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'{{Redirect|Space traveler}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}} [[File:STS-135 final flyaround of ISS 1.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The [[International Space Station]]]] [[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|400px|right|ISS crewmember [[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] views the Earth, 2010]] '''Human spaceflight''' (also referred to as '''manned spaceflight''') is [[spaceflight|space travel]] with a [[Astronaut|crew]] aboard the [[spacecraft]]. When a spacecraft is crewed, it can be operated directly, as opposed to being remotely operated or autonomous. The first human spaceflight was launched by the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]] as a part of the [[Vostok program]], with [[cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] aboard. Humans have been continually present in space for {{Ageand|2000|11|02}} on the [[International Space Station]]. Since the retirement of the US [[Space Shuttle]] in 2011, only [[Russia]] and [[China]] have maintained domestic human spaceflight capability with the [[Soyuz program]] and [[Shenzhou program]]. Currently, all crewed flights to the International Space Station use [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The United States is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to ISS and low Earth orbit, as well as the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] vehicle for beyond-low Earth orbit applications. While spaceflight has typically been a government-directed activity, commercial spaceflight has gradually been taking on a greater role. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when [[SpaceShipOne]] conducted a suborbital flight, and a [[List of private spaceflight companies|number of non-governmental companies]] have been working to develop a [[space tourism]] industry. NASA has also played a role to stimulate [[private spaceflight]] through programs such as [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] (COTS) and [[Commercial Crew Development]] (CCDev). With its 2011 budget proposals released in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222122055/http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html|title=FY 2011 Budget|work=NASA}}</ref> the Obama administration moved towards a model where commercial companies would supply NASA with transportation services of both crew and cargo to low Earth orbit. The vehicles used for these services could then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. Commercial resupply of ISS began two years after the retirement of the Shuttle, and commercial crew launches could begin by 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=NASA Hails Success of Commercial Space Program|url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-hails-success-of-commercial-space-program/index.html#.U9DmePldV8G|website=nasa.gov|accessdate=24 July 2014}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of spaceflight}} {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center; font-size:11px; float:right; clear:right; margin:2px" |- bgcolor= style="font-size: smaller;" | colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|'''Orbital human spaceflight''' |- ! Name !! Debut !! Launches <!-- manned launches to orbit--> |- | [[Vostok programme|Vostok]] || 1961 || 6 |- | [[Project Mercury|Mercury]] || 1962 || 4 <!-- excludes 2 suborbital --> |- | [[Voskhod programme|Voskhod]] || 1964 || 2 |- | [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] || 1965 || 10 |- | [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz]] || 1967 || 120 <!-- up to Soyuz TMA-11M --> |- | [[Apollo program|Apollo]]/[[Skylab]] || 1968 || 15 |- | [[Space Shuttle|Shuttle]] || 1981 || 135 <!-- includes Challenger --> |- | [[Shenzhou program|Shenzhou]] || 2003 || 5 |- | colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| |- bgcolor= style="font-size: smaller;" | colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|'''Suborbital human spaceflight''' |- ! Name !! Debut !! Flights |- | [[Project Mercury|Mercury]] || 1961 || 2 |- | [[X-15#Highest flights|X-15]] || 1963 || 2 |- | ([[Soyuz 18a]], [[Soyuz T-10-1]]) || 1975, 1983 || 2 |- | [[SpaceShipOne]] || 2004 || 3 |- |} ===First human spaceflights=== The first human spaceflight took place on 12 April 1961, when cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made one orbit around the Earth aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft, launched by the [[Soviet space program]]. [[Valentina Tereshkova]] became the first woman in space aboard [[Vostok 6]] on 16 June 1963. Both spacecraft were launched by [[Vostok 3KA]] launch vehicles. [[Alexei Leonov]] made the first [[spacewalk]] when he left [[Voskhod 2]] on 8 March 1965. [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the first woman to do so on 25 July 1984. The United States became the second nation to put a human in space with the suborbital flight of [[astronaut]] [[Alan Shepard]] aboard ''[[Freedom 7]]'' as part of [[Project Mercury]]. The spacecraft was launched on 5 May 1961 on a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone rocket]]. The first U.S. orbital flight was that of [[John Glenn]] aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'', launched 20 February 1962 on an [[SM-65D Atlas|Atlas]] rocket. From 1981 to 2011, the U.S. conducted all its human spaceflight missions with reusable [[space shuttle]]s. [[Sally Ride]] became the first American woman in space in 1983. [[Eileen Collins]] was the first female shuttle pilot, and with shuttle mission [[STS-93]] in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft. China became the third nation to achieve independent human spaceflight capability when [[Yang Liwei]] launched into space on a Chinese-made vehicle, the [[Shenzhou 5]], on 15 October 2003. The first Chinese woman, [[Liu Yang (astronaut)|Liu Yang]], was launched in June 2012 aboard [[Shenzhou 9]]. Previous European ([[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]]) and Japanese ([[HOPE-X]]) domestic human spaceflight programs were abandoned after years of development, as was the first Chinese attempt, the [[Shuguang spacecraft]]. The farthest destination for a human spaceflight mission has been the [[Moon]]. The only manned missions to the Moon have been those conducted by [[NASA]] as part of the [[Apollo program]]. The first such mission, [[Apollo 8]], orbited the Moon but did not land. The first Moon landing mission was [[Apollo 11]], during which—on 20 July 1969—[[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] became the first people to set foot on the Moon. Six missions landed in total, numbered Apollo 11–[[Apollo 17|17]], excluding [[Apollo 13]]. Altogether 12 men walked on the Moon, the only humans to have been on an extraterrestrial body. The Soviet Union discontinued its program for lunar orbiting and landing of human spaceflight missions in 1974 when [[Valentin Glushko]] became General Designer of [[NPO Energiya]].<ref> {{cite book|title = Challenge To Apollo The Soviet Union and The Space Race, 1945–1974|last = Siddiqi|first = Asif|page = 832|publisher = NASA|url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408}}</ref> The longest single human spaceflight is that of [[Valeriy Polyakov]], who left Earth on 8 January 1994, and did not return until 22 March 1995 (a total of 437 days 17 hr. 58 min. 16 sec.). [[Sergei Krikalyov]] has spent the most time of anyone in space, 803 days, 9 hours, and 39 seconds altogether. The longest period of continuous human presence in space is {{Ageand|2000|11|02}} on the [[International Space Station]], exceeding the previous record of almost 10 years (or 3,634 days) held by [[Mir]], spanning the launch of [[Soyuz TM-8]] on 5 September 1989 to the landing of [[Soyuz TM-29]] on 28 August 1999. For many years beginning in 1961, only two countries, the USSR (later [[Russia]]) and the United States, had their own astronauts. Citizens of other nations flew in space, beginning with the flight of [[Vladimir Remek]], a [[Czech Republic|Czech]], on a Soviet spacecraft on 2 March 1978. {{As of|2010}}, citizens from 38 nations (including [[space tourism|space tourists]]) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft. {| |- |[[File:Gagarin in Sweden.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Yuri Gagarin, the first person in space, and the first person to orbit the Earth, 1961.]] |[[File:Alan Shepard in capsule aboard Freedom 7 before launch.jpg|thumb|160px|left|[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]], the first U.S. sub-orbital human space mission]] |[[File:Valentina Tereshkova, world's first woman astronaut, from RIAN archives.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Valentina Tereshkova]], the first woman cosmonaut, 1963.]] |[[File:Aldrin Apollo 11 original.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Buzz Aldrin]] on the surface of the [[Moon]] during [[Apollo 11]], 1969]] |} ===Post-shuttle gap in United States human spaceflight capability=== Under the Bush administration, the [[Constellation Program]] included plans for canceling the Shuttle and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the [[2011 United States federal budget]], the Obama administration cancelled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<ref>[http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html Congressional watchdog finds NASA’s new rocket is in trouble]. Orlando Sentinel blog summary of official reports. 3 November 2008</ref> For beyond low earth orbit human spaceflight NASA is developing the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to be launched by the [[Space Launch System]]. Under the [[Commercial Crew Development]] plan, NASA will rely on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low earth orbit, such as [[Space X]]'s [[Falcon 9]]/[[Dragon V2]], [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]]'s [[Dream Chaser]], or [[Boeing]]'s [[CST-100]]. The period between the retirement of the shuttle in 2011 and the initial operational capability of new systems in 2017, similar to the gap between the end of [[Apollo program|Apollo]] in 1975 and the [[STS-1|first space shuttle flight]] in 1981, is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.<ref>Klamper, Amy (8 September 2009) [http://www.space.com/7255-white-house-panel-spells-human-spaceflight-options-nasa.html White House Panel Spells Out Human Spaceflight Options for NASA]. Space News</ref> Commercial sub-orbital spacecraft aimed at the space tourism market such as [[Scaled Composites]] [[SpaceshipTwo]] to be operated by [[Virgin Galactic]], and [[XCOR]]'s [[Lynx (spacecraft)|Lynx]] spaceplane are under development and could reach space in 2014<ref>http://www.space.com/24249-commercial-space-travel-blasts-off-2014.html</ref> ==Space programs== [[File:Human spaceflight.svg|thumb|360px|right|Countries that have had human spaceflight agendas (dark blue)]] [[File:Apollo-Soyuz Imagery.jpg|thumb|An Apollo spacecraft with docking equipment, as photographed by the Soyuz crew during the [[Apollo–Soyuz Test Project|Apollo-Soyuz mission]]. Human spaceflight has been a forum for both competition and cooperation.]] Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the former Soviet Union/Russian Federation, the United States, the People's Republic of China and by [[private spaceflight]] company [[Scaled Composites]]. The Indian Space Research Organization ([[ISRO]]) begun work on pre project activities of human space flight mission programme.<ref>The Indian Space Research Organization ([[ISRO]])[http://www.isro.org/scripts/futureprogramme.aspx Future Programme].</ref> The objective of Human Spaceflight Programme is to undertake a human spaceflight mission to carry a crew of two to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and return them safely to a predefined destination on earth. The programme is proposed to be implemented in defined phases. Currently, the pre project activities are progressing with a focus on the development of critical technologies for subsystems such as Crew Module (CM), Environmental control and Life Support System (ECLSS), Crew Escape System, etc. A study for undertaking human space flight to carry human beings to low earth orbit and ensure theirvgvghvghf safe return has been made by the department. The department has initiated pre-project activities to study technical and managerial issues related to undertaking manned mission with an aim to build and demonstrate the country’s capability. The programme envisages the development of a fully autonomous orbital vehicle carrying 2 or 3 crew members to about 300&nbsp;km low earth orbit and their safe return. Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs by their own technology, [[Japan]] ([[JAXA]]), [[Iran]] ([[Iranian Space Agency|ISA]]) and [[Malaysia]] ([[Malaysian National Space Agency|MNSA]]). Currently the following spacecraft and [[spaceport]]s are used for launching human spaceflights: *[[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] with [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz rocket]]—[[Baikonur Cosmodrome]] *[[International Space Station]] (ISS)—Assembled in orbit; crews transported by Soyuz spacecraft<!--The launch history of ISS components -- which on Shuttle; which on Proton -- should be adequately covered in the ISS articles. --> *[[Shenzhou spacecraft]] with [[Long March rocket]]—[[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]] *[[Tiangong-1]]—crews transported by Shenzhou spacecraft Historically, the following spacecraft and [[spaceport]]s have also been used for human spaceflight launches: *[[Vostok spacecraft|Vostok]]—Baikonur Cosmodrome *[[Project Mercury|Mercury]]—[[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]] *[[Voskhod spacecraft|Voskhod]]—Baikonur Cosmodrome *[[X-15]]—[[Edwards Air Force Base]],<ref> {{cite web|url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120304145146/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-052-DFRC.html|title = X-15 Hypersonic Research Program|publisher = NASA}}</ref> (two internationally recognized suborbital flights in program) *[[Project Gemini|Gemini]]—Cape Canaveral Air Force Station *[[Apollo spacecraft|Apollo]]—Kennedy Space Center (Apollo 7 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station) *[[Salyut]] space station—Baikonur Cosmodrome *[[Almaz]] space station—Baikonur Cosmodrome (Almaz was a series of military space stations under cover of the civilian name Salyut) *[[Skylab]] space station—Kennedy Space Center *[[Mir]] space station—Baikonur Cosmodrome *[[SpaceShipOne]] with [[Scaled Composites White Knight|White Knight]]—[[Mojave Spaceport]] *[[Space Shuttle]]—[[Kennedy Space Center]] {| |[[File:Earth & Mir (STS-71).jpg|left|thumb|''Mir'', a former space station where many human spaceflight records were achieved orbiting the Earth]] |[[File:STS-115 ISS after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|International Space Station under construction]] |} Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million [[Ansari X Prize]]. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. SpaceShipOne captured the prize on 4 October 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week. [[SpaceShipTwo]], launching from the carrier aircraft [[Scaled Composites WhiteKnightTwo|White Knight Two]], is planned to conduct regular suborbital space tourism. Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, whose crew of six spends up to six months at a time in [[low Earth orbit]]. [[NASA]] and [[ESA]] use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions." {{Human Spaceflight Timeline}} ==National spacefaring attempts== :''This section lists all nations which have explored human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with [[List of space travelers by nationality|nations with citizens who have traveled into space]] including space tourists, flown or intended to fly by foreign country's or non-domestic private space systems – these are not counted as national spacefaring attempts in this list.'' <!-- : Successfully executed programs are in '''bold'''. : [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|Suborbital]] spaceflights are in ''italics''. --> {| class="wikitable"| border=2 cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;" |- style="background:#f9f9b0;" ! Nation/Organization ! Space agency ! Term(s) for space traveler ! First launched astronaut ! Date ! Spacecraft ! Launcher ! Type |- | {{Flag|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics}}<br />(1922–1991) | [[Soviet space program]]<br />([[OKB-1|OKB-1 Design Bureau]])''' | космонавт&nbsp;(same word in:) {{ru icon}}{{uk icon}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut<br/>Ғарышкер{{kz icon}} | [[Yuri Gagarin]] | 12 April 1961 | [[Vostok spacecraft]] | [[Vostok rocket|Vostok]] | Orbital |- | {{Flag|United States of America}} | [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]] | astronaut<br />spaceflight participant | [[Alan Shepard]] (suborbital) | 5 May 1961 | [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]] | [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone]] | Suborbital |- | {{Flag|United States of America}} | [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]] | astronaut<br />spaceflight participant | [[John Glenn]] (orbital) | 20 February 1962 | [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]] | [[Atlas LV-3B]] | Orbital |- | {{Flag|People's Republic of China}} | [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]] | 宇航员 {{zh icon}}<br />''yǔhángyuán''<br />航天员 {{zh icon}}<br />''hángtiānyuán''<br />taikonaut | ... | 1973 (abandoned) | [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang 1]] | [[Long March 2A]] |- | {{Flag|People's Republic of China}} | [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]] | 宇航员 {{zh icon}}<br />''yǔhángyuán''<br />航天员 {{zh icon}}<br />''hángtiānyuán'' | ... | 1981 (abandoned) | [[Fanhui Shi Weixing|Piloted FSW]] | [[Long March 2]] |- | [[Image:Not the esa logo.png]] [[European Space Agency]] | [[CNES]] / [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]] | ''spationaute'' {{Fr icon}}<br />astronaut | ... | 1992 (abandoned) | [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] | [[Ariane V]] |- | {{Flag|Russia}}<br /> | [[Russian Federal Space Agency|Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos)]] <br /> | космонавт&nbsp;{{ru icon}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut | [[Alexander Viktorenko]], [[Alexander Kaleri]] | 17 March 1992 | [[Soyuz-TM]] | [[Soyuz-U2]] | [[Soyuz TM-14]] to MIR |- | {{Flagicon|Iraq|1991}} [[Ba'athist Iraq]]<br>(1968–2003)<ref>According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz]] space launcher, [[Iraq]] intended to develop manned space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.</ref> | ... | رجل فضاء {{ar icon}}<br />''rajul faḍāʼ''<br />رائد فضاء {{ar icon}}<br />''rāʼid faḍāʼ''<br />ملاح فضائي {{ar icon}}<br />''mallāḥ faḍāʼiy'' | ... | 2001 (abandoned) | ... | [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz 2 or 3]] |- | {{Flagicon|Japan}} [[State of Japan]] | [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)]] | 宇宙飛行士 {{ja icon}}<br />''uchūhikōshi'' or<br /> アストロノート<br /> ''astoronoto'' | ... | 2003 (abandoned) | [[HOPE-X]] | [[H-II]] |- | {{Flag|People's Republic of China}} | [[China National Space Administration|China National Space Administration (CNSA)]] | 太空人 {{zh icon}}<br />tàikōng rén<br />宇航员 {{zh icon}}<br />yǔhángyuán<br />航天员 {{zh icon}}<br />hángtiānyuán | [[Yang Liwei]] | 15 October 2003 | [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]] | [[Long March 2F]] | Orbital |- | {{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] | [[Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)]] | Vyomanaut <br />&nbsp;{{sa icon}} | ... | after 2017 <ref>{{cite web|last=Press Trust of India|title=Human space flight mission off ISRO priority list|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/human-space-flight-mission-off-isro-priority-list-406551|accessdate=18 August 2013}}</ref> | [[ISRO Orbital Vehicle|Orbital Vehicle (OV)]] | [[Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle|GSLV Mk II]] |- | {{Flagicon|Iran}} [[Islamic Republic of Iran]] | [[Iranian Space Agency|Iranian Space Agency (ISA)]] | کیهان نورد {{Fa icon}}<br /> ''kayhan navard'' <ref>[http://www.noojum.com/dictionary/156-k/535---cosmonaut-.html كيهان نورد (cosmonaut)]. Noojum.com. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref> | ... | 2017 (planned)<ref>[http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=137553&sectionid=3510212 PressTV: 'Iran to put astronaut in space in 2017']. Presstv.ir. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-10747390 | work=BBC News | title=Iran aims to send man into space by 2019 | date=23 July 2010}}</ref> | [[Iranian Space Agency#Manned space program|ISA manned spacecraft]] | ... |- | [[Image:Not the esa logo.png]] [[European Space Agency]] | [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]] | astronaut | ... | 2020 (approved conceptually but full development not begun)<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8139347.stm|work=BBC News|title=Europe targets manned spaceship|date=7 July 2009|accessdate=27 March 2010|first=Jonathan|last=Amos}}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/05/22/223941/apollo-like-capsule-chosen-for-crew-space-transportation.html Apollo-like capsule chosen for Crew Space Transportation System], 22 May 2008</ref><ref>[http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ATV/infokit/english/Complete_Infokit_ATVreentry.pdf "Jules Verne" Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Re-entry]. Information Kit (PDF) . Updated September 2008. European Space Agency. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7749761.stm|work=BBC News|title=Europe's 10bn-euro space vision|date=26 November 2008|accessdate=27 March 2010|first=Jonathan|last=Amos}}</ref> | [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ARV phase-2]] | [[Ariane V]] |- | {{Flagicon|Japan}} [[State of Japan]] | [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]] | 宇宙飛行士 {{ja icon}}<br />''uchūhikōshi'' or<br /> アストロノート<br /> ''astoronoto'' | ... | 2025 (planned){{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} | [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-based spacecraft]] | [[H-IIB]] |- |} <!-- Please, DO NOT INCLUDE Equador. Its human spaceflight program http://exa.ec/ESAA-PECE_files/frame.htm with first suborbital mission ESAA-01 is not based on indigenous technology. It will be one of the first payed client's missions aboard on foreign airplane-launched spacecraft [[Space Adventures Explorer|M55X+Explorer system]] that now is under development by Russian NPOM-Almaz company (former Myasishchev Bureau) according to order of British-US commercial space touristic company [[Space Adventures]]. --> ==Safety concerns== {{Expand section|date=April 2007}} {{See also| Space habitat|Effect of spaceflight on the human body}} Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns. ===Life support=== {{Main| Life support system}} The immediate needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the [[life support system]] of the spacecraft. {{See also|Astronautical hygiene}} ===Medical issues=== {{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Space medicine}} Medical consequences such as possible [[blindness]] and [[Bone Loss|bone loss]] have been associated with human [[space flight]].<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=27 January 2014 |work=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=27 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite web |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities |url=http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=23 July 2012 |publisher=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=23 July 2012 }}</ref> On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the [[brain]] of [[astronauts]] and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last=Cherry |first=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0053275 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |number=12 |page=e53275 |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref> ====Effects of microgravity==== {{See also|Weightlessness}} [[File:Astronaut-EVA.jpg|thumb|right|Bruce McCandless floating free in orbit with a [[space suit]] and [[Manned Maneuvering Unit]].]] Medical data from astronauts in low earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of [[bone]] density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these [[deconditioning]] effects can impair astronauts’ performance or increase their risk of injury.<ref> {{cite web|url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/|title = Exploration Systems Human Research Program – Exercise Countermeasures|work = NASA}}</ref> In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back [[muscle]]s or leg muscles used for standing up. Those muscles then start to weaken and eventually get smaller. If there is an emergency at landing, the loss of muscles, and consequently the loss of strength can be a serious problem. Sometimes, astronauts can lose up to 25% of their muscle mass on long term flights. When they get back to ground, they will be considerably weakened and will be out of action for a while.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get [[motion sickness]], and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, or any other mass with gravity, they have to readjust to the gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. Importantly, those body motor disturbances after changing from different gravities only get worse the longer the exposure to little gravity.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} These changes will affect operational activities including approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may happen while landing. This can be a major roadblock to mission success.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} In addition, after long [[space flight]] missions, male astronauts may experience severe [[visual system|eyesight]] problems.<ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal|author=Mader, T. H. et al. |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|year=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)]] |volume=118 |issue=10|pages=2058–2069 |doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212}}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu |first=Tibi |title=Astronauts’ vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=9 November 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |accessdate=9 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">[http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN News (CNN-TV, 02/09/2012) – Video (02:14) – Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems]</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests |url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=13 March 2012 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=14 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. et al. |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging |url=http://radiology.rsna.org/content/early/2012/03/07/radiol.12111986.abstract?sid=8682af1e-b07f-4ad9-8453-ee319bad639e |journal=[[Radiology (journal)]] |doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |date=13 March 2012 |accessdate=14 March 2012 }}</ref> Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a [[manned mission]] to the planet [[Mars]].<ref name="Mader-2011" /><ref name="Puiu-20111109" /><ref name="CNN-20120109" /><ref name="Space-20120313" /><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite web |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=http://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=12 February 2014 |work=[[Wired (magazine)]] |accessdate=12 February 2014 }}</ref> ====Radiation==== Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by [[solar flare]]s. [[Lawrence Townsend]] of the University of Tennessee and others have studied [[Solar storm of 1859|the most powerful solar flare ever recorded]]. That flare was seen by the British astronomer [[Richard Christopher Carrington|Richard Carrington]] in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type flare could cause acute radiation sickness and possibly even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142 |title= Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts|work=New Scientist |date=21 March 2005 |first=Stephen |last=Battersby}}</ref> Another type of radiation, [[galactic cosmic ray]]s, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond LEO.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0-309-10264-2|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760 |title=Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration |publisher=NAP |year=2006}}</ref> {{See also|Health threat from cosmic rays}} =====Radiation damage to the immune system===== [[File:Cupola above the darkened Earth.jpg|thumb|right|The Earth at night and a person inside the ISS Cupola]] There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body’s ability to protect itself against diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1189/jlb.0309167 |title=Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit|year=2009|last1=Gueguinou|first1=N.|last2=Huin-Schohn|first2=C.|last3=Bascove|first3=M.|last4=Bueb|first4=J.-L.|last5=Tschirhart|first5=E.|last6=Legrand-Frossi|first6=C.|last7=Frippiat|first7=J.-P.|journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1027–1038|pmid=19690292}}</ref> Some of the problems are a weakened [[immune system]] and the activation of dormant [[virus]]es in the body. [[Radiation]] can cause both short and long term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} ====Isolation==== During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined into small spaces. [[depression (mood)|Depression]], [[cabin fever]] and other psychological problems may impact the crew's safety and mission success.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on their limited existing resources and medical advice from the ground. ===Launch safety=== {{See also| Space launch| Pad abort test}} ===Reentry safety=== {{See also| Atmospheric reentry}} ===Reliability=== {{See also| Reliability engineering}} ===Fatality risk=== {{See also|Space accidents and incidents#Spaceflight fatalities}} {{As of|2010}}, 18 crew members have died during actual spaceflight missions (see table). Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight missions or testing. {| class="wikitable" |- !Year !#of Deaths !Mission !Known or likely cause |- | 1967 |style="text-align: center;"| 1 | [[Soyuz 1]] | [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash landing |- | 1971 |style="text-align: center;"| 3 | [[Soyuz 11]] | [[Asphyxia]] |- | 1986 |style="text-align: center;"| 7 | [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle Challenger]] | Asphyxia from cabin breach or trauma from water impact<ref>{{cite web |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/http://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |title= Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident |work=NASA}}</ref> |- | 2003 |style="text-align: center;"| 7 | [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle Columbia]] | Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<ref>{{cite web|title=COLUMBIA CREW SURVIVAL INVESTIGATION REPORT|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA|accessdate=July 2014}}</ref> |} == See also == {{portal|Spaceflight}} * [[List of human spaceflights]] * [[List of spaceflight records]] * [[Mars to Stay]] * [[Mothers in space]] * [[Space medicine]] * [[Manned Mars rover]] == References == {{Refimprove|date=October 2007}} === Citations === {{Reflist|35em}} === Bibliography === * David Darling: ''The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity''. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, ISBN 0-471-05649-9. * Wiley J. Larson (Hrsg.): ''Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design''. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, ISBN 0-07-236811-X. * Donald Rapp: ''Human missions to Mars – enabling technologies for exploring the red planet''. Springer u. a., Berlin u. a. 2008, ISBN 978-3-540-72938-9. * Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, ISBN 978-3-7091-0666-2 == External links == * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/ NASA Human Space Flight] * [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight Human Spaceflight Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration] * [http://www.nasaconstellation.com Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program] * [http://www.spaceflighthistory.com U.S. Spaceflight History] {{Public sector space agencies}} {{Spaceflight}} {{Inspace}} {{Space exploration lists and timelines}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Human Spaceflight}} [[Category:Human spaceflight| ]] [[Category:Space policy]] [[Category:Life in space]]'