent of meeting, denoted by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> inscription <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΑΡΩΝ</span></span> ("ARON").<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[19]</a></sup> He is dressed in contemporary Persian or Sassanid style, but with the same colors mentioned in the Book of Exodus: gold, blue, and purple. The <a href="/wiki/Ephod" title="Ephod">Ephod</a> worn by the high priest as described in the Bible is not shown.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>To the bottom left, there is a young priest leading a cow, which is the special sacrificial <a href="/wiki/Red_heifer" title="Red heifer">red heifer</a>. A dorsal band decorates its body. The two animals just to the left of Aaron, a bull and a ram, are <a href="/wiki/Korban" title="Korban">atonement sacrifices</a> for Aaron to be made on <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur" title="Yom Kippur">Yom Kippur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1021810730">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0 0.6em 1.6em;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0 0.6em 1.6em;text-align:right;font-size:80%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid #eaecf0 1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:#fff!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Selected paintings of the Dura-Europos synagogue</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura_Europos_fresco_Moses_from_river.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pharaoh's daughter finds Moses"><img alt="Pharaoh's daughter finds Moses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Dura_Europos_fresco_Moses_from_river.jpg/160px-Dura_Europos_fresco_Moses_from_river.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Dura_Europos_fresco_Moses_from_river.jpg/240px-Dura_Europos_fresco_Moses_from_river.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Dura_Europos_fresco_Moses_from_river.jpg/320px-Dura_Europos_fresco_Moses_from_river.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="662" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh%27s_daughter_(Exodus)" title="Pharaoh's daughter (Exodus)">Pharaoh's daughter</a> <a href="/wiki/Finding_of_Moses" title="Finding of Moses">finds</a> <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura_Europos_fresco_worshipping_gold_calf.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Golden Calf"><img alt="Golden Calf" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Dura_Europos_fresco_worshipping_gold_calf.jpg/160px-Dura_Europos_fresco_worshipping_gold_calf.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Dura_Europos_fresco_worshipping_gold_calf.jpg/240px-Dura_Europos_fresco_worshipping_gold_calf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Dura_Europos_fresco_worshipping_gold_calf.jpg/320px-Dura_Europos_fresco_worshipping_gold_calf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="633" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Golden_Calf" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Calf">Golden Calf</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura_Synagogue_WC3_David_anointed_by_Samuel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Samuel anoints David"><img alt="Samuel anoints David" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Dura_Synagogue_WC3_David_anointed_by_Samuel.jpg/160px-Dura_Synagogue_WC3_David_anointed_by_Samuel.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Dura_Synagogue_WC3_David_anointed_by_Samuel.jpg/240px-Dura_Synagogue_WC3_David_anointed_by_Samuel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Dura_Synagogue_WC3_David_anointed_by_Samuel.jpg/320px-Dura_Synagogue_WC3_David_anointed_by_Samuel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="873" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Samuel" title="Samuel">Samuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Anointing" title="Anointing">anoints</a> <a href="/wiki/King_David" class="mw-redirect" title="King David">David</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mordecai and Esther"><img alt="Mordecai and Esther" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/160px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/240px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/320px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1021" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mordecai" title="Mordecai">Mordecai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dura_Synagogue_ciborium.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Ciborium; Herod's Temple appears on top, in a similar style as depicted on the Bar-Kokhva revolt coins"><img alt="The Ciborium; Herod's Temple appears on top, in a similar style as depicted on the Bar-Kokhva revolt coins" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Dura_Synagogue_ciborium.jpg/107px-Dura_Synagogue_ciborium.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Dura_Synagogue_ciborium.jpg/161px-Dura_Synagogue_ciborium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Dura_Synagogue_ciborium.jpg/215px-Dura_Synagogue_ciborium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1744" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Ciborium; <a href="/wiki/Herod%27s_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Herod's Temple">Herod's Temple</a> appears on top, in a similar style as depicted on the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_Revolt_coinage" title="Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage">Bar-Kokhva revolt coins</a></div>
</li>
</ul></div></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ceiling">Ceiling</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ceiling" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Ceiling"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The ceiling was believed to have been created between 244 CE and 245 CE; it was part of the retransformation from which the Dura-Europos synagogue derived. It was around 7m tall and had dimensions of 13.65m x 7.68m,<sup id="cite_ref-:6_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[6]</a></sup> like the assembly hall. It was later found out that the previous synagogue was also decorated similarly, including tiles decorated with fruits, shapes, and flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> However, the Dura-Europos synagogue's ceiling was made up of even smaller tiles than the previous ceiling; it occupied a larger space and had a wider variety of tile inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>The synagogue's ceiling is made up of repeated tiles and inscriptions. The ceiling is often compared to aerial mosaics, similar to coffered ceilings that supported the tiles,<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22">[21]</a></sup> which were already discovered in western societies, such as Roman and Hellenistic cities.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> The original placement of the tiles, between 244 CE and 245 CE, has not been clearly stated, but each tile was around 0.37 to 0.42 m2 and about 0.045 m in depth.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[6]</a></sup> They were formed out of terracotta, which was heated, then decorated and plastered to the above ceiling. Imprints of brick and wooden beams were located on the ceiling tile at the time of the synagogue's build and made the tiles' placement clearer.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tile_with_capricorn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Tile_with_capricorn.jpg/220px-Tile_with_capricorn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Tile_with_capricorn.jpg/330px-Tile_with_capricorn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Tile_with_capricorn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A Capricorn Tile from the Dura-Europos synagogue Ceiling</figcaption></figure>
<p>The tiles are consistent with either pictorial images or inscriptions being displayed. There were about 20 different pictorial tiles that were repeated across the ceiling.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> They varied from sea animals, land animals, grains, and vegetation to faces and females.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[6]</a></sup> Often displayed are female faces, which have been counted to recur 23 times on the ceiling and usually follow a particular pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> The available prototypes are considered goddesses such as "Flora"<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> or "Demeter-Persephone."<sup id="cite_ref-:6_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[6]</a></sup> Female faces were among the most popular pictorial tiles. Other popular pictorial types include vegetation, which consists of about 41 roses/flowers, a centaur, and pinecones, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> Other tiles have a goat's head attached to a fishtail, which is often classified as a sea-goat;<sup id="cite_ref-:6_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[6]</a></sup> others are thought to represent Capricorn and Pisces.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-7">[6]</a></sup> Another theme was the evil eye; an example is a tile featuring a double-lidded eye with a snake on either side.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> The same tile also had a scab, which was thought to be a scorpion, and three nails above the eye, with the inscription "IAO".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> Several tiles, both inscribed and pictorials, had mystical and symbolic meanings. Even though it is debated, some scholars claim that the entirety of the ceiling symbolizes heaven and eternal immortality.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-23">[22]</a></sup> However, some uncertainty remains due to the paint not being recognizable on the tile after sun exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> A total of 234 tiles were discovered and brought back at the time of discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> However, there may be more that were destroyed and different designs that had not been discovered.  
</p><p>The inscribed tiles were written in Greek or Aramaic and followed a specific prototype.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> The tiles saved were mainly in Greek; the prototype was the tile painted black, with a black and red leafy wreath on it, where text was confined.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> One of the first tiles discovered, in Greek, reads "(Samuel [son] of Yedaya, elder of the Jews founded [the building])",<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup> naming Archisynagogue Samuel<sup id="cite_ref-:10_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-24">[23]</a></sup> as the 'founder'<sup id="cite_ref-:9_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-23">[22]</a></sup> in 245 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-24">[23]</a></sup> Often names were mentioned, and it suggested that they were donors<sup id="cite_ref-:8_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-22">[21]</a></sup> or people involved in the creation, reconstruction, or decoration of the synagogue; it is not clear what their roles were, but their involvement is evident.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Cultural_context_and_purpose_of_the_murals">Cultural context and purpose of the murals</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cultural context and purpose of the murals" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Cultural context and purpose of the murals"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Because of the paintings adorning the walls, the synagogue was at first mistaken for a Greek temple, though this was quickly corrected by the vice-director of excavations <a href="/wiki/Robert_du_Mesnil_du_Buisson" title="Robert du Mesnil du Buisson">Robert du Mesnil du Buisson</a> in <i>Les peintures de la synagogue de Doura-Europos</i> (Rome, 1939). Mesnil also made detailed comparisons of the <a href="/wiki/Frieze" title="Frieze">friezes</a> from the Dura synagogue with those of the <a href="/wiki/Mithraeum" title="Mithraeum">mithraeum</a>, the Christian baptistery, and the temple of the <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyrene</a> gods.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>Scholars think the paintings were used as an instructional display to educate and teach the history and laws of the religion. Some think that this synagogue was painted in order to compete with the many other religions practiced in Dura-Europos; the new (and considerably smaller) Christian <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos_church" title="Dura-Europos church">Dura-Europos church</a> appears to have opened shortly before the surviving paintings were begun in the synagogue. The large-scale pictorial art in the synagogue came as a surprise to scholars, although they already suspected that there was a tradition of Jewish narrative religious art at this period, which at the time of the discovery were thought to have all been lost, leaving only traces in later Christian art. The discovery of the synagogue helps to dispel narrow interpretations of Judaism's historical prohibition of visual images.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Relationship_to_early_Christian_art_and_late_Jewish_art">Relationship to early Christian art and late Jewish art</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Relationship to early Christian art and late Jewish art" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Relationship to early Christian art and late Jewish art"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacrifice_of_Isaac_at_Dura-Europos.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Sacrifice_of_Isaac_at_Dura-Europos.png/220px-Sacrifice_of_Isaac_at_Dura-Europos.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Sacrifice_of_Isaac_at_Dura-Europos.png/330px-Sacrifice_of_Isaac_at_Dura-Europos.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Sacrifice_of_Isaac_at_Dura-Europos.png 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="672" /></a><figcaption>The sacrifice of Isaac according to the Dura synagogue</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacrifice_of_Isaac_in_the_Leon_bible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Sacrifice_of_Isaac_in_the_Leon_bible.png/220px-Sacrifice_of_Isaac_in_the_Leon_bible.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Sacrifice_of_Isaac_in_the_Leon_bible.png 1.5x" data-file-width="238" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>The sacrifice of Isaac in the León Bible of 960</figcaption></figure>
<p>The synagogue of <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a> offers negligible influence on later Christian and Jewish artwork.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-26">[25]</a></sup> The time that the Dura-Europos synagogue was active was not long as it was buried as part of the Roman defense against <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> troops in 256 A.D.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[26]</a></sup> The Dura-Europos Synagogue remains the earliest example of Jewish artwork available for study.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-26">[25]</a></sup> It contains not only <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a> influences, but <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_art" title="Sasanian art">Sasanian</a> as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>The layout of the paintings suggest that they were inspired by a copybook with examples and formulae.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[27]</a></sup> While there are similarities to other works of antiquity, the differences between each work bear too much difference in order for one to be considered influential. There have been attempts to link these works, but they have proven largely unsuccessful.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3n_Bible_of_960" title="León Bible of 960">Leon Bible</a>, as an example, which was written ca. 960, had in common with Dura-Europos the scene of the <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_of_Isaac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrifice of Isaac">sacrifice of Isaac</a>. However, the León Bible showed key differences. Their position in the León Bible shows them facing the viewer, whereas Dura Europos they are not. In the León Bible, the <a href="/wiki/Hand_of_God_(art)" title="Hand of God (art)">Hand of God</a> bestows the <i>benedictio latina</i>, whereas in Dura-Europos it makes an appearance with no such manuscript. The Dura painting shows <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham's</a> hand free of <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a>'s hair, whereas in the León miniature, it is grasping it. Finally, in the Dura painting Abraham is using a knife as opposed to the sword he uses in the León Bible.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: See also"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldest_synagogues_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Oldest synagogues in the world">Oldest synagogues in the world</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zodiac_Synagogue_mosaic" title="Zodiac Synagogue mosaic">Zodiac Synagogue mosaic</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Notes"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The residential blocks of Dura Europos consisted on average of eight dwellings of 300 square m each.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFCurry2015" class="citation web cs1">Curry, Andrew (1 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190813194747/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/">"Here Are the Ancient Sites ISIS Has Damaged and Destroyed"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. National Geographic Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/">the original</a> on August 13, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Here+Are+the+Ancient+Sites+ISIS+Has+Damaged+and+Destroyed&rft.date=2015-09-01&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2015%2F09%2F150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rajna115-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rajna115_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rajna115_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSed_RajnaAmishai-MaiselsJarrasséKlein1995">Sed Rajna et al. 1995</a>, p. 115<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSed_RajnaAmishai-MaiselsJarrasséKlein1995 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhite1990">White 1990</a>, p. 93</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 276; <a href="#CITEREFHachlili1998">Hachlili 1998</a>, p. 39</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-LericheClio-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LericheClio_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLeriche1994" class="citation journal cs1">Leriche, Pierre (January 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/doura-europos_sur_l_euphrate.asp">"Doura-Europos sur l'Euphrate"</a>. <i>Le Monde de Clio</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde+de+Clio&rft.atitle=Doura-Europos+sur+l%27Euphrate&rft.date=1994-01&rft.aulast=Leriche&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clio.fr%2FBIBLIOTHEQUE%2Fdoura-europos_sur_l_euphrate.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:6-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKraeling1979" class="citation book cs1">Kraeling, Carl H. (Carl Hermann) (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/synagogue0000krae"><i>The synagogue</i></a>. Internet Archive. New York : Ktav Pub. House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87068-331-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87068-331-2"><bdi>978-0-87068-331-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+synagogue&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Ktav+Pub.+House&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-87068-331-2&rft.aulast=Kraeling&rft.aufirst=Carl+H.+%28Carl+Hermann%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsynagogue0000krae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thorleif Boman. (1970). <i>Hebrew Thought Compared with Greek</i>. New York: W.W. Norton paperback by arrangement with Westminster Press. ISBN 9780393005349. p. 113. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hebrewthoughtcom0000boma">The Internet Archive website</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Hebrew_Thought_Compared_with_Greek/aYm6qSGwJeoC?hl=en">Google Books </a> Retrieved 4 February 2024.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKraeling1979" class="citation book cs1">Kraeling, C H (1979). <i>The Synagogue</i>. Excavations at Dura-Europos (Augmented ed.). New York: Ktav Pub. House. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870683312" title="Special:BookSources/9780870683312"><bdi>9780870683312</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Synagogue&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Excavations+at+Dura-Europos&rft.pages=57&rft.edition=Augmented&rft.pub=Ktav+Pub.+House&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780870683312&rft.aulast=Kraeling&rft.aufirst=C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGutmann1988" class="citation journal cs1">Gutmann, Joseph (1988). "The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art". <i>Artibus et Historiae</i>. <b>9</b> (17): 25–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1483314">10.2307/1483314</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1483314">1483314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artibus+et+Historiae&rft.atitle=The+Dura+Europos+Synagogue+Paintings+and+Their+Influence+on+Later+Christian+and+Jewish+Art&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=25-29&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1483314&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1483314%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gutmann&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:5-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins2011" class="citation book cs1">Hopkins, Susan M. (2011). <i>My Dura-Europos: the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935</i>. Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman. Detroit [Mich.]: Wayne State University Press. p. 231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3588-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3588-8"><bdi>978-0-8143-3588-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/695683643">695683643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Dura-Europos%3A+the+letters+of+Susan+M.+Hopkins%2C+1927-1935&rft.place=Detroit+%5BMich.%5D&rft.pages=231&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F695683643&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Susan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFArtstor" class="citation web cs1">Artstor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/AHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236">"Artstor"</a>. <i>library.artstor.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=library.artstor.org&rft.atitle=Artstor&rft.au=Artstor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.artstor.org%2F%23%2Fasset%2FAHSC_ORPHANS_1071314236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins2011" class="citation book cs1">Hopkins, Susan M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/695683643"><i>My Dura-Europos : the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935</i></a>. Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman. Detroit [Mich.]: Wayne State University Press. p. 220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3588-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3588-8"><bdi>978-0-8143-3588-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/695683643">695683643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Dura-Europos+%3A+the+letters+of+Susan+M.+Hopkins%2C+1927-1935&rft.place=Detroit+%5BMich.%5D&rft.pages=220&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F695683643&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Susan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F695683643&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins2011" class="citation book cs1">Hopkins, Susan M. (2011). <i>My Dura-Europos: the letters of Susan M. Hopkins, 1927-1935</i>. Bernard Goldman, Norma Goldman. Detroit [Mich.]: Wayne State University Press. p. 219. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3588-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3588-8"><bdi>978-0-8143-3588-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/695683643">695683643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Dura-Europos%3A+the+letters+of+Susan+M.+Hopkins%2C+1927-1935&rft.place=Detroit+%5BMich.%5D&rft.pages=219&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F695683643&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-3588-8&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Susan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSivan2019" class="citation web cs1">Sivan, Hagith (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetorah.com/article/retelling-the-story-of-moses-at-dura-europos-synagogue">"Retelling the Story of Moses at Dura Europos Synagogue"</a>. <i>www.thetorah.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thetorah.com&rft.atitle=Retelling+the+Story+of+Moses+at+Dura+Europos+Synagogue&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Sivan&rft.aufirst=Hagith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetorah.com%2Farticle%2Fretelling-the-story-of-moses-at-dura-europos-synagogue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:02-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWeisman2012" class="citation journal cs1">Weisman, Stefanie H. (2012). "Militarism in the Wall Paintings of the Dura-Europos Synagogue: A New Perspective on Jewish Life on the Roman Frontier". <i>Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fsho.2012.0054">10.1353/sho.2012.0054</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5703/shofar.30.3.1">10.5703/shofar.30.3.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143836446">143836446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Shofar%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Journal+of+Jewish+Studies&rft.atitle=Militarism+in+the+Wall+Paintings+of+the+Dura-Europos+Synagogue%3A+A+New+Perspective+on+Jewish+Life+on+the+Roman+Frontier&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=13&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143836446%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5703%2Fshofar.30.3.1%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fsho.2012.0054&rft.aulast=Weisman&rft.aufirst=Stefanie+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKraeling1979" class="citation book cs1">Kraeling, Carl H. (1979). <i>The synagogue</i> (Augmented ed.). New York: Ktav Pub. House. pp. 83–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87068-331-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87068-331-4"><bdi>0-87068-331-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4549881">4549881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+synagogue&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=83-84&rft.edition=Augmented&rft.pub=Ktav+Pub.+House&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4549881&rft.isbn=0-87068-331-4&rft.aulast=Kraeling&rft.aufirst=Carl+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBerger2011" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Pamela C. (2011). Lisa R. Brody; Gail L. Hoffman (eds.). <i>Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity</i>. Chestnut Hill, MA: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-892850-16-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-892850-16-4"><bdi>978-1-892850-16-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/670480460">670480460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dura-Europos%3A+Crossroads+of+Antiquity&rft.place=Chestnut+Hill%2C+MA&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=McMullen+Museum+of+Art%2C+Boston+College&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F670480460&rft.isbn=978-1-892850-16-4&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Pamela+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:4-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBerger,_P.Brody,_L.2011" class="citation book cs1">Berger, P.; Brody, L., eds. (2011). "The Temples/Tabernacles in the Dura-Europos Synagogue Paintings". <i>Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity</i>. Mcmullen Museum Of Art, Boston College. pp. 123–140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1892850164" title="Special:BookSources/978-1892850164"><bdi>978-1892850164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Temples%2FTabernacles+in+the+Dura-Europos+Synagogue+Paintings&rft.btitle=Dura-Europos%3A+Crossroads+of+Antiquity&rft.pages=123-140&rft.pub=Mcmullen+Museum+Of+Art%2C+Boston+College&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1892850164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRenovAvi-Yonah1970" class="citation journal cs1">Renov, I.; Avi-Yonah, M. (1970). "A View of Herod's Temple from Nicanor's Gate in a Mural Panel of the Dura-Europos Synagogue". <i>Israel Exploration Journal</i>. <b>20</b> (1/2): 67–74. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27925212">27925212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Exploration+Journal&rft.atitle=A+View+of+Herod%27s+Temple+from+Nicanor%27s+Gate+in+a+Mural+Panel+of+the+Dura-Europos+Synagogue&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=67-74&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27925212%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Renov&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Avi-Yonah%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:7-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSTERN2010" class="citation journal cs1">STERN, KAREN B. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25684291">"Mapping Devotion in Roman Dura Europos: A Reconsideration of the Synagogue Ceiling"</a>. <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>114</b> (3): 473–504. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3764%2Faja.114.3.473">10.3764/aja.114.3.473</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9114">0002-9114</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25684291">25684291</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191387664">191387664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Mapping+Devotion+in+Roman+Dura+Europos%3A+A+Reconsideration+of+the+Synagogue+Ceiling&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=473-504&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=0002-9114&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191387664%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25684291%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3764%2Faja.114.3.473&rft.aulast=STERN&rft.aufirst=KAREN+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25684291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:8-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGOODENOUGH1961" class="citation journal cs1">GOODENOUGH, E. R. (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27924866">"Judaism at Dura-Europos"</a>. <i>Israel Exploration Journal</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 161–170. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-2059">0021-2059</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27924866">27924866</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Exploration+Journal&rft.atitle=Judaism+at+Dura-Europos&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=161-170&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27924866%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0021-2059&rft.aulast=GOODENOUGH&rft.aufirst=E.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27924866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:9-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGarte1973" class="citation journal cs1">Garte, Edna (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453575">"The Theme of Resurrection in the Dura-Europos Synagogue Paintings"</a>. <i>The Jewish Quarterly Review</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 1–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1453575">10.2307/1453575</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-6682">0021-6682</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453575">1453575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Quarterly+Review&rft.atitle=The+Theme+of+Resurrection+in+the+Dura-Europos+Synagogue+Paintings&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-15&rft.date=1973&rft.issn=0021-6682&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1453575%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1453575&rft.aulast=Garte&rft.aufirst=Edna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1453575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:10-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFischer1955" class="citation journal cs1">Fischer, James A. (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43710126">"The Synagogue Paintings of Dura-Europos"</a>. <i>The Catholic Biblical Quarterly</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 69–75. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0008-7912">0008-7912</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43710126">43710126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Catholic+Biblical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Synagogue+Paintings+of+Dura-Europos&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=69-75&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43710126%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0008-7912&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43710126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guitty Azarpay <i>Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art</i> 1981 Page 147 "For a comparison of the arrangement of the friezes from the Dura synagogue and those of the mithraeum, the Christian baptistery and the temple of the Palmyrene gods, see Comte R. Du Mesnil du Buisson, Les peintures de la synagogue de ..."</span>
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<li id="cite_note-:2-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFElsnerElsner2003" class="citation journal cs1">Elsner, Jaś; Elsner, Jas (2003). "Archaeologies and Agendas: Reflections on Late Ancient Jewish Art and Early Christian Art". <i>The Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>93</b>: 114–128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3184641">10.2307/3184641</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0075-4358">0075-4358</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3184641">3184641</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162959125">162959125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Archaeologies+and+Agendas%3A+Reflections+on+Late+Ancient+Jewish+Art+and+Early+Christian+Art&rft.volume=93&rft.pages=114-128&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=0075-4358&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162959125%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3184641%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3184641&rft.aulast=Elsner&rft.aufirst=Ja%C5%9B&rft.au=Elsner%2C+Jas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGutmann1988" class="citation journal cs1">Gutmann, Joseph (1988). "The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art". <i>Artibus et Historiae</i>. <b>9</b> (17): 25–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1483314">10.2307/1483314</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0391-9064">0391-9064</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1483314">1483314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artibus+et+Historiae&rft.atitle=The+Dura+Europos+Synagogue+Paintings+and+Their+Influence+on+Later+Christian+and+Jewish+Art&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=25-29&rft.date=1988&rft.issn=0391-9064&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1483314%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1483314&rft.aulast=Gutmann&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:3-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRachel1998" class="citation book cs1">Rachel, Hachlili (1998). <i>Ancient jewish art and archaeology in the diaspora</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004108783" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004108783"><bdi>978-9004108783</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/470279305">470279305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+jewish+art+and+archaeology+in+the+diaspora&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F470279305&rft.isbn=978-9004108783&rft.aulast=Rachel&rft.aufirst=Hachlili&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sources" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Sources"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHachlili1998" class="citation book cs1">Hachlili, R. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cKGpa-FJ3XsC&dq=%22hand+of+God%22+art&pg=PA96"><i>Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora</i></a>. Leiden. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10878-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10878-3"><bdi>978-90-04-10878-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Jewish+Art+and+Archaeology+in+the+Diaspora&rft.place=Leiden&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10878-3&rft.aulast=Hachlili&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcKGpa-FJ3XsC%26dq%3D%2522hand%2Bof%2BGod%2522%2Bart%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins1979" class="citation book cs1">Hopkins, C. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/discoveryofdurae00clar"><i>The Discovery of Dura-Europos</i></a>. B. Goldman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+Dura-Europos&rft.pub=B.+Goldman&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiscoveryofdurae00clar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1990" class="citation book cs1">White, L. M. (1990). <i>The Social Origins of Christian Architecture</i>. Vol. 1. Valley Forge: Johns Hopkins University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Origins+of+Christian+Architecture&rft.place=Valley+Forge&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=L.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1997" class="citation book cs1">White, L. M. (1997). <i>The Social Origins of Christian Architecture</i>. Vol. 2. Valley Forge: Johns Hopkins University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Origins+of+Christian+Architecture&rft.place=Valley+Forge&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=L.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADura-Europos+synagogue" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Further reading"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Kessler, Edward in Sawyer, John FA. <i>The Blackwell companion to the Bible and culture</i>, Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0136-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0136-9">1-4051-0136-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0136-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0136-3">978-1-4051-0136-3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EjoKdj4lQz8C&dq=Dura+Europas+Hand+of+God&pg=PA131">Google books</a></li>
<li>Kraeling, C H, The Synagogue, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956</li>
<li>Gutmann, Joseph, ed., The Dura Europos Synagogue: A Re-evaluation (1932-1992), Scholars Press, 1992 (with a new introduction);</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Weitzmann" title="Kurt Weitzmann">Weitzmann, Kurt</a>, ed., <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533">Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century</a></i>, no. 341 & 358, pp. 366–370, 1979, <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870991790" title="Special:BookSources/9780870991790">9780870991790</a>; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries.</li>
<li>Young, Penny, 2014 Dura Europos A City for Everyman, Twopenny Press</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura-Europos_synagogue&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: External links"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/docLib/20100813_SchapiroDura20100816.pdf">1968 Symposium talks, by Morton Smith and Meyer Schapiro</a></li></ul>
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class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dura_Europos" title="Template talk:Dura Europos"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dura_Europos" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dura Europos"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dura-Europos" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buildings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos_brothel" title="Dura-Europos brothel">Brothel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos_church" title="Dura-Europos church">Church</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mithraeum_of_Dura-Europos" title="Mithraeum of Dura-Europos">Mithraeum</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Synagogue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dolicheneum" title="Dolicheneum">Dolicheneum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Priests" title="House of Priests">House of Priests</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Necropolis_Temple_of_Dura-Europos" title="Necropolis Temple of Dura-Europos">Necropolis Temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Adonis,_Dura-Europos" title="Temple of Adonis, Dura-Europos">Temple of Adonis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Aphlad" title="Temple of Aphlad">Temple of Aphlad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis_Azzanathkona" title="Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona">Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Atargatis" title="Temple of Atargatis">Temple of Atargatis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Bel,_Dura-Europos" title="Temple of Bel, Dura-Europos">Temple of Bel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Gadde" title="Temple of the Gadde">Temple of the Gadde</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus_Kyrios" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Zeus Kyrios">Temple of Zeus Kyrios</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus_Megistos" title="Temple of Zeus Megistos">Temple of Zeus Megistos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus_Theos,_Dura-Europos" title="Temple of Zeus Theos, Dura-Europos">Temple of Zeus Theos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_the_Dux_Ripae" title="Palace of the Dux Ripae">Palace of the Dux Ripae</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Ag-obj-6832-001-pub-large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ag-obj-6832-001-pub-large.jpg/150px-Ag-obj-6832-001-pub-large.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ag-obj-6832-001-pub-large.jpg/225px-Ag-obj-6832-001-pub-large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ag-obj-6832-001-pub-large.jpg/300px-Ag-obj-6832-001-pub-large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1389" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artefacts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Feriale_Duranum" title="Feriale Duranum">Feriale Duranum</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dura_Parchment_24" title="Dura Parchment 24">Parchment 24</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos_route_map" title="Dura-Europos route map">Route map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sator_Square" title="Sator Square">Sator Square</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scutum_from_Dura-Europos" title="Scutum from Dura-Europos">Scutum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Hercules,_Dura-Europos" title="Statue of Hercules, Dura-Europos">Statue of Hercules</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homeric_shield_from_Dura-Europos" title="Homeric shield from Dura-Europos">Homeric shield</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohors_XX_Palmyrenorum" title="Cohors XX Palmyrenorum">Cohors XX Palmyrenorum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dura-Europos_(256)" title="Siege of Dura-Europos (256)">Siege of Dura-Europos (256)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Henry_Breasted" title="James Henry Breasted">James Henry Breasted</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_du_Mesnil_du_Buisson" title="Robert du Mesnil du Buisson">Robert du Mesnil du Buisson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Cumont" title="Franz Cumont">Franz Cumont</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Clark_Hopkins" title="Clark Hopkins">Clark Hopkins</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Susan_M._Hopkins" title="Susan M. Hopkins">Susan M. Hopkins</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Hermann_Kraeling" title="Carl Hermann Kraeling">Carl Hermann Kraeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Rostovtzeff" title="Michael Rostovtzeff">Michael Rostovtzeff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gute" title="Herbert Gute">Herbert Gute</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1577089#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1577089#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1577089#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/138922024">VIAF</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007306109405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/335307374">Pleiades</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>'
|
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) |
false
|
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) |
'1709232843'
|
