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'{{Redirect|Space traveler}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2016}} {{multiple image |direction = vertical |align = right |width = 300 |image1 = Aldrin Apollo 11.jpg |image2 = Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg |image3 = SRBsepfromDiscovery07042006.png |image4 = Wisoff on the Arm - GPN-2000-001069.jpg |caption1 = [[Apollo 11]] crewmember [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon, 1969 |caption2 = [[International Space Station]] crewmember [[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] views the Earth, 2010 |caption3 = Space Shuttle Discovery heads into space with a crew aboard, [[STS-121]] in 2006 |caption4 = Inside a space suit on a robotic arm, 1993 }} '''Human spaceflight''' (also referred to as '''manned spaceflight''') is [[spaceflight|space travel]] with a [[Astronaut|crew]] or passengers aboard the [[spacecraft]]. Spacecraft carrying people may be operated directly, by human crew, or it may be either [[telerobotic|remotely operated]] from ground stations on Earth or be [[autonomous robot|autonomous]], able to carry out a specific mission with no human involvement. The first human spaceflight was launched by the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]] as a part of the [[Vostok program]], with [[cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] aboard. Humans have been continuously present in space for {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}} on the [[International Space Station]]. All early human spaceflight was crewed, where at least some of the passengers acted to carry out tasks of piloting or operating the spacecraft. After 2015, several human-capable spacecraft are being explicitly designed with the ability to operate autonomously. Since the retirement of the US [[Space Shuttle]] in 2011, only [[Russia]] and [[China]] have maintained human spaceflight capability with the [[Soyuz program]] and [[Shenzhou program]]. Currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The United States is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to ISS and low Earth orbit, as well as the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] vehicle for beyond-low Earth orbit applications. While spaceflight has typically been a government-directed activity, commercial spaceflight has gradually been taking on a greater role. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when [[SpaceShipOne]] conducted a suborbital flight, and a [[List of private spaceflight companies|number of non-governmental companies]] have been working to develop a [[space tourism]] industry. NASA has also played a role to stimulate [[private spaceflight]] through programs such as [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] (COTS) and [[Commercial Crew Development]] (CCDev). With its 2011 budget proposals released in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html |title=FY 2011 Budget |work=NASA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221004158/http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html |archivedate=21 December 2010 }}</ref> the Obama administration moved towards a model where commercial companies would supply NASA with transportation services of both people and cargo transport to low Earth orbit. The vehicles used for these services could then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. Commercial resupply of ISS began two years after the retirement of the Shuttle, and commercial crew launches could begin by 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=NASA Hails Success of Commercial Space Program|url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-hails-success-of-commercial-space-program/index.html#.U9DmePldV8G|website=nasa.gov|accessdate=24 July 2014}}</ref> == History == {{Main article|History of spaceflight}} === First human space flights === {{Main article|Space Race}} [[File:Vostok Spacecraft Diagram.svg|thumb|Vostok space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit]] [[File:Mercury Friendship7 Bassett Celestia.jpg|thumb|Mercury capsule, which carried the first Americans into space]] [[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|[[Neil Armstrong]] became the first human to land and walk on the Moon, July 1969.]] Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR), which developed the first [[intercontinental ballistic missile]] rockets to deliver [[nuclear weapon]]s. These rockets were large enough to be adapted to carry the first [[artificial satellite]]s into [[low Earth orbit]]. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958, the US worked on [[Project Mercury]] to launch men singly into orbit, while the USSR secretly pursued the [[Vostok programme|Vostok program]] to accomplish the same thing. The USSR launched the first human in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]] into a single orbit in [[Vostok 1]] on a [[Vostok 3KA]] rocket, on 12 April 1961. The US launched its first [[astronaut]], [[Alan Shepard]] on a suborbital flight aboard ''[[Freedom 7]]'' on a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Mercury-Redstone rocket]], on 5 May 1961. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually [[attitude control|controlled his spacecraft's attitude]], and landed inside it. The first American in orbit was [[John Glenn]] aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'', launched 20 February 1962 on a [[Atlas LV-3B|Mercury-Atlas rocket]]. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok [[space capsule|capsule]]s, including the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] aboard [[Vostok 6]] on 16 June 1963. The US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four in orbit through 1963. US President [[John F. Kennedy]] raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely by the end of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Kennedy, John F. |date=25 May 1961 |title=Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |medium=Motion picture (excerpt) |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |accessdate=1 August 2013 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |location=Boston, MA |id=Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref> The US started the three-man [[Apollo program]] in 1961 to accomplish this, launched by the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family of launch vehicles]], and the interim two-man [[Project Gemini]] in 1962, which flew 10 missions launched by [[Titan II GLV|Titan II rockets]] in 1965 and 1966. Gemini's objective was to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used in the Moon mission.<ref>{{cite web | last1 = Loff | first1 = Sarah | title = Gemini: Stepping Stone to the Moon | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/#.VKi1GsaWt78 | website = Gemini: Bridge to the Moon | publisher = National Aeronautics and Space Administration | accessdate = 4 January 2015 | ref = harv | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6VJvpeI4r | archivedate = 4 January 2015 | location = Washington, DC | date = 21 October 2013 }}</ref> Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule into a two- or three-person [[Voskhod programme|Voskhod]] capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first [[spacewalk]], made by [[Alexei Leonov]] on [[Voskhod 2]] on 8 March 1965. But Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not accomplish the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks and solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by overcoming the lack of gravity, demonstrating up to two weeks endurance in a human spaceflight, and the first [[space rendezvous]] and [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]]s of spacecraft. The US succeeded in developing the [[Saturn V]] rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] into 10 orbits around the Moon in [[Apollo 8]] in December 1968. In July 1969, [[Apollo 11]] accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July along with Command Module pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]. A total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon through 1972, half of which drove [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|electric powered vehicles]] on the surface. The crew of [[Apollo 13]], Lovell, [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]], survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure and returned to Earth safely without landing on the Moon. [[File:Soyuz 7K-OK(A) drawing.svg|thumb|Soyuz 7K-OK spacecraft, 1967]] Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued [[Soviet manned lunar programs|human lunar orbiting and landing programs]]. They successfully developed the three-person [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] necessary for a human landing, and discontinued the lunar programs in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|title = Challenge To Apollo The Soviet Union and The Space Race, 1945–1974|last = Siddiqi|first = Asif|page = 832|publisher = NASA|url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408}}</ref> On losing the Moon race, they concentrated on the development of [[space station]]s, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of [[Salyut program|Salyut]] sortie stations from 1971 to 1986. After the Apollo program, the US launched the [[Skylab]] sortie space station in 1973, manning it for 171 days with three crews aboard Apollo spacecraft. President [[Richard Nixon]] and Soviet Premier [[Leonid Brezhnev]] negotiated an easing of relations known as [[détente]], an easing of Cold War tensions. As part of this, they negotiated the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]], in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with [[Soyuz 19]] in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely diplomatic and symbolic. [[File:North American Rockwell P333.jpg|thumb|right|Space Shuttle as originally designed by North American Rockwell, 1969]] Nixon appointed his Vice President [[Spiro Agnew]] to head a Space Task Group in 1969 to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious [[Space Transportation System]] based on a [[Space Shuttle design process|reusable Space Shuttle]] which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched by a similar, but larger [[RP-1|kerosene]]-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent modular space station, reusable [[space tug]] and [[NERVA|nuclear]] interplanetary ferry, leading to a [[human mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars]] as early as 1986, or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support Congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. [[Space Shuttle|Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back]] to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted flyback booster with two reusable [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]]s, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable [[Space Shuttle external tank|external propellant tank]] to feed its hydrogen-fueled [[Space Shuttle main engine|main engine]]s. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings. [[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|The Space Shuttle orbiter, as built]] The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, dubbed ''[[Space Station Freedom|Freedom]]''. The USSR launched three [[Almaz]] military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''[[Mir]]'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of {{convert|354|km|nmi|abbr=off|sp=us}}, at a 51.6° inclination. It was occupied for 4,592 days, and made a controlled reentry in 2001. [[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|Buran Orbiter 1K1 at [[Le Bourget]] airshow, 1989]] The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]''. A fifth shuttle, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'', was built to replace ''Challenger'' which was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|an accident during launch]] which killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. Twenty-two Shuttle flights carried a [[European Space Agency]] sortie space station called [[Spacelab]] in the payload bay from 1983 to 1998.<ref name=StoryShuttle>{{cite book |title=The Story of the Space Shuttle |author=David Michael Harland |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] Praxis |date=2004 |page=444 |isbn=978-1-85233-793-3 |authorlink=David M. Harland}}</ref> The USSR copied the reusable [[Space Shuttle orbiter]], which it called ''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''. It was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable [[Energia]] rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the US Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Shuttle used its orbital maneuvering engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single unmanned orbital test flight was successfully made in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was cancelled due to lack of funding and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the first one was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002. === US / Russian cooperation === [[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|right|International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and Russia]] The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the [[Roscosmos State Corporation]]. The [[Shuttle-Mir Program]] included American Space Shuttles visiting the ''Mir'' space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard ''Mir''. In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station ''Freedom'' into the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). Construction of the station began in 1998. The station orbits at an altitude of {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us}} and an inclination of 51.65°. The Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 after 135 orbital flights, several of which helped assemble, supply, and crew the ISS. ''Columbia'' was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|another accident during reentry]], which killed 7 astronauts on 1 February 2003. === China === After Russia's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Chairman [[Mao Zedong]] intended to place a Chinese satellite in orbit by 1959 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the [[China#People's Republic of China (1949–present)|People's Republic of China]] (PRC),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Dir/2007/10/16/15/33/09.htm|title =赵九章与中国卫星 |publisher= [[中国科学院]]|date=16 October 2007|accessdate=3 July 2008 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080314030932/http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Dir/2007/10/16/15/33/09.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 14 March 2008}}</ref> However, China did not successfully launch its first satellite until 24 April 1970. Mao and Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] decided on 14 July 1967, that the PRC should not be left behind, and started China's own human spaceflight program.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250955.html|title=首批航天员19人胜出 为后来积累了宝贵的经验|publisher=雷霆万钧|date=16 September 2005|accessdate=24 July 2008}}</ref> The first attempt, the [[Shuguang spacecraft]] copied from the US Gemini, was cancelled on 13 May 1972. China later designed the [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]] resembling the Russian Soyuz, and became the third nation to achieve independent human spaceflight capability by launching [[Yang Liwei]] on a 21-hour flight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]] on 15 October 2003. China launched the [[Tiangong-1]] space station on 29 September 2011, and two sortie missions to it: [[Shenzhou 9]] 16–29 June 2012, with China's first female astronaut [[Liu Yang (astronaut)|Liu Yang]]; and [[Shenzhou 10]], 13–26 June 2013. The station was retired on 21 March 2016 and remains in a {{convert|363|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off|adj=on}}, 42.77° inclination orbit. === Abandoned programs of other nations === The [[European Space Agency]] began development in 1987 of the [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] [[spaceplane]], to be launched on the [[Ariane 5]] expendable launch vehicle. The project was cancelled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built. Japan began development in the 1980s of the [[HOPE-X]] experimental spaceplane, to be launched on its [[H-IIA]] expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reduction, and the project's cancellation in 2003. === United States post-Space Shuttle gap === [[File:Ares I-X launch 08.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The launch of Ares I prototype, [[Ares I-X]] on 28 October 2009]] Under the Bush administration, the [[Constellation Program]] included plans for retiring the Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the [[2011 United States federal budget]], the Obama administration cancelled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<ref>[http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html Congressional watchdog finds NASA’s new rocket is in trouble]. Orlando Sentinel blog summary of official reports. 3 November 2008</ref> For beyond low earth orbit human spaceflight NASA is developing the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to be launched by the [[Space Launch System]]. Under the [[Commercial Crew Development]] plan, NASA will rely on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low earth orbit, such as [[Space X]]'s [[Falcon 9]]/[[Dragon V2]], [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]]'s [[Dream Chaser]], or [[Boeing]]'s [[CST-100]]. The period between the retirement of the shuttle in 2011 and the initial operational capability of new systems in 2017, similar to the gap between the end of [[Apollo program|Apollo]] in 1975 and the [[STS-1|first space shuttle flight]] in 1981, is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.<ref>Klamper, Amy (8 September 2009) [http://www.space.com/7255-white-house-panel-spells-human-spaceflight-options-nasa.html White House Panel Spells Out Human Spaceflight Options for NASA]. Space News</ref> === Commercial private spaceflight === After the early 2000s, a variety of [[private spaceflight|private]] spaceflight ventures were undertaken. Several of the companies, including [[Blue Origin]], [[SpaceX]], [[Virgin Galactic]], and [[Sierra Nevada Corporation|Sierra Nevada]] have explicit plans to advance human spaceflight. {{asof|2016}}, all four of those companies have development programs underway to fly commercial passengers. A commercial [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] spacecraft aimed at the [[space tourism]] market is being developed by [[Virgin Galactic]] called [[SpaceshipTwo]], and could reach space around 2018.<ref>David, Leonard. (11 January 2014) [http://www.space.com/24249-commercial-space-travel-blasts-off-2014.html Will Commercial Space Travel Blast Off in 2014?]. Space.com. Retrieved on 2016-11-22.</ref> [[Blue Origin]] has begun a multi-year [[flight test|test]] program of their [[New Shepard]] vehicle and carried out six successful unmanned test flights in 2015–2016. Blue Origin plan to fly "test passengers" in Q2 2017, and initiate commercial flights in 2018.<ref name=gw20160308> {{cite news |last=Boyle|first=Alan |url=http://www.geekwire.com/2016/jeff-bezos-lifts-curtain-blue-origin-rocket-factory-vision-space/ |title=Jeff Bezos lifts curtain on Blue Origin rocket factory, lays out grand plan for space travel that spans hundreds of years |work=[[GeekWire]] |date=8 March 2016 |accessdate=11 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name=ars20160309> {{cite news |last=Berger|first=Eric |url=http://arstechnica.com/science/2016/03/behind-the-curtain-ars-goes-inside-blue-origins-secretive-rocket-factory/ |title=Behind the curtain: Ars goes inside Blue Origin’s secretive rocket factory |work=[[Ars Technica]] |date=9 March 2016 |accessdate=11 March 2016 }}</ref> SpaceX and [[Boeing Defense, Space & Security|Boeing]] are both developing passenger-capable [[orbital spaceflight|orbital]] [[space capsule]]s as of 2015, planning to fly [[Commercial Crew Development|NASA astronauts to the International Space Station]] by 2017/2018. SpaceX will be carrying passengers on [[Dragon 2]] launched on a [[Falcon 9 full thrust|Falcon 9]] launch vehicle. Boeing will be doing it with their [[CST-100]] launched on a [[United Launch Alliance]] [[Atlas V]] launch vehicle.<ref name=nasaAnnounce20140906>{{cite web |title=American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil |last=Bolden |first=Charlie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/ |website=NASA.gov |accessdate=16 September 2014}}</ref> Development funding for these orbital-capable technologies has been provided by a mix of [[government funding|government]] and [[private capital|private]] funds, with SpaceX providing a greater portion of total development funding for this human-carrying capability from private investment.<ref name=sn20140921>{{cite news |last1=Foust|first1=Jeff |title=NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |accessdate=21 September 2014 |work=Space News |date=19 September 2014 |quote= “We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given,” Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. “Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that.”}}</ref><ref name=NASApress20140916>{{cite web |title=RELEASE 14-256 NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international |website=www.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |accessdate=29 October 2014}}</ref> There have been no public announcements of commercial offerings for orbital flights from either company, although both companies are planning some flights with their own private, not NASA, astronauts on board. == Milestones == [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the first woman to walk in space on 25 July 1984. [[Sally Ride]] became the first American woman in space in 1983. [[Eileen Collins]] was the first female shuttle pilot, and with shuttle mission [[STS-93]] in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft. The longest single human spaceflight is that of [[Valeri Polyakov]], who left Earth on 8 January 1994, and did not return until 22 March 1995 (a total of 437 days 17 h 58 min 16 s). [[Sergei Krikalyov]] has spent the most time of anyone in space, 803 days, 9 hours, and 39 minutes altogether. The longest period of continuous human presence in space is {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}} on the [[International Space Station]], exceeding the previous record of almost 10 years (or 3,634 days) held by [[Mir]], spanning the launch of [[Soyuz TM-8]] on 5 September 1989 to the landing of [[Soyuz TM-29]] on 28 August 1999. For many years, only the USSR (later [[Russia]]) and the United States had their own astronauts. Citizens of other nations flew in space, beginning with the flight of [[Vladimir Remek]], a [[Czech Republic|Czech]], on a Soviet spacecraft on 2 March 1978, in the [[Interkosmos]] programme. {{As of|2010}}, citizens from 38 nations (including [[space tourism|space tourists]]) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft. == Space programs == Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the former Soviet Union and current Russian Federation, the United States, the People's Republic of China and by [[private spaceflight]] company [[Scaled Composites]]. [[File:Human spaceflight.svg|thumb|center|750px| {{legend|#204a87|Currently have human spaceflight programs.}} {{legend|#729fcf|Confirmed and dated plans for human spaceflight programs.}} {{legend|#4e9a06|Plans for human spaceflight on the simplest form (suborbital spaceflight, ''etc.'').}} {{legend|#ce5c00|Plans for human spaceflight on the extreme form (space stations, ''etc.'').}} {{legend|#2e3436|Once had official plans for human spaceflight programs, but have since been abandoned.}}]] ===Current programs=== [[Space vehicle]]s are [[spacecraft]] used for transportation between the Earth's surface and outer space, or between locations in outer space. The following space vehicles and [[spaceport]]s are currently used for launching human spaceflights: * [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz program]] ([[Soviet Union|USSR]]/Russia): spacecraft on [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz launch vehicle]], from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]]; 129 orbital flights since 1967, including one in-flight abort which failed to reach orbit, {{As of|alt=as of July 2016|2016|July}} * [[Shenzhou program]] (Chinese): spacecraft on [[Long March (rocket family)|Long March launch vehicle]], from [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]]; 5 flights since 2003, {{As of|alt=as of July 2016|2016|July}} The following [[space stations]] are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation: * [[International Space Station]] (US and Russia) assembled in orbit: altitude {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}, 51.65° inclination; crews transported by Soyuz spacecraft * [[Tiangong-2]] (Chinese): altitude {{convert|392|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}; crews transported by Shenzhou spacecraft Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million [[Ansari X Prize]]. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. SpaceShipOne captured the prize on 4 October 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week. [[SpaceShipTwo]], launching from the carrier aircraft [[Scaled Composites WhiteKnightTwo|White Knight Two]], is planned to conduct regular suborbital space tourism.<ref>{{cite web|title = SpaceShipOne {{!}} National Air and Space Museum|url = http://airandspace.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?object=nasm_A20050459000|website = airandspace.si.edu|access-date = 15 January 2016}}</ref> Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, whose crew of six spends up to six months at a time in [[low Earth orbit]]. [[NASA]] and [[ESA]] use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions," though because of gender specificity this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/styleguide.html |title=Style Guide |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=6 January 2016}}</ref> ===Planned future programs=== The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) has begun work on pre-project activities of a human space flight mission program.<ref>The Indian Space Research Organisation ([[ISRO]])[http://www.isro.org/scripts/futureprogramme.aspx Future Programme].</ref> The objective is to carry a crew of two to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and return them safely to a predefined destination on Earth. The program is proposed to be implemented in defined phases. Currently, the pre-project activities are progressing with a focus on the development of critical technologies for subsystems such as the Crew Module (CM), Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), Crew Escape System, etc. The department has initiated pre-project activities to study technical and managerial issues related to crewed missions. The program envisages the development of a fully autonomous orbital vehicle carrying 2 or 3 crew members to about 300&nbsp;km low earth orbit and their safe return. In the [[Taiwan|Republic of China (Taiwan)]], an indigenous [[National Space Organization|Taiwanese manned spaceflight program]] was begun in 1991 to compete with the manned space program of the [[China|People's Republic of China (PRC)]] and is steadily making progress in the innovation and development of the spacecraft, satellite and rocket technology which is currently being designed for both orbital spaceflights around [[Earth]] as well as future voyages to the moon and planet [[Mars]] by [[astronaut|Taiwanese astronauts]]. As part of this human spaceflight effort, [[Taiwan]]'s [[National Space Organization]] has built numerous [[rockets]] and space vehicle prototypes to launch both satellites and [[astronaut|Taiwanese astronauts]] into space.<ref>Schehl, Matthew L.. (14 August 2015) [http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/air-space/space/2015/08/14/taiwan-preparing-satellite-launch/31706197/ taiwan-preparing-satellite-launch]. Defensenews.com. Retrieved on 2016-11-22.</ref> [[Taiwan]] has also developed state of the art cutting edge technologies, which only a small number of countries like the [[United States]], [[France]] and [[Germany]] possess, for spaceflight in indigenous [[Taiwan]]ese built satellites.<ref>[http://phys.org/news/2014-02-taiwan-sensitive-satellite-equipment.html Taiwan builds sensitive satellite equipment]. Phys.org (25 February 2014). Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref>Chiu, Yu-Tzu (28 February 2014) [http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/aerospace/satellites/taiwan-engineers-around-export-restrictions-and-winds-up-with-a-better-satellite Taiwan Engineers Around Export Restrictions and Winds Up with a Better Satellite – IEEE Spectrum]. Spectrum.ieee.org. Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-06/spacex-explosion-probably-will-delay-taiwanese-imaging-satellite SpaceX Explosion Probably Will Delay Taiwanese Imaging Satellite]. Bloomberg (6 September 2016). Retrieved on 2016-11-22.</ref> Additionally, the [[Taiwan|Taiwan Lunar Lander Program]] was initiated in 2016 and is a technological innovation program currently ongoing and in development by [[Taiwan|Taiwan's]] [[National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology]], which also designed and built the advanced [[ramjet]] powered [[nuclear weapons]] capable [[Hsiung Feng III|Hsiung Feng III hypersonic missile]],<ref>Adams, Sam (29 August 2016) [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/taiwanese-navy-accidentally-fires-nuclear-8730387 Taiwanese navy accidentally fires NUCLEAR MISSILE at fishing vessel as tensions in China Strait reach boiling point – Mirror Online]. Mirror.co.uk. Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref>Collins, Danny. (2 September 2016) [https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1718956/taiwanese-navy-accidentally-fires-hypersonic-missile-at-fishing-vessel-as-tensions-with-enemies-china-ratcheted-up/ Taiwanese navy accidentally fires HYPERSONIC MISSILE at fishing vessel as tensions with enemies China ratcheted up]. Thesun.co.uk. Retrieved on 2016-11-22.</ref> to build a cutting edge advanced [[Artificial intelligence|Artificial Intelligence (A.I.)]] autonomous lunar lander that is scheduled to be sent to the surface of the moon in the year 2020. The advanced innovative [[Taiwan]]ese technology developed in this project is designed to be used in preparation for [[National Space Organization|Taiwan's Manned Spaceflight Program's]] future missions to the moon, planet [[Mars]] and asteroids by [[astronauts|Taiwanese astronauts]].<ref>[http://phys.org/news/2016-07-taiwan-lunar-lander-nasa-moon-mining.html Taiwan to make lunar lander for NASA moon-mining mission]. Phys.org (18 July 2016 ). Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.moondaily.com/reports/Taiwan_to_make_lunar_lander_for_NASA_moon-mining_mission_999.html Taiwan to make lunar lander for NASA moon-mining mission]. Moondaily.com. Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.geek.com/science/taiwan-is-building-nasas-resource-prospector-lander-to-mine-the-moon-1662400/ Taiwan is building NASA’s Resource Prospector lander to mine the moon | Tech]. Geek.com. Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref> The United States’ [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s. The first step in this mission begins sometime during 2020, when NASA plans to send an unmanned craft into deep space to retrieve an asteroid.<ref>{{cite web|title = Journey to Mars Overview|url = http://www.nasa.gov/content/journey-to-mars-overview/|website = NASA|access-date = 17 January 2016|first = Jim|last = Wilson}}</ref> The asteroid will be pushed into the moon’s orbit, and studied by astronauts aboard [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]], NASA’s first human spacecraft in a generation.<ref>{{cite web|title = Orion Overview|url = http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html|website = NASA|access-date = 17 January 2016|first = Mark|last = Garcia}}</ref> Orion’s crew will return to Earth with samples of the asteroid and their collected data. In addition to broadening America’s space capabilities, this mission will test newly developed technology, such as [[solar electric propulsion]], which uses solar arrays for energy and requires ten times less propellant than the conventional chemical counterpart used for powering space shuttles to orbit.<ref>{{cite web|title = Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP)|url = https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/tdm/sep/index.html|website = NASA|access-date = 17 January 2016|first = Lee|last = Mohon}}</ref> Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs by their own technology, [[Japan]] ([[JAXA]]), [[Iran]] ([[Iranian Space Agency|ISA]]) and [[Malaysia]] ([[Malaysian National Space Agency|MNSA]]). {{Human Spaceflight Timeline}} ==National spacefaring attempts== :''This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with [[List of space travelers by nationality|nations with citizens who have traveled into space]] including space tourists, flown or intended to fly by foreign country's or non-domestic private space systems – these are not counted as national spacefaring attempts in this list.'' <!-- : Successfully executed programs are in '''bold'''. : [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|Suborbital]] spaceflights are in ''italics''. --> {| class="wikitable"| border=2 cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;" |- style="background:#f9f9b0;" ! Nation/Organization ! Space agency ! Term(s) for space traveler ! First launched astronaut ! Date ! Spacecraft ! Launcher ! Type |- | {{Flag|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics}}<br />(1922–1991) | [[Soviet space program]]<br />([[OKB-1|OKB-1 Design Bureau]])''' | космонавт&nbsp;(same word in:) {{ru icon}}{{uk icon}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut<br/>Ғарышкер{{kz icon}} | [[Yuri Gagarin]] | 12 April 1961 | [[Vostok spacecraft]] | [[Vostok rocket|Vostok]] | Orbital |- | {{Flag|United States of America}} | [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]] | astronaut<br />spaceflight participant | [[Alan Shepard]] (suborbital) | 5 May 1961 | [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]] | [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone]] | Suborbital |- | {{Flag|United States of America}} | [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]] | astronaut<br />spaceflight participant | [[John Glenn]] (orbital) | 20 February 1962 | [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]] | [[Atlas LV-3B]] | Orbital |- | {{Flag|People's Republic of China}} | [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]] | 宇航员 {{zh icon}}<br />''yǔhángyuán''<br />航天员 {{zh icon}}<br />''hángtiānyuán''<br />taikonaut | ... | 1973 (abandoned) | [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang 1]] | [[Long March 2A]] | – |- | {{Flag|People's Republic of China}} | [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]] | 宇航员 {{zh icon}}<br />''yǔhángyuán''<br />航天员 {{zh icon}}<br />''hángtiānyuán'' | ... | 1981 (abandoned) | [[Fanhui Shi Weixing|Piloted FSW]] | [[Long March 2]] | – |- | [[Image:Not the esa logo.png]] [[European Space Agency]] | [[CNES]] / [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]] | ''spationaute'' {{Fr icon}}<br />astronaut | ... | 1992 (abandoned) | [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] | [[Ariane V]] | – |- | {{Flag|Russia}}<br /> | [[Russian Federal Space Agency|Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos)]] <br /> | космонавт&nbsp;{{ru icon}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut | [[Alexander Viktorenko]], [[Alexander Kaleri]] | 17 March 1992 | [[Soyuz-TM]] | [[Soyuz-U2]] | [[Soyuz TM-14]] to MIR |- | {{Flagicon|Iraq|1991}} [[Ba'athist Iraq]]<br>(1968–2003)<ref>According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz]] space launcher, [[Iraq]] intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.</ref> | ... | رجل فضاء {{ar icon}}<br />''rajul faḍāʼ''<br />رائد فضاء {{ar icon}}<br />''rāʼid faḍāʼ''<br />ملاح فضائي {{ar icon}}<br />''mallāḥ faḍāʼiy'' | ... | 2001 (abandoned) | ... | [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz 2 or 3]] | – |- | {{Flagicon|Japan}} [[State of Japan]] | [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)]] | 宇宙飛行士 {{ja icon}}<br />''uchūhikōshi'' or<br /> アストロノート<br /> ''astoronoto'' | ... | 2003 (abandoned) | [[HOPE-X]] | [[H-II]] | – |- | {{Flag|People's Republic of China}} | [[China National Space Administration|China National Space Administration (CNSA)]] | 太空人 {{zh icon}}<br />tàikōng rén<br />宇航员 {{zh icon}}<br />yǔhángyuán<br />航天员 {{zh icon}}<br />hángtiānyuán | [[杨利伟]]<br />（Yang Liwei） | 15 October 2003 | [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]] | [[Long March 2F]] | Orbital |- | {{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] | [[Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)]] | Vyomanaut <br />&nbsp;{{sa icon}} | ... | after 2017<ref>{{cite web|last=Press Trust of India|title=Human space flight mission off ISRO priority list|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/human-space-flight-mission-off-isro-priority-list-406551|accessdate=18 August 2013}}</ref> | [[ISRO Orbital Vehicle|Orbital Vehicle (OV)]] | [[Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III|GSLV Mk III]] | – |- | {{Flagicon|Iran}} [[Islamic Republic of Iran]] | [[Iranian Space Agency|Iranian Space Agency (ISA)]] | کیهان نورد {{Fa icon}}<br /> ''kayhan navard''<ref>[http://www.noojum.com/dictionary/156-k/535---cosmonaut-.html كيهان نورد (cosmonaut)]. Noojum.com. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref> | ... | 2017 (planned)<ref>[http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=137553&sectionid=3510212 PressTV: 'Iran to put astronaut in space in 2017']. Presstv.ir. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-10747390 | work=BBC News | title=Iran aims to send man into space by 2019 | date=23 July 2010}}</ref> | [[Iranian Space Agency#Manned space program|ISA manned spacecraft]] | ... | – |- | [[Image:Not the esa logo.png]] [[European Space Agency]] | [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]] | astronaut | ... | 2020 (approved conceptually but full development not begun)<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8139347.stm|work=BBC News|title=Europe targets manned spaceship|date=7 July 2009|accessdate=27 March 2010|first=Jonathan|last=Amos}}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/05/22/223941/apollo-like-capsule-chosen-for-crew-space-transportation.html Apollo-like capsule chosen for Crew Space Transportation System], 22 May 2008</ref><ref>[http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ATV/infokit/english/Complete_Infokit_ATVreentry.pdf "Jules Verne" Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Re-entry]. Information Kit (PDF) . Updated September 2008. European Space Agency. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7749761.stm|work=BBC News|title=Europe's 10bn-euro space vision|date=26 November 2008|accessdate=27 March 2010|first=Jonathan|last=Amos}}</ref> | [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ARV phase-2]] | [[Ariane V]] | – |- | {{Flagicon|Japan}} [[State of Japan]] | [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]] | 宇宙飛行士 {{ja icon}}<br />''uchūhikōshi'' or<br /> アストロノート<br /> ''astoronoto'' | ... | 2025 (planned){{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} | [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-based spacecraft]] | [[H-IIB]] | – |} <!-- Please, DO NOT INCLUDE Equador. Its human spaceflight program http://exa.ec/ESAA-PECE_files/frame.htm with first suborbital mission ESAA-01 is not based on indigenous technology. It will be one of the first payed client's missions aboard on foreign airplane-launched spacecraft [[Space Adventures Explorer|M55X+Explorer system]] that now is under development by Russian NPOM-Almaz company (former Myasishchev Bureau) according to order of British-US commercial space touristic company [[Space Adventures]]. --> == Safety concerns == There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the ''environment'' of space which make it hostile to the human body, and the potential for ''mechanical'' malfunctions of the equipment required to accomplish space flight. === Environmental hazards === {{See also| Space habitat|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Locomotion in Space}} Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns. ==== Life support ==== {{Main article| Life support system}} The immediate needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the [[life support system]] of the spacecraft. {{See also|Astronautical hygiene}} ==== Medical issues ==== {{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Space medicine}} Medical consequences such as possible [[blindness]] and [[Bone Loss|bone loss]] have been associated with human [[space flight]].<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=27 January 2014 |work=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=27 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite web |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities |url=http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=23 July 2012 |publisher=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=23 July 2012 }}</ref> On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the [[brain]] of [[astronauts]] and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last=Cherry |first=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |issue=12 |page=e53275 |journal=[[Plos One]] |pmid=23300905 |date=2012 |pmc=3534034}}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref> In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[space exploration]], including a [[human mission to Mars|human mission]] to [[Mars]].<ref name="AP-20151029">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |title=Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html |date=29 October 2015 |agency=Associated Press |accessdate=30 October 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20151029oig">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003) |url=https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY16/IG-16-003.pdf |format=PDF |date=29 October 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=29 October 2015 }}</ref> ===== Microgravity ===== {{See also|Weightlessness}} [[Image:Space fluid shift.gif|thumb|The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).]] Medical data from astronauts in low earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of [[bone]] density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these [[deconditioning]] effects can impair astronauts’ performance or increase their risk of injury.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |title=Exploration Systems Human Research Program – Exercise Countermeasures |work=NASA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |archivedate=11 October 2008 }}</ref> In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back [[muscle]]s or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes them to weaken and get smaller. Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days. The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/64249main_ffs_factsheets_hbp_atrophy.pdf|title = NASA Information: Muscle Atrophy|date = |accessdate = 20 November 2015|website = NASA|publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Upon return to Earth from long-duration flights, astronauts are considerably weakened, and are not allowed to drive a car for twenty-one days.<ref>{{cite web|title = Earth Living Is Tough for Astronaut Used to Space|url = http://www.space.com/21413-hadfield-astronaut-health-return-earth.html|website = Space.com|accessdate = 21 November 2015}}</ref> Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get [[motion sickness]], and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, or any other mass with gravity, they have to readjust to the gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. Importantly, those body motor disturbances after changing from different gravities only get worse the longer the exposure to little gravity.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} These changes will affect operational activities including approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may happen while landing. This can be a major roadblock to mission success.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} In addition, after long [[space flight]] missions, male astronauts may experience severe [[visual system|eyesight]] problems.<ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal|author=Mader, T. H. |display-authors=etal |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|date=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)]] |volume=118 |issue=10|pages=2058–2069 |doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212}}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu |first=Tibi |title=Astronauts’ vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=9 November 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |accessdate=9 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">[http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN News (CNN-TV, 02/09/2012) – Video (02:14) – Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems]. Cnn.com (9 February 2012). Retrieved on 2016-11-22.</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests |url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=13 March 2012 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=14 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. |display-authors=etal |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging |url=http://radiology.rsna.org/content/early/2012/03/07/radiol.12111986.abstract?sid=8682af1e-b07f-4ad9-8453-ee319bad639e |journal=[[Radiology (journal)]] |volume=263 |issue=3 |page=819 |doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |date=13 March 2012 |accessdate=14 March 2012 }}</ref> Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a [[crewed mission]] to the planet [[Mars]].<ref name="Mader-2011" /><ref name="Puiu-20111109" /><ref name="CNN-20120109" /><ref name="Space-20120313" /><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite web |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=http://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=12 February 2014 |work=[[Wired (magazine)]] |accessdate=12 February 2014 }}</ref> ===== Radiation ===== {{See also|Health threat from cosmic rays}} [[File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png|thumb|right|Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the [[Radiation assessment detector|RAD]] on the [[Mars Science Laboratory|MSL]] (2011–2013).<ref name="SCI-20130531a">{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Richard |title=Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier |date=31 May 2013 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=340 |issue=6136 |page=1031 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6136.1031 }}</ref>]] Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by [[solar flare]]s. [[Lawrence Townsend]] of the University of Tennessee and others have studied [[Solar storm of 1859|the most powerful solar flare ever recorded]]. That flare was seen by the British astronomer [[Richard Christopher Carrington|Richard Carrington]] in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type flare could cause acute radiation sickness and possibly even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142 |title= Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts|work=New Scientist |date=21 March 2005 |first=Stephen |last=Battersby}}</ref> Another type of radiation, [[galactic cosmic ray]]s, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0-309-10264-2|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760 |title=Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration |publisher=NAP |date=2006}}</ref> There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body’s ability to protect itself against diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1189/jlb.0309167 |title=Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit|date=2009|last1=Gueguinou|first1=N.|last2=Huin-Schohn|first2=C.|last3=Bascove|first3=M.|last4=Bueb|first4=J.-L.|last5=Tschirhart|first5=E.|last6=Legrand-Frossi|first6=C.|last7=Frippiat|first7=J.-P.|journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1027–1038|pmid=19690292}}</ref> Some of the problems are a weakened [[immune system]] and the activation of dormant [[virus]]es in the body. [[Radiation]] can cause both short and long term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} ===== Isolation ===== During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined into small spaces. [[depression (mood)|Depression]], [[cabin fever]] and other psychological problems may impact the crew's safety and mission success.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on their limited existing resources and medical advice from the ground. === Mechanical hazards === Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, which in turn requires the use of high [[energy density]] propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere. ==== Launch ==== {{See also| Launch escape system}} Since rockets carry the potential for fire or explosive destruction, [[space capsule]]s generally employ some sort of [[launch escape system]], consisting either of a tower-mounted solid fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the [[launch vehicle]] (employed on [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]], and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]]), or else [[ejection seat]]s (employed on [[Vostok spacecraft|Vostok]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landing. The escape tower is discarded at some point before the launch is complete, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines. Such a system is not always practical for multiple crew member vehicles (particularly [[spaceplane]]s), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person [[Voskhod (spacecraft)|Voskhod]], the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps. The [[Space Shuttle]] carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights, but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued. The only in-flight launch abort of a crewed flight occurred on [[Soyuz 7K-T No.39|Soyuz 18a]] on 5 April 1975. The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned, when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited. The vehicle strayed off course, and the crew separated the spacecraft and fired its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket. Both cosmonauts landed safely. In the only use of a launch escape system on a crewed flight, the planned [[Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L|Soyuz T-10a]] launch on 26 September 1983 was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff. Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely. The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]] seal which caused separation of the booster and failure of the [[Space Shuttle external tank|external fuel tank]], resulting in explosion of the fuel. All seven crew members were killed. ==== Reentry and landing ==== {{See also| Atmospheric reentry}} The single pilot of [[Soyuz 1]], [[Vladimir Komarov]] was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash. The crew of seven aboard the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']] were killed on reentry after completing a [[STS-107|successful mission in space]] on 1 February 2003. A wing leading edge [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen external tank foam insulation which broke off and struck the wing during launch. Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to breakup of the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|orbiter vehicle]]. ==== Artificial atmosphere ==== There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for [[extravehicular activity]]. Use of a gas mixture carries risk of [[decompression sickness]] (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment. There have also been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen. * In 1960, [[McDonnell Aircraft]] test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin / spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his space suit feed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Giblin |first=Kelly A. |date=Spring 1998 |title ='Fire in the Cockpit!' |journal=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |volume=13 |issue=4 |publisher=American Heritage Publishing |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120153024/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archivedate=20 November 2008 |accessdate=23 March 2011}} </ref> This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft. * In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']] at the [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010605212352/http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/chrono.html 1981 KSC Chronology Part 1 – pages 84, 85, 100; Part 2 – pages 181, 194, 195], NASA</ref> * In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the [[Ariane 5]] launch pad at [[Guiana Space Centre]].<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_17_1995_p_EN.html "Fatal accident at the Guiana Space Centre"], ''ESA Portal'', 5 May 1993</ref> A pure oxygen atmosphere carries risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of [[Apollo 1]] during a ground test at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34|Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34]] on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure (increased even higher by the fire) prevented removal of the [[plug door]] hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three, [[Gus Grissom]], [[Edward H. White]], and [[Roger Chaffee]], were killed.<ref name="SP4029">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=12 July 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-16-050631-X |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 1 – The Fire: 27 January 1967 |chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm}}</ref> This led NASA to use a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space. ==== Reliability ==== {{See also| Reliability engineering}} The March 1966 [[Gemini 8]] mission was aborted in orbit when an [[attitude control system]] thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin which threatened the lives of [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]]. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a [[static electricity]] discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit. The third lunar landing expedition [[Apollo 13]] in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew, [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]] and [[Fred Haise]], were threatened by failure of a [[cryogenic]] [[liquid oxygen]] tank en route to the Moon. The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the loss of its remaining oxygen in a span of 130 minutes. This in turn caused loss of electrical power provided by [[fuel cell]]s to the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]]. The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar landing craft]] as a "life boat". The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes. The tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing. This necessitated use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test, which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation, because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication. === Fatality risk === {{Further information|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents#Non-astronaut fatalities}} {{As of|2015|December}}, 22 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing. {| class="wikitable" |- !Date !Mission !Accident cause !Deaths !Cause of death |- | 27 January 1967 | [[Apollo 1]] |Electrical fire in cabin, spread quickly by {{convert|16.7|psi|bar|abbr=on}} pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove [[plug door]] hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot |style="text-align: center;"| 3 | [[Cardiac arrest]] from [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning |- | 24 April 1967 | [[Soyuz 1]] |Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and tangling of reserve chute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitated emergency abort |style="text-align: center;"| 1 | [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash landing |- | 30 June 1971 | [[Soyuz 11]] |Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry |style="text-align: center;"| 3 | [[Asphyxia]] |- | 28 January 1986 | [[STS-51L]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] |Failure of [[o-ring]] inter-segment seal in one [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Booster]] in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]]; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces |style="text-align: center;"| 7 |Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |title=Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident |work=NASA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/http://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |archivedate=3 January 2013 }}</ref> |- | 1 February 2003 | [[STS-107]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']] |Damaged [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by piece of [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]] foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of wing, loss of control and disintegration of orbiter |style="text-align: center;"| 7 |Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<ref>{{cite web|title=COLUMBIA CREW SURVIVAL INVESTIGATION REPORT|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA}}</ref> |- | 31 October 2014 | [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Enterprise crash|VSS ''Enterprise'' powered drop-test]] |Copilot error: premature deployment of "[[Feathering (reentry)|feathering]]" descent air-braking system caused disintegration of vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died |style="text-align: center;"| 1 | [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash |} == See also == {{portal|Human spaceflight|Spaceflight}} * [[List of human spaceflight programs]] * [[List of human spaceflights]] * [[List of spaceflight records]] * [[Manned Mars rover]] * [[Mars to Stay]] * [[Space medicine]] * [[Tourism on the Moon]] * [[Women in space]] == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|30em}} === Bibliography === * David Darling: ''The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity''. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, ISBN 0-471-05649-9. * Wiley J. Larson (Hrsg.): ''Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design''. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, ISBN 0-07-236811-X. * Donald Rapp: ''Human missions to Mars – enabling technologies for exploring the red planet''. Springer u. a., Berlin u. a. 2008, ISBN 978-3-540-72938-9. * Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, ISBN 978-3-7091-0666-2 == External links == * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/ NASA Human Space Flight] * [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight Human Spaceflight Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration] * [http://www.nasaconstellation.com Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program] * [http://www.spaceflighthistory.com U.S. Spaceflight History] {{Future spaceflights}} {{Public sector space agencies}} {{Spaceflight}} {{Inspace}} {{Space exploration lists and timelines}} {{Solar System}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Human Spaceflight}} [[Category:Human spaceflight| ]] [[Category:Space policy]] [[Category:Life in space]] [[Category:1961 introductions]]'