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'{{Speciesbox | name = Milkfish | fossil_range = [[Early Cretaceous]]–present | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{Cite journal | author = Freyhof, J. | author2 = Sparks, J.S. | author3 = Kaymaram, F. | author4 = Feary, D. | author5 = Bishop, J. | author6 = Al-Husaini, M. | author7 = Almukhtar, M. | author8 = Hartmann, S. | author9 = Alam, S. | author10 = Al-Khalaf, K. | last-author-amp = yes | title = ''Chanos chanos'' | journal = [[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | volume = 2017 | page = e.T60324A3098466 | publisher = [[IUCN]] | date = 2017 | url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/60324/0 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T60324A3098466.en | access-date = 16 December 2017}}</ref> | image = Chanidae - Chanos chanos.JPG | image_caption = ''Chanos chanos'' from [[French Polynesia]] | image2 = Milkfish (Chanos chanos) locally called 'bangus' in a Philippine market.jpg | image2_caption = ''Chanos chanos'' (locally called ''bangús'') in a [[Philippine]] [[fish market]] | genus = Chanos | parent_authority = [[Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, Comte de Lacépède|Lacépède]], 1803 | species = chanos | authority = ([[Peter Forsskål|Forsskål]], 1775) | synonyms = *''Butirinus argenteus'' <small>[[Thomas C. Jerdon|Jerdon]], 1849</small> *''Butirinus maderaspatensis'' <small>Jerdon, 1849</small> *''Chanos arabicus'' <small>[[Bernard Germain de Lacépède|Lacepède]], 1803</small> *''Chanos chloropterus'' <small>[[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]], 1847</small> *''Chanos cyprinella'' <small>Valenciennes, 1847</small> *''Chanos gardineri'' <small>[[Charles Tate Regan|Regan]], 1902</small> *''Chanos indicus'' <small>([[Johan Coenraad van Hasselt|van Hasselt]], 1823)</small> *''Chanos lubina'' <small>Valenciennes, 1847</small> *''Chanos mento'' <small>Valenciennes, 1847</small> *''Chanos mossambicus'' <small>([[Wilhelm Peters|Peters]], 1852)</small> *''Chanos nuchalis'' <small>Valenciennes, 1847</small> *''Chanos orientalis'' <small>Valenciennes, 1847</small> *''Chanos salmoneus'' <small>([[Johann Reinhold Forster|Forster]], 1801)</small> *''Chanos salmonoides'' <small>Günther, 1879</small> *''Cyprinus pala'' <small>[[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1829</small> *''Cyprinus palah'' <small>(Cuvier, 1829)</small> *''Cyprinus tolo'' <small>Cuvier, 1829</small> *''Leuciscus palah'' <small>Cuvier, 1829</small><small>Small text</small> *''Leuciscus salmoneus'' <small>(Forster, 1801)</small> *''Leuciscus zeylonicus'' <small>[[Edward Turner Bennett|Bennett]], 1833</small> *''Lutodeira chanos'''' <small>([[Peter Forsskål|Forsskål]], 1775)</small> *''Lutodeira chloropterus'' <small>(Valenciennes, 1847)</small> *''Lutodeira indica'' <small>van Hasselt, 1823</small> *''Lutodeira mossambica'' <small>Peters, 1852</small> *''Lutodeira mossambicus'' <small>Peters, 1852</small> *''Lutodeira salmonea'' <small>(Forster, 1801)</small> *''Mugil chanos'' <small>Forsskål, 1775</small><small>Small text</small> *''Mugil salmoneus'' <small>Forster, 1801</small> }} The '''milkfish''' (''Chanos chanos'') is the sole living [[species]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Chanidae'''.<ref name=CoF>{{cite web |url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/SpeciesByFamily.asp |title=Catalog of Fishes |editor=Eschmeyer, W. N. |editor2=R. Fricke |date=4 January 2016 |publisher=California Academy of Sciences |accessdate=25 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{FishBase family |family=Chanidae |month=October |year=2015}}</ref><ref name=Nelson>{{Cite book| last = Nelson| first = J. S.| title = [[Fishes of the World]]| authorlink = Joseph S. Nelson| location = Hoboken, NJ| date = 2006| edition = 4th| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-25031-9| pages=135–136}}</ref> However, there are at least five [[extinction|extinct]] [[genus|genera]] from the [[Cretaceous]].<ref name=Nelson/> The species has many common names. The [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] name for the fish is ''awa'', and in [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] it is ''ava''. It is called ''bangús'' in the [[Philippines]], where it is the [[national animal|national fish]]. In the [[Nauruan language]], it is referred to as ''ibiya''. Milkfish is also called "bandeng" or "bolu" in Indonesia.<ref name=FishBase/> ==Distribution and habitat== ''Chanos chanos'' occurs in the [[Indian Ocean]] and across the [[Pacific Ocean]], from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia. ''Milkfishes'' commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of 1 to 30 m. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.<ref name=FishBase/> == Description == [[File: FMIB 42369 Chanos chanos (Forskai).jpeg|thumb|240px|left|Illustration of ''Chanos chanos'']] The milkfish can grow to {{convert|1.80|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}}, but are most often no more than {{convert|1|m|in|abbr=on}} in length. They can reach a weight of about 14.0&nbsp;kg. and an age of 15 years. They have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked [[caudal fin]]. Mouth is small and toothless. Body color is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins. They have 13-17 dorsal soft rays, 8-10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays.<ref name=FishBase>{{FishBase |genus=Chanos |species=chanos |month=October |year=2015}}</ref> ==Biology== These fishes generally feed on cyanobacteria, [[algae]] and small [[invertebrates]]. They tend to [[Shoaling and schooling|school]] around [[coast]]s and [[island]]s with [[coral reef]]s. The young [[Spawn (biology)#Fry|fry]] live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage to [[mangrove]] swamps, [[estuary|estuaries]], and sometimes [[lake]]s, and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce. Females spawn at night up to 5 million eggs in saline shallow waters.<ref name= FishBase /> == Consumption == [[File:Bangus22jf.JPG|thumbnail|A grilled ''bangus'' (milkfish) in the [[Philippine cuisine|Philippines]].]] The milkfish is an important seafood in [[Southeast Asia]] and some Pacific Islands. Because milkfish is notorious for being much bonier than other food fish, deboned milkfish, called『boneless ''bangús''』in the Philippines, has become popular in stores and markets. Another popular presentation of milkfish in Indonesia is ''bandeng duri lunak''' (''ikan bandeng'' is the Indonesian name for milkfish) from Central and East Java. ''[[:id:Bandeng presto|Bandeng presto]]'' is pressure cooked milkfish until the bones are rendered tender. Another way to prepare milkfish is ''bandeng asap'' or [[Smoked fish|smoked]] milkfish. Either fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near [[Semarang]] in Central Java, and [[Sidoarjo]] near [[Surabaya]] in East Java. == Aquaculture == === History === Milkfish [[aquaculture]] first occurred around 800 years ago in the [[Philippines]] and spread in [[Indonesia]], [[Taiwan]], and into the Pacific.<ref name=fao/> Traditional milkfish aquaculture relied upon restocking [[pond]]s by collecting wild fry. This led to a wide range of variability in quality and quantity between seasons and regions.<ref name=fao/> In the late 1970s, farmers first successfully spawned breeding fish. However, they were hard to obtain and produced unreliable egg viability.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.mixph.com/2008/08/milkfish-bangus-breeding-and-fry-hatchery-technology.html|title= Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology}}</ref> In 1980, the first spontaneous spawning happened in sea cages. These eggs were found to be sufficient to generate a constant supply for farms.<ref name=" Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology ">Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology</ref> === Farming methods === [[File:Cardona,Rizaljf5184 09.JPG|thumbnail|Milkfish aquaculture in fish ponds in [[Cardona, Rizal]], The Philippines.]] Fry are raised in either sea cages, large [[Saline water|saline]] ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).<ref name=fao>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Chanos_chanos/en |title=''Chanos chanos'' (Forsskal, 1775) |year= |work=Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme |publisher=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department |accessdate=}}</ref> Milkfish reach sexual maturity at {{convert|1.5|kg|abbr=on}}, which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks. Once they reach {{convert|6|kg|abbr=on}}, (eight years), 3–4 million [[egg (biology)|eggs]] are produced each breeding cycle.<ref name=fao/> This is mainly done using natural environmental cues. However, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.fishbase.org/Aquaculture/AquacultureProfileSummary.php?ID=80&GenusName=Chanos&SpeciesName=chanos|title=Aquaculture Profile of Chanos chanos}}</ref> Some still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets.<ref name=fao/> Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, [[rotifer]]s, [[green algae]], and [[brine shrimp]], as well as the target species.<ref name=fao/><ref name=leeleung>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=C.-S.|last2=Leung|first2=P.-S.|last3=Su|first3=M.-S. |year=1997 |title=Bioeconomic evaluation of different fry production systems for milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') |journal=Aquaculture |volume=155 |issue=1–4 |pages=367–376 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(97)00104-X}}</ref> They can either be intensive or semi-intensive.<ref name=fao/> Semi-intensive methods are more profitable at US$6.67 per thousand fry in 1998, compared with $27.40 for intensive methods.<ref name=leeleung/> However, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive.<ref name=leeleung/> Milkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.<ref name=fao/> Indonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.<ref name=fao/> The Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.<ref name=fao/> The three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture. * Shallow ponds are found mainly in Indonesia and the Philippines. These are shallow ({{convert|30|-|40|cm}}), brackish ponds with benthic algae, usually used as feed.<ref name=fao/> They are usually excavated from ''nipa'' or [[mangrove]] areas and produce about 800&nbsp;kg/ha/yr. Deep ponds (2–3 m) have more stable environments and their use began in 1970. They so far have shown less susceptibility to disease than shallow ponds.<ref name=fao/> * In 1979, pen culture was introduced in [[Laguna de Bay]], which had high primary production.<ref name=fao/> This provided an excellent food source. Once this ran out, fertilizer was applied.<ref name=fao/> They are susceptible to disease. * Cage culture occurs in coastal bays.<ref name=fao/> These consist of large cages suspended in open water. They rely largely on natural sources of food.<ref name=fao/> Most food is natural (known as ''lab-lab'') or a combination of [[phytoplankton]] and [[macroalgae]].<ref name=fao/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gapasin|first1=R.S.J|last2=Bombeo|first2=R|last3=Lavens|first3=P|last4=Sorgeloos|first4=P|last5=Nelis|first5=H |year=1998 |title=Enrichment of live food with essential fatty acids and vitamin C: effects on milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') larval performance |journal=Aquaculture |volume=162 |issue=3–4 |pages=269–286 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(98)00205-1}}</ref> Traditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order.<ref name=fao/> Harvest occurs when the individuals are 20–40&nbsp;cm long (250–500 g in weight). Partial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with [[seine net]]s or [[gill net]]s. Total harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes. Forced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed. Possible parasites include [[nematode]]s, [[copepod]]s, [[protozoa]], and [[helminth]]s.<ref name=fao/> Many of these are treatable with chemicals and [[antibiotics]]. === Processing and marketing === [[File:Bandeng Asap, Indonesian Smoked Milkfish.JPG|thumbnail|''Bandeng asap'', [[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesian]] [[Smoked fish|smoked]] milkfish, sold in Surabaya International Airport]] Traditional post-harvest processing include [[smoked fish|smoking]], drying, and fermenting. Bottling, canning, and freezing are of recent origin.<ref name=fao/> Demand has been steadily increasing since 1950.<ref name=fao/> In 2005, 595,000 tonnes were harvested worth US$616 million.<ref name=fao/> A trend toward value-added products is occurring.<ref name=fao/> In recent years, the possibility of using milkfish juveniles as bait for [[tuna]] long-lining has started to be investigated, opening up new markets for fry hatcheries.<ref>{{cite book|author=FitzGerald, William J. |year=2004 |title=Milkfish aquaculture in the Pacific: potential for the tuna longline fishery bait market |publisher=Noumea, New Caledonia: Secretariat of the Pacific Community |url=http://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/Reports/FitzGerald_04_Milkf.pdf}}</ref> === Golden ''bangus'' === On April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the ''Philippine Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources'', which was later on called the "golden ''bangus''".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunstar.com.ph/pangasinan/local-news/2012/04/21/fisheries-bureau-releases-golden-milkfish-217502 |title= Fisheries bureau releases golden milkfish}}</ref> However, the fish soon died, allegedly because of a lower level of [[oxygen]] in the pond to which it was transferred.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/238401/plan-to-breed-golden-bangus-dies-with-lone-specimen|title= Plan to breed ‘golden’ bangus dies with lone specimen}}</ref> ==See also== * ''[[Sate Bandeng]]'' ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} * Francisco José Poyato-Ariza, ''A revision of the ostariophysan fish family Chanidae, with special reference to the Mesozoic forms'' (Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 1996) * Bagarinao, T., 1994. Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos. Environ. Biol. Fish. 39(1):23-41. == External links == *{{Commonscat inline|Chanos chanos}} * {{Wikispecies-inline|Chanos chanos}} * [http://www.bonelessbangus.com Boneless Bangus] * [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?id=80 FishBase entry for milkfish] * [http://www.seafdec.org.ph/commodities/milkfish_hatchery.html SEAFDEC milkfish hatchery info] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070913041849/http://www.bar.gov.ph/Agritech/Fisheries/Bangus/bangus_description.htm DA, Philippines, About Bangus] {{Symbols of the Philippines}} {{Seafood}} {{Meat|state=expanded}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q465261}} [[Category:Chanidae]] [[Category:Fish of the Indian Ocean]] [[Category:Fish of the Pacific Ocean]] [[Category:Fish of Southeast Asia]] [[Category:Fish of the Philippines]] [[Category:Philippine cuisine]] [[Category:Fish of the Red Sea]] [[Category:Fish of Hawaii]] [[Category:Fish of Micronesia]] [[Category:Fish of Palau]] <!-- [[Category:Monotypic fish genera]] moved to genus redirect --> [[Category:Marine edible fish]] [[Category:Fish described in 1775]] [[Category:Living fossils]] [[Category:Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances]]'