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'{{Redirect|Space traveler}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{short description|Space travel by humans}}
{{multiple image
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| image3 = SRBsepfromDiscovery07042006.png
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| caption1 = [[Apollo 11]] astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon, 1969
| caption2 = [[International Space Station]] crewmember [[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] views the Earth, 2010
| caption3 = [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] heads into space with a crew aboard, [[STS-121]] in 2006
| caption4 = Astronaut [[Peter Wisoff|Jeff Wisoff]] on [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'']]{{'}}s [[Canadarm]], 1993
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'''Human spaceflight''' (also referred to as '''crewed spaceflight''' or '''manned spaceflight''') is [[spaceflight]] with a [[Astronaut|crew]] or passengers aboard a [[spacecraft]]. Spacecraft carrying people may be operated directly, by human crew, or it may be either [[telerobotic|remotely operated]] from ground stations on Earth or be [[autonomous robot|autonomous]], able to carry out a specific mission with no human involvement.
The first human in space was [[Yuri Gagarin]], who flew the [[Vostok 1]] spacecraft, launched by the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]] as part of the [[Vostok program]]. Humans have flown to the Moon nine times from 1968 to 1972 in the United States [[Apollo program]], and have been continuously present in space for {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}} on the [[International Space Station]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Counting the Many Ways the International Space Station Benefits Humanity |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity |accessdate=4 May 2019}}</ref> All human spaceflight has so far been human-piloted, with the first autonomous human-carrying spacecraft under design starting in 2015.
[[Russia]] and [[China]] have human spaceflight capability with the [[Soyuz program]] and [[Shenzhou program]]. In the [[United States]], [[SpaceShipTwo]] reached the edge of space in 2018; this was the first crewed spaceflight from the US since the [[Space Shuttle]] retired in 2011. Currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The [[United States]] is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to the ISS, low Earth orbit and beyond such as the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] vehicle and the private [[SpaceX Starship]].
While spaceflight has typically been a government-directed activity, commercial spaceflight has gradually been taking on a greater role. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when [[SpaceShipOne]] conducted a suborbital flight, and a [[List of private spaceflight companies|number of non-governmental companies]] have been working to develop a [[space tourism]] industry. NASA has also played a role to stimulate [[private spaceflight]] through programs such as [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] (COTS) and [[Commercial Crew Development]] (CCDev). With its 2011 budget proposals released in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html |title=FY 2011 Budget |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221004158/http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html |archivedate=21 December 2010 }}</ref> the Obama administration moved towards a model where commercial companies would supply [[NASA]] with transportation services of both people and cargo transport to low Earth orbit. The vehicles used for these services could then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. Commercial resupply of ISS began two years after the retirement of the Shuttle, and commercial crew launches could begin by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|title=NASA Hails Success of Commercial Space Program|url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-hails-success-of-commercial-space-program/index.html#.U9DmePldV8G|website=nasa.gov|accessdate=24 July 2014}}</ref>
== History ==
{{Main|History of spaceflight}}
=== Cold War era ===
{{Main|Space Race}}
[[File:Vostok Spacecraft Diagram.svg|thumb|Vostok space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit]]
[[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|[[Neil Armstrong]] became the first human to land and walk on the Moon, July 1969.]]
Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR), which developed the first [[intercontinental ballistic missile]] rockets to deliver [[nuclear weapon]]s. These rockets were large enough to be adapted to carry the first [[artificial satellite]]s into [[low Earth orbit]]. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958, the US worked on [[Project Mercury]] to launch men singly into orbit, while the USSR secretly pursued the [[Vostok programme|Vostok program]] to accomplish the same thing. The USSR launched the first human in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]], into a single orbit in [[Vostok 1]] on a [[Vostok 3KA]] rocket, on 12 April 1961. The US launched its first [[astronaut]], [[Alan Shepard]], on a suborbital flight aboard ''[[Freedom 7]]'' on a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Mercury-Redstone rocket]], on 5 May 1961. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually [[attitude control|controlled his spacecraft's attitude]], and landed inside it. The first American in orbit was [[John Glenn]] aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'', launched 20 February 1962 on a [[Atlas LV-3B|Mercury-Atlas rocket]]. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok [[space capsule|capsule]]s, including the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] aboard [[Vostok 6]] on 16 June 1963. The US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four into orbit through 1963. The US also made two flights in the [[North American X-15]] (90 and 91) piloted by [[Joseph A. Walker]] that exceeded the Kármán line, the internationally recognized 100 km altitude used by the FAI to denote the edge of space.
US President [[John F. Kennedy]] raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely by the end of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Kennedy, John F. |date=25 May 1961 |title=Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |medium=Motion picture (excerpt) |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |accessdate=1 August 2013 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |location=Boston, MA |id=Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref> The US started the three-man [[Apollo program]] in 1961 to accomplish this, launched by the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family of launch vehicles]], and the interim two-man [[Project Gemini]] in 1962, which flew 10 missions launched by [[Titan II GLV|Titan II rockets]] in 1965 and 1966. Gemini's objective was to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used in the Moon mission.<ref>{{cite web
|last1=Loff
|first1=Sarah
|title=Gemini: Stepping Stone to the Moon
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/#.VKi1GsaWt78
|website=Gemini: Bridge to the Moon
|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration
|accessdate=4 January 2015
|ref=harv
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221151510/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/
|archivedate=21 December 2014
|location=Washington, DC
|date=21 October 2013
|url-status=dead
|df=dmy-all
}}</ref>
Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule into a two- or three-person [[Voskhod programme|Voskhod]] capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first [[spacewalk]], made by [[Alexei Leonov]] on [[Voskhod 2]] on 8 March 1965. But Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not accomplish the first spacewalk but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks and solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by overcoming the lack of gravity, demonstrating up to two weeks endurance in a human spaceflight, and the first [[space rendezvous]] and [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]]s of spacecraft.
The US succeeded in developing the [[Saturn V]] rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] into 10 orbits around the Moon in [[Apollo 8]] in December 1968. In July 1969, [[Apollo 11]] accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July along with Command Module pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]. A total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon through 1972, half of which drove [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|electric powered vehicles]] on the surface. The crew of [[Apollo 13]], Lovell, [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]], survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure and returned to Earth safely without landing on the Moon.
[[File:Soyuz 7K-OK(A) drawing.svg|thumb|Soyuz 7K-OK spacecraft, 1967]]
Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued [[Soviet crewed lunar programs|crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs]]. They successfully developed the three-person [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] necessary for a human landing, and discontinued the lunar programs in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|title = Challenge To Apollo The Soviet Union and The Space Race, 1945–1974|last = Siddiqi|first = Asif|page = 832|publisher = NASA|url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408}}</ref> On losing the Moon race, they concentrated on the development of [[space station]]s, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of [[Salyut program|Salyut]] sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.
After the Apollo program, the US launched the [[Skylab]] sortie space station in 1973, inhabiting it for 171 days with three crews aboard Apollo spacecraft. President [[Richard Nixon]] and Soviet Premier [[Leonid Brezhnev]] negotiated an easing of relations known as [[détente]], an easing of Cold War tensions. As part of this, they negotiated the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]], in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with [[Soyuz 19]] in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely diplomatic and symbolic.
[[File:North American Rockwell P333.jpg|thumb|right|Space Shuttle as originally designed by North American Rockwell, 1969]]
Nixon appointed his Vice President [[Spiro Agnew]] to head a Space Task Group in 1969 to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious [[Space Transportation System]] based on a [[Space Shuttle design process|reusable Space Shuttle]] which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched by a similar, but larger [[RP-1|kerosene]]-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent modular space station, reusable [[space tug]] and [[NERVA|nuclear]] interplanetary ferry, leading to a [[human mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars]] as early as 1986, or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support Congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. [[Space Shuttle|Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back]] to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted flyback booster with two reusable [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]]s, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable [[Space Shuttle external tank|external propellant tank]] to feed its hydrogen-fueled [[Space Shuttle main engine|main engine]]s. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.
[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|The Space Shuttle orbiter, as built]]
The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, dubbed ''[[Space Station Freedom|Freedom]]''.
The USSR launched three [[Almaz]] military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''[[Mir]]'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of {{convert|354|km|nmi|abbr=off|sp=us}}, at a 51.6° inclination. It was occupied for 4,592 days, and made a controlled reentry in 2001.
[[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|Buran Orbiter 1K1 at [[Le Bourget]] airshow, 1989]]
The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]''. A fifth shuttle, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|an accident during launch]] that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. Twenty-two Shuttle flights carried a [[European Space Agency]] sortie space station called [[Spacelab]] in the payload bay from 1983 to 1998.<ref name=StoryShuttle>{{cite book |title=The Story of the Space Shuttle |author=David Michael Harland |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] Praxis |date=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 444] |isbn=978-1-85233-793-3 |authorlink=David M. Harland |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 }}</ref>
The USSR copied the reusable [[Space Shuttle orbiter]], which it called ''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''. It was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable [[Energia]] rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the US Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Shuttle used its orbital maneuvering engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight was successfully made in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was cancelled due to lack of funding and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the first one was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.
=== US / Russian cooperation ===
[[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|right|International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and Russia]]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the [[Roscosmos State Corporation]]. The [[Shuttle-Mir Program]] included American Space Shuttles visiting the ''Mir'' space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard ''Mir''.
In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station ''Freedom'' into the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). Construction of the station began in 1998. The station orbits at an altitude of {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us}} and an inclination of 51.65°.
The Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 after 135 orbital flights, several of which helped assemble, supply, and crew the ISS. ''Columbia'' was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|another accident during reentry]], which killed 7 astronauts on 1 February 2003.
Russia has continued cooperation though half of the International Space Station is its sole singular half.
=== China ===
After Russia's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Chairman [[Mao Zedong]] intended to place a Chinese satellite in orbit by 1959 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|founding of the People's Republic of China]] (PRC),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Dir/2007/10/16/15/33/09.htm|script-title=zh:九章与中国卫星 |publisher= [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]]|date=16 October 2007|accessdate=3 July 2008 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080314030932/http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Dir/2007/10/16/15/33/09.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 14 March 2008}}</ref> However, China did not successfully launch its first satellite until 24 April 1970. Mao and Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] decided on 14 July 1967, that the PRC should not be left behind, and started China's own human spaceflight program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250955.html |script-title=zh:首批航天员19人胜出 为后来积累了宝贵的经验 |publisher=雷霆万钧 |date=16 September 2005 |accessdate=24 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051222024152/http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250955.html |archivedate=22 December 2005 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The first attempt, the [[Shuguang spacecraft]] copied from the US Gemini, was cancelled on 13 May 1972.
China later designed the [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]] resembling the Russian Soyuz, and became the third nation to achieve independent human spaceflight capability by launching [[Yang Liwei]] on a 21-hour flight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]] on 15 October 2003. China launched the [[Tiangong-1]] space station on 29 September 2011, and two sortie missions to it: [[Shenzhou 9]] 16–29 June 2012, with China's first female astronaut [[Liu Yang (astronaut)|Liu Yang]]; and [[Shenzhou 10]], 13–26 June 2013. The station was retired on 21 March 2016 and reentered on 2 April 2018, burning up with smaller fragments impacting the ocean. Tiangong-1's successor [[Tiangong-2]] was launched in September 2016 to then be derorbited in July 2019. Tiangong-2 hosted a crew of two ([[Jing Haipeng]] and [[Chen Dong (astronaut)|Chen Dong]]) for 26 days. The [[Tianzhou 1]] cargo spacecraft docked to the station on 22 April 2017.
=== Abandoned programs of other nations ===
The [[European Space Agency]] began development in 1987 of the [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]] [[spaceplane]], to be launched on the [[Ariane 5]] expendable launch vehicle. The project was cancelled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built.
Japan began development in the 1980s of the [[HOPE-X]] experimental spaceplane, to be launched on its [[H-IIA]] expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reduction, and the project's cancellation in 2003.
=== United States post-Space Shuttle gap ===
[[File:Ares I-X launch 08.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The launch of Ares I prototype, [[Ares I-X]]
on 28 October 2009]]
Under the Bush administration, the [[Constellation program]] included plans for retiring the Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the [[2011 United States federal budget]], the Obama administration cancelled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<ref>[http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html Congressional watchdog finds NASA's new rocket is in trouble] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129102151/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html |date=29 November 2011 }}. Orlando Sentinel blog summary of official reports. 3 November 2008</ref> As part of the [[Artemis program]], NASA is developing the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to be launched by the [[Space Launch System]]. Under the [[Commercial Crew Development]] plan, NASA will rely on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low Earth orbit, such as [[SpaceX]]'s [[Dragon 2]], [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]]'s [[Dream Chaser]], or [[Boeing CST-100 Starliner]]. The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch to space of [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Unity VP-03|Flight VP-03]] on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of [[Apollo program|Apollo]] in 1975 and the [[STS-1|first Space Shuttle flight]] in 1981, is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.
SpaceX [[Dragon 2]] launched on May 30, 2020 with a crew of 2 US astronauts, making it the first flight to the [[International Space Station]] from US soil since [[STS-135]]. <ref>Klamper, Amy (8 September 2009) [http://www.space.com/7255-white-house-panel-spells-human-spaceflight-options-nasa.html White House Panel Spells Out Human Spaceflight Options for NASA]. Space News</ref>
=== Commercial private spaceflight ===
Since the early 2000s, a variety of [[private spaceflight]] ventures have been undertaken. Several of the companies, including [[Blue Origin]], [[SpaceX]], [[Virgin Galactic]], and [[Sierra Nevada Corporation|Sierra Nevada]] have explicit plans to advance human spaceflight. {{asof|2016}}, all four of those companies have development programs underway to fly commercial passengers.
A commercial [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] spacecraft aimed at the [[space tourism]] market is being developed by [[Virgin Galactic]] called [[SpaceshipTwo]] which reached space in December 2018.<ref>https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html</ref><ref>David, Leonard. (11 January 2014) [http://www.space.com/24249-commercial-space-travel-blasts-off-2014.html Will Commercial Space Travel Blast Off in 2014?]. Space.com. Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref>
[[Blue Origin]] has begun a multi-year [[flight test|test]] program of their [[New Shepard]] vehicle and carried out 11 successful uncrewed test flights in 2015–2019. Blue Origin planned to fly with humans in 2019.
SpaceX and [[Boeing Defense, Space & Security|Boeing]] are both developing passenger-capable [[orbital spaceflight|orbital]] [[space capsule]]s as of 2020, with SpaceX carrying [[Commercial Crew Development|NASA astronauts to the International Space Station]] onboard a [[Crew Dragon]] spacecraft launched on a [[Falcon 9 Block 5]] launch vehicle. Boeing will be doing it with their [[CST-100]] launched on a [[United Launch Alliance]] [[Atlas V]] launch vehicle.<ref name=nasaAnnounce20140906>{{cite web |title=American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil |last=Bolden |first=Charlie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/ |website=NASA.gov |accessdate=16 September 2014}}</ref>
Development funding for these orbital-capable technologies has been provided by a mix of [[government funding|government]] and [[private capital|private]] funds, with SpaceX providing a greater portion of total development funding for this human-carrying capability from private investment.<ref name=sn20140921>{{cite news |last1=Foust|first1=Jeff |title=NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |accessdate=21 September 2014 |work=Space News |date=19 September 2014 |quote="We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given", Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. "Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that".}}</ref><ref name=NASApress20140916>{{cite web |title=RELEASE 14-256 NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international |website=www.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |accessdate=29 October 2014}}</ref>
There have been no public announcements of commercial offerings for orbital flights from either company, although both companies are planning some flights with their own private, not NASA, astronauts on board.
== Milestones ==
=== By achievement ===
; {{Date|1961-04-12}}
: [[Yuri Gagarin]] was the first human in space and the first in Earth orbit, on [[Vostok 1]] on 12 April 1961.
; {{Date|1962-07-17}} or {{Date|1963-07-19}}
: Either [[Robert Michael White|Robert M. White]] or [[Joseph A. Walker]] (depending on the definition of the [[space border]]) were first to pilot a [[spaceplane]], the [[North American X-15]], on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker).
; {{Date|1965-03-18}}
: [[Alexei Leonov]] was first to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]], on 18 March 1965.
; {{Date|1965-12-15}}
: [[Walter M. Schirra]] and [[Thomas P. Stafford|Tom Stafford]] were first to perform a [[space rendezvous]], piloting their [[Gemini 6A]] spacecraft and station-keeping one foot (30 cm) from [[Gemini 7]] for over 5 hours.
; {{Date|1966-03-16}}
: [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]] were first to [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|rendezvous and dock]], piloting their [[Gemini 8]] spacecraft to dock with an uncrewed [[Agena Target Vehicle]].
; December 1968
: [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] were first to travel beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and first to orbit the Moon, on the [[Apollo 8]] mission which orbited the Moon ten times before returning to Earth, from 21-27 Dec 1968.
; {{Date|1969-07-20}}
: Neil Armstrong and [[Buzz Aldrin]] were first to land on the Moon, on 20 July 1969 during [[Apollo 11]].
; Longest time in space
: [[Valeri Polyakov]] performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days, 17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds). [[Gennady Padalka]] has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days.
; Longest crewed space station
:The [[International Space Station]] has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present ({{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}}). This record was previously held by [[Mir]], from [[Soyuz TM-8]] on 5 September 1989 to the [[Soyuz TM-29]] on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,634 days (almost 10 years).
=== By nationality or sex ===
; {{Date|1961-04-12}}
: [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first Soviet as well as the first human to reach space on [[Vostok 1]] on 12 April 1961.
; {{Date|1961-05-05}}
: [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American to reach space on ''[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]]'' on 5 May 1961.
; {{Date|1962-02-20}}
: [[John Glenn]] became the first American to orbit the Earth on 20 February 1962.
; {{Date|1963-06-16}}
: [[Valentina Tereshkova]] became the first woman to go into space and to orbit the Earth on 16 June 1963.
; {{Date|1978-03-02}}
: [[Vladimír Remek]], a [[Czechoslovakia]]n, became the first non-American and non-Soviet in space on 2 March 1978.
; {{Date|1984-04-02}}
: [[Rakesh Sharma]], became the first Indian citizen to reach Earth's orbit on 2 April 1984.
; {{Date|1984-07-25}}
: [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the first woman to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]] on 25 July 1984.
; {{Date|2003-10-15}}
: [[Yang Liwei]] became the first Chinese in space and the Earth's orbit on [[Shenzhou 5]] on 15 October 2003.
; {{Date|2019-10-18}}
: [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]] conduct the first woman-only [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/10/18/nasa-astronauts-wrap-up-historic-all-woman-spacewalk/ | title=NASA Astronauts Wrap Up Historic All-Woman Spacewalk | date=18 October 2019 | first=Mark | last=Garcia | publisher=NASA | accessdate=23 January 2020}}</ref>
[[Sally Ride]] became the first American woman in space in 1983. [[Eileen Collins]] was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission [[STS-93]] in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft.
For many years, only the USSR (later [[Russia]]) and the United States had their own astronauts. Citizens of other nations flew in space, beginning with the flight of [[Vladimir Remek]], a [[Czech Republic|Czech]], on a Soviet spacecraft on 2 March 1978, in the [[Interkosmos]] programme. {{As of|2010}}, citizens from 38 nations (including [[space tourism|space tourists]]) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft.
== Space programs ==
Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the former Soviet Union and currently Russia, the United States, [[Mainland China]], and by the American [[private spaceflight]] companies.
{{Graph:Map|US=#204a87|RU=#204a87|CN=#204a87|IN=#729fcf|NO=#729fcf|SE=#729fcf|DK=#729fcf|DE=#729fcf|BE=#729fcf|CZ=#729fcf|GR=#729fcf|IT=#729fcf|FR=#729fcf|ES=#729fcf|PT=#729fcf|NL=#729fcf|GB=#ce5c00<!-- According to Reaction Engines, Skylon can loft passengers -->|CH=#729fcf|IR=#729fcf|JP=#729fcf|RO=#4e9a06|EC=#4e9a06|TR=#ce5c00|KP=#ce5c00|MY=#ce5c00|IQ=#2e3436|scale=100}}
{{legend|#204a87|Currently have human spaceflight programs.}}
{{legend|#729fcf|Confirmed and dated plans for human spaceflight programs.}}
{{legend|#4e9a06|Plans for human spaceflight on the simplest form (suborbital spaceflight, ''etc.'').}}
{{legend|#ce5c00|Plans for human spaceflight on the extreme form (space stations, ''etc.'').}}
{{legend|#2e3436|Once had official plans for human spaceflight programs, but have since been abandoned.}}
===Current programs===
[[Space vehicle]]s are [[spacecraft]] used for transportation between the Earth's surface and outer space, or between locations in outer space. The following space vehicles and [[spaceport]]s are currently used for launching human spaceflights:
* [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz program]] ([[Soviet Union|USSR]]/Russia): spacecraft on [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz launch vehicle]], from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]]; 140 crewed orbital flights since 1967, including two in-flight aborts which failed to reach orbit, {{As of|alt=as of March 2019|2019|March}}
* [[Shenzhou program]] (China): spacecraft on [[Long March (rocket family)|Long March launch vehicle]], from [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]]; 5 flights since 2003, {{As of|alt=as of July 2016|2016|July}}
*[[SpaceShipTwo|Spaceshiptwo]] (US): Air launched from [[Scaled Composites White Knight Two|White knight two]] carrier aircraft. 2 suborbital spaceflights since 2018, as of February 2019
*[[Crew Dragon]] (US): Part of the [[Commercial Crew Program]], launched from [[Kennedy Space Center]] on a [[Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9]] rocket. One successful launch with more in the planning stages.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Test of SpaceX Crew Dragon|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-america-in-historic-test-flight-of-spacex-crew-dragon|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2020-05-30|website=NASA|access-date=2020-05-31}}</ref>
The following [[space stations]] are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation:
* [[International Space Station]] (US and Russia) assembled in orbit: altitude {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}, 51.65° inclination; crews transported by Soyuz spacecraft
Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million [[Ansari X Prize]]. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. SpaceShipOne captured the prize on 4 October 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week.
Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, whose crew of six spends up to six months at a time in [[low Earth orbit]].
[[NASA]] and [[ESA]] use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions," though because of gender specificity this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/styleguide.html |title=Style Guide |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=6 January 2016}}</ref>
===Planned future programs===
On 15 August 2018 the [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Narendra Modi]], from the rampart of the [[Red Fort]] in [[New Delhi]], formally announced the [[Indian Human Spaceflight Programme]]. Through this Programme, India is planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle [[Gaganyaan]] by the end of 2021. The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.<ref>Indian Space Research Organisation ([[ISRO]])[http://www.isro.org/scripts/futureprogramme.aspx Future Programme].</ref> The objective is to carry a crew of three to [[low Earth orbit]] (LEO) and return them safely for a water-landing at a predefined landing zone. The program is proposed to be implemented in defined phases. Currently, the activities are progressing with a focus on the development of critical technologies for subsystems such as the Crew Module (CM), Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), Crew Escape System, etc. The department has initiated activities to study technical and managerial issues related to crewed missions. The program envisages the development of a fully autonomous orbital vehicle carrying 2 or 3 crew members to about {{cvt|300|km}} low Earth orbit and to bring them safely back home. In June 2019, ISRO Chairman K. Sivan revealed plans for a space station by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission.
[[NASA]] is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s. The first step will begin with [[Artemis 1]] in 2021, sending an uncrewed [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to a [[distant retrograde orbit]] around the Moon and return it to Earth after a 25-day mission.
Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs utilizing natively developed equipment and technology, including [[Japan]] ([[JAXA]]), [[Iran]] ([[Iranian Space Agency|ISA]]), and [[Malaysia]] ([[Malaysian National Space Agency|MNSA]]).
{{Human Spaceflight Timeline}}
{{Space station crew timeline}}
== Passenger travel via spacecraft ==
A number of spacecraft have been proposed over the decades that might facilitate spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by [[airliner]] after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to [[space transport|transport]] a large number of passengers to destinations in space, or to destinations on Earth which travel through space. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the [[test flight|flight testing]] phase of their development process.
One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the [[SpaceX Starship]] which, in addition to replacing the [[Falcon 9]] and [[Falcon Heavy]] [[launch vehicle]]s in the legacy Earth-orbit [[Space launch market competition|market]] after 2020, has been proposed by SpaceX for long-distance commercial travel on Earth. This is to transport people on point-to-point [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] flights between two points on Earth in under one hour, also known as "Earth-to-Earth," and carrying 100+ passengers.<ref name=rollingstone20171115>
{{cite news|last1=Strauss|first1=Neil|title=Elon Musk: The Architect of Tomorrow|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747|accessdate=15 November 2017|work=Rolling Stone|date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=sxEarthToEarth201709>
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0 Starship Earth to Earth], SpaceX, 28 September 2017, accessed 23 December 2017.</ref><ref name=sn20171015c>
{{cite news |last=Foust|first=Jeff |url=http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |title=Musk offers more technical details on BFR system |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=15 October 2017 |accessdate=15 October 2017 |quote=[the] spaceship portion of the BFR, which would transport people on point-to-point suborbital flights or on missions to the moon or Mars, will be tested on Earth first in a series of short hops. ... a full-scale Ship doing short hops of a few hundred kilometers altitude and lateral distance ... fairly easy on the vehicle, as no heat shield is needed, we can have a large amount of reserve propellant and don't need the high area ratio, deep space Raptor engines. }}</ref>
Small [[spaceplane]] or small [[space capsule|capsule]] suborbital spacecraft have been under development for the past decade or so and, {{asof|2017|lc=y}}, at least one of each type are under development. Both [[Virgin Galactic]] and [[Blue Origin]] are in active [[new product development|development]], with the [[SpaceShipTwo]] spaceplane and the [[New Shepard]] capsule, respectively. Both would carry approximately a half-dozen passengers up to space for a brief time of zero gravity before returning to the same location from where the trip began. [[XCOR Aerospace]] had been developing the [[Lynx (spacecraft)|Lynx single-passenger spaceplane]] since the 2000s<ref>(2012) [http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ SXC - Buying your tickets into space!] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306043002/http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ |date=6 March 2013 }} SXC web page, Retrieved 5 April 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Staff writers | title = Space Expedition Corporation Announces Wet Lease of XCOR Lynx Suborbital | work = Space Media Network Promotions | publisher = Space-Travel.com | date = 6 October 2010 | url = http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Space_Experience_Curacao_Announces_Wet_Lease_of_XCOR_Lynx_Suborbital_999.html | accessdate = 6 October 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Space Experience Curacao | work = Home | publisher = Space Experience Curacao | date = 2009–2010 | url = http://spaceexperiencecuracao.com/ | accessdate = 6 October 2010 }}</ref> but development was halted in 2017.<ref name=sn20171109>[http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/ http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/]</ref>
== National spacefaring attempts ==
: ''This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with [[List of space travelers by nationality|nations with citizens who have traveled into space]] including space tourists, flown or intended to fly by foreign country's or non-domestic private space systems – these are not counted as national spacefaring attempts in this list.''
<!--
: Successfully executed programs are in '''bold'''.
: [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|Suborbital]] spaceflights are in ''italics''.
-->
{| class="wikitable"| border=2 cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;"
|- style="background:#f9f9b0;"
! Nation/Organization
! Space agency
! Term(s) for space traveler
! First launched astronaut
! Date
! Spacecraft
! Launcher
! Type
|-
| {{Flag|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics}}<br />(1922–1991)
| [[Soviet space program]]<br />([[OKB-1|OKB-1 Design Bureau]])
| космонавт (same word in:) {{in lang|ru|uk}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut<br />Ғарышкер{{in lang|kk}}
| [[Yuri Gagarin]]
| 12 April 1961
| [[Vostok spacecraft]]
| [[Vostok rocket|Vostok]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{US}}
| [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]]
| astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
| [[Alan Shepard]] (suborbital)
| 5 May 1961
| [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]]
| [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone]]
| Suborbital
|-
| {{US}}
| [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]]
| astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
| [[John Glenn]] (orbital)
| 20 February 1962
| [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]]
| [[Atlas LV-3B]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}
| ...
| 1973 (abandoned)
| [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang 1]]
| [[Long March 2A]]
| –
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}
| ...
| 1981 (abandoned)
| [[Fanhui Shi Weixing|Piloted FSW]]
| [[Long March 2]]
| –
|-
| [[File:Not the esa logo.png]] [[European Space Agency]]
| [[CNES]] / [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]]
| ''spationaute'' {{in lang|fr}}<br />astronaut
| ...
| 1992 (abandoned)
| [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]]
| [[Ariane V]]
| –
|-
| {{Flag|Russia}}<br />
| [[Russian Federal Space Agency|Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos)]] <br />
| космонавт {{in lang|ru}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut
| [[Alexander Viktorenko]], [[Alexander Kaleri]]
| 17 March 1992
| [[Soyuz-TM]]
| [[Soyuz-U2]]
| [[Soyuz TM-14]] to MIR
|-
| {{Flagicon|Iraq|1991}} [[Ba'athist Iraq]]<br />(1968–2003){{NoteTag|According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz]] space launcher, [[Iraq]] intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.}}
| ...
| {{nativename|ar|رجل فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rajul faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|رائد فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rāʼid faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|ملاح فضائي }}<br />''mallāḥ faḍāʼiy''
| ...
| 2001 (abandoned)
| ...
| [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz 2 or 3]]
| –
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| ...
| 2003 (abandoned)
| [[HOPE-X|HOPE]]
| [[H-II]]
| –
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[China National Space Administration|China National Space Administration (CNSA)]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}<br />taikonaut ({{zh|labels=no|c=太空人 |p=tàikōng rén}})
| [[Yang Liwei]]
| 15 October 2003
| [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]]
| [[Long March 2F]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| [[Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)]]
| Vyomanaut <br /> {{in lang|sa}}
| ...
| 2022<ref name='launch 2022'>[https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/gaganyaan-mission-to-take-indian-astronaut-to-space-by-2022-pm-modi/article24695817.ece Gaganyaan mission to take Indian astronaut to space by 2022: PM Modi]. ''The Hindu''. 15 August 2018.</ref>
| ''[[Gaganyaan]]''
| [[Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III|GSLV Mk III]]
| Orbital
<ref>{{cite web |url = https://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/technology/four-years-is-tight-but-can-achieve-the-human-spaceflight-isros-k-sivan/65411891 |title = Four years is tight, but can achieve the human spaceflight: ISRO's K Sivan - ETtech |author = ETtech.com |website = ETtech.com |language = en |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-will-put-man-in-space-for-seven-days-isro-chairman-118081500485_1.html |title= India will put man in space for seven days: ISRO Chairman |author = IANS |date = 15 August 2018 |work = Business Standard India |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Not the esa logo.png]] [[European Space Agency]]
| [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]]
| astronaut
| ...
| 2020 (concept approved in 2009; but full development not begun)<ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8139347.stm |work=BBC News |title=Europe targets manned spaceship |date=7 July 2009 |accessdate=27 March 2010 |first=Jonathan |last=Amos }}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/05/22/223941/apollo-like-capsule-chosen-for-crew-space-transportation.html Apollo-like capsule chosen for Crew Space Transportation System], 22 May 2008</ref><ref>[http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ATV/infokit/english/Complete_Infokit_ATVreentry.pdf "Jules Verne" Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Re-entry]. Information Kit (PDF). Updated September 2008. European Space Agency. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7749761.stm |work = BBC News |title = Europe's 10bn-euro space vision |date=26 November 2008 |accessdate = 27 March 2010 |first = Jonathan |last = Amos }}</ref>
| [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ARV phase-2]]
| [[Ariane V]]
| –
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| ...
|
| [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-based spacecraft]]
| [[H-IIB]]
| –
|}
<!--
Please, DO NOT INCLUDE Equador. Its human spaceflight program http://exa.ec/ESAA-PECE_files/frame.htm with first suborbital mission ESAA-01 is not based on indigenous technology. It will be one of the first payed client's missions aboard on foreign airplane-launched spacecraft [[Space Adventures Explorer|M55X+Explorer system]] that now is under development by Russian NPOM-Almaz company (former Myasishchev Bureau) according to order of British-US commercial space touristic company [[Space Adventures]].
-->
== Safety concerns ==
{{See also|Dead astronauts}}
There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the environment of space which make it hostile to the human body, and the potential for mechanical malfunctions of the equipment required to accomplish space flight.
=== Environmental hazards ===
{{See also|Space habitat|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Locomotion in Space}}
Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.
==== Life support ====
{{Main| Life support system}}
The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the [[life support system]] of the spacecraft.
{{See also|Astronautical hygiene}}
==== Medical issues ====
{{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Sleep in space|Space medicine}}
Medical consequences such as possible [[blindness]] and [[Bone Loss|bone loss]] have been associated with human [[space flight]].<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=27 January 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=27 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite magazine |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities |url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=23 July 2012 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=23 July 2012 }}</ref>
On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the [[brain]] of [[astronauts]] and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last=Cherry |first=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |issue=12 |page=e53275 |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |pmid=23300905 |date=2012 |pmc=3534034|bibcode=2012PLoSO...753275C }}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref>
In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[space exploration]], including a [[human mission to Mars]].<ref name="AP-20151029">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |title=Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html |date=29 October 2015 |agency=Associated Press |accessdate=30 October 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20151029oig">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003) |url=https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY16/IG-16-003.pdf |date=29 October 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=29 October 2015 }}</ref>
On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the [[brain]] have been found in [[astronaut]]s who have taken [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|trips in space]], based on [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI studies]]. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.<ref name="NEJM-20171102">{{cite journal |author=Roberts, Donna R. |display-authors=etal |title=Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI |date=2 November 2017 |journal=[[New England Journal of Medicine]] |volume=377 |issue=18 |pages=1746–1753 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 |pmid=29091569 }}</ref><ref name="QTZ-20171103">{{cite web |last=Foley |first=Katherine Ellen |title=Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls |url=https://qz.com/1119668/space-travel-changes-astronauts-brains/ |date=3 November 2017 |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |accessdate=3 November 2017 }}</ref>
Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) of five ''[[Enterobacter|Enterobacter bugandensis]]'' bacterial strains, none [[pathogen]]ic to humans, that [[microorganism]]s on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for [[astronaut]]s.<ref name="EA-20181122">{{cite web |author=BioMed Central |title=ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/bc-ims112018.php |date=22 November 2018 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=25 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name="BMC-20181123">{{cite journal |author=Singh, Nitin K. |display-authors=etal |title=Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains |date=23 November 2018 |journal=[[BMC Microbiology]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=175 |doi=10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2 |pmid=30466389 |pmc=6251167 }}</ref>
In March 2019, NASA reported that latent [[virus]]es in humans may be activated during space missions, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.<ref name="EA-20190315">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Dormant viruses activate during spaceflight -- NASA investigates - The stress of spaceflight gives viruses a holiday from immune surveillance, putting future deep-space missions in jeopardy |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/f-dva031519.php |date=15 March 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=16 March 2019 }}</ref>
===== Microgravity =====
{{See also|Weightlessness}}
[[File:Space fluid shift.gif|thumb|The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).]]
Medical data from astronauts in low Earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of [[bone]] density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these [[deconditioning]] effects can impair astronauts' performance or increase their risk of injury.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |title=Exploration Systems Human Research Program – Exercise Countermeasures |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |archivedate=11 October 2008 }}</ref>
In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back [[muscle]]s or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes them to weaken and get smaller. Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days. The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/64249main_ffs_factsheets_hbp_atrophy.pdf|title = NASA Information: Muscle Atrophy|accessdate = 20 November 2015|website = NASA}}</ref> Upon return to Earth from long-duration flights, astronauts are considerably weakened, and are not allowed to drive a car for twenty-one days.<ref>{{cite web|title = Earth Living Is Tough for Astronaut Used to Space|url = http://www.space.com/21413-hadfield-astronaut-health-return-earth.html|website = Space.com|accessdate = 21 November 2015}}</ref>
Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get [[motion sickness]], and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, or any other mass with gravity, they have to readjust to the gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. Importantly, those body motor disturbances after changing from different gravities only get worse the longer the exposure to little gravity.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=3830060&page=1 | last=Watson | first=Traci | date=11 November 2007 | title=Readjusting to gravity anti-fun for astronauts | publisher=ABC News | accessdate=14 February 2020}}</ref> These changes will affect operational activities including approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may happen while landing. This can be a major roadblock to mission success.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
In addition, after long [[space flight]] missions, male astronauts may experience severe [[visual system|eyesight]] problems.<ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal|author=Mader, T. H. |display-authors=etal |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|date=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)|Ophthalmology]] |volume=118 |issue=10|pages=2058–2069 |doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=nasapub }}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu |first=Tibi |title=Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=9 November 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |accessdate=9 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">[http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN News (CNN-TV, 02/09/2012) – Video (02:14) – Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems]. Cnn.com (9 February 2012). Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests |url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=13 March 2012 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=14 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. |display-authors=etal |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging |journal=[[Radiology (journal)|Radiology]] |volume=263 |issue=3 |pages=819–27 |doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |pmid=22416248 |date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a [[crewed mission]] to the planet [[Mars]].<ref name="Mader-2011" /><ref name="Puiu-20111109" /><ref name="CNN-20120109" /><ref name="Space-20120313" /><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite web |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=https://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=12 February 2014 |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=12 February 2014 }}</ref>
===== Radiation =====
{{See also|Health threat from cosmic rays}}
[[File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png|thumb|right|Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the [[Radiation assessment detector|RAD]] on the [[Mars Science Laboratory|MSL]] (2011–2013).<ref name="SCI-20130531a">{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Richard |title=Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier |date=31 May 2013 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=340 |issue=6136 |page=1031 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6136.1031 |pmid=23723213 |bibcode=2013Sci...340.1031K}}</ref>]]
Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by [[solar flare]]s and associated [[solar particle event]]s (SPEs). [[Lawrence Townsend]] of the University of Tennessee and others have studied the [[Solar storm of 1859|overall most powerful solar storm ever recorded]]. The flare was seen by the British astronomer [[Richard Christopher Carrington|Richard Carrington]] in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type storm could cause acute [[Acute radiation syndrome|radiation sickness]] and possibly even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142 |title= Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts|work=New Scientist |date=21 March 2005 |first=Stephen |last=Battersby}}</ref> Another storm that could have incurred a lethal radiation dose if astronauts were outside the Earth's protective [[magnetosphere]] occurred during the [[Space Age]], in fact, shortly after [[Apollo 16]] landed and before [[Apollo 17]] launched.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Lockwood |first = Mike |author2 = M. Hapgood |title = The Rough Guide to the Moon and Mars |journal = Astron. Geophys. |volume = 48 |issue = 6 |pages = 11–17 |date = 2007 |doi = 10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48611.x |doi-access = free }}</ref> This [[solar storm of August 1972]] would likely at least have caused acute illness.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Parsons |first = Jennifer L. |author2 = L. W. Townsend |title = Interplanetary Crew Dose Rates for the August 1972 Solar Particle Event |journal = Radiat. Res. |volume = 153 |issue = 6 |pages = 729–733 |date = 2000 |doi = 10.1667/0033-7587(2000)153[0729:ICDRFT]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref>
Another type of radiation, galactic [[cosmic ray]]s, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-309-10264-3|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760 |title=Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration |publisher=NAP |date=2006}}</ref>
There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1189/jlb.0309167 |title=Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit|date=2009|last1=Gueguinou|first1=N.|last2=Huin-Schohn|first2=C.|last3=Bascove|first3=M.|last4=Bueb|first4=J.-L.|last5=Tschirhart|first5=E.|last6=Legrand-Frossi|first6=C.|last7=Frippiat|first7=J.-P.|journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1027–1038|pmid=19690292}}</ref> Some of the problems are a weakened [[immune system]] and the activation of dormant [[virus]]es in the body. [[Radiation]] can cause both short and long term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
===== Isolation =====
{{Further|Effect of spaceflight on the human body#Psychological effects|Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight}}
During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined into small spaces. [[depression (mood)|Depression]], [[cabin fever]] and other psychological problems may impact the crew's safety and mission success.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flynn|first=Christopher F.|date=1 June 2005|title=An Operational Approach to Long-Duration Mission Behavioral Health and Performance Factors|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/asma/asem/2005/00000076/A00106s1/art00007|journal=Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine|volume=76|issue=6|pages=B42–B51}}</ref>
Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on their limited existing resources and medical advice from the ground.
During astronauts' stay in space, they may experience mental disorders (such as post-trauma, depression, anxiety, etc.), more than for an average person. NASA spends millions of dollars on psychological treatments for astronauts and former astronauts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Space psychology and psychiatry |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |last=Kanas |first=Nick |last2=Manzey |first2=Dietrich |isbn=9781402067709 |edition=2nd |location=Dordrecht |oclc=233972618}}</ref> To date, there is no way to prevent or reduce mental problems caused by extended periods of stay in space.
Due to these mental disorders, the efficiency of their work is impaired and sometimes they are forced to send the astronauts back to Earth, which is very expensive.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/05/hallucinations-isolation-astronauts-mental-health-space-missions|title=Isolation and hallucinations: the mental health challenges faced by astronauts |last=Bell|first=Vaughan|date=5 October 2014|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-02-01|language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that caused a fear of fluid leakage, but after a thorough investigation it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction. It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinations of the smell, which brought many unnecessary wasted expenses.
It is possible that the mental health of astronauts can be affected by the changes in the sensory systems while in prolonged space travel.
===== Sensory systems =====
During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in a very extreme state where there is no gravity. This given state and the fact that no change is taking place in the environment will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts in all seven senses.
* [[Hearing]] - In the space station and spacecraft there are only mechanical noises. There can be no environmental noise; there is no medium that can transmit the sound waves. Although there are other team members who can talk to each other, their voices stop stimulating the sense of hearing, since they get used to it quickly.
* [[Sight]] - Because of the zero gravity, the body's liquids equalize in pressure throughout the body, a situation which is different from that on the Earth, where the pressures are not equal. Because of this reason, the astronauts' face swells and presses on the eyes, and therefore their vision is impaired. In addition, the landscape surrounding the astronauts is constant, which damages the visual stimulations. In addition, due to cosmic rays, astronauts may see flashes.
* [[Sense of smell|Smell]] - The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.
* [[Taste]] - The sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is damaged, the sense of taste is also damaged. The astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten. The food comes only once every few months when supplies arrive, and there is little to no variety.
* [[Somatosensory system|Touch]] – There are almost no physical contact changes. There is almost no human physical contact during the journey.
* The [[vestibular system]] (motion and equilibrium system) - Due to the lack of gravity, all the movement of the astronauts changes, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change.
* The [[Proprioception|proprioception system]] (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) - As a result of the zero gravity, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles and there is no input to this system.
=== Mechanical hazards ===
Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, which in turn requires the use of high [[energy density]] propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.
==== Launch ====
{{See also| Launch escape system}}
[[File:Sts33-e204.jpg|thumb|There was no practical way for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'''s crew to safely abort before the vehicle's violent disintegration.]]
Since rockets carry the potential for fire or explosive destruction, [[space capsule]]s generally employ some sort of [[launch escape system]], consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the [[launch vehicle]] (employed on [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]], and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]]), or else [[ejection seat]]s (employed on [[Vostok spacecraft|Vostok]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landing. The escape tower is discarded at some point before the launch is complete, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines.
Such a system is not always practical for multiple crew member vehicles (particularly [[spaceplane]]s), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person [[Voskhod (spacecraft)|Voskhod]], the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps. The [[Space Shuttle]] carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights, but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued.
There have only been two in-flight launch aborts of a crewed flight. The first occurred on [[Soyuz 7K-T No.39|Soyuz 18a]] on 5 April 1975. The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited. The vehicle strayed off course, and the crew separated the spacecraft and fired its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket. Both cosmonauts landed safely. The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of [[Soyuz MS-10]]. Again, both crew members survived.
In the first use of a launch escape system on a crewed flight, the planned [[Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L|Soyuz T-10a]] launch on 26 September 1983 was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff. Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely.
The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]] seal which caused separation of the booster and failure of the [[Space Shuttle external tank|external fuel tank]], resulting in explosion of the fuel. All seven crew members were killed.
==== Spacewalking ====
Despite the ever-present risks related to mechanical failures while working in open space, no [[Spacewalking|spacewalking astronaut]] has ever been lost. There is a requirement for spacewalking astronauts to use tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors. If those fail, a spacewalking astronaut would most probably float away according to relevant forces that were acting on him when breaking loose. Astronaut would possibly be spinning as kicking and flailing is of no use. At the right angle and velocity, he might even re-enter the [[Earth's atmosphere]] and burn away completely. [[NASA]] has protocols for such situations: astronauts would be wearing an emergency jetpack, which would automatically counter any tumbling to stabilize them. Then NASA's plan states that astronauts should take manual control and fly back to safety.
However, if the pack's 3 pounds of fuel runs up, and if there is no other astronaut in close proximity to help, or if the air lock is irreparably damaged, the [[Death in space|outcome would certainly be fatal]]. At the moment, there is no spacecraft to save an astronaut floating in space as the only one with a rescue-ready air-locked compartment — [[Space Shuttle retirement|the Space Shuttle]] — retired years ago. There's approximately a litre of water available via straw in astronaut's helmet. He would wait roughly for 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sofge |first1=Eric |title=What Happens If An Astronaut Floats Off In Space? |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-09/what-happens-if-astronaut-floats-space/ |website=Popular Science}}</ref>
==== Reentry and landing ====
{{See also| Atmospheric reentry}}
The single pilot of [[Soyuz 1]], [[Vladimir Komarov]] was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash.
The crew of seven aboard the {{OV|102}} were [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|killed on reentry]] after completing a [[STS-107|successful mission in space]] on 1 February 2003. A wing leading edge [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] foam insulation which broke off and struck the wing during launch. Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to the breakup of the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|orbiter vehicle]].
==== Artificial atmosphere ====
There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for [[extravehicular activity]].
The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of [[decompression sickness]] (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment. There have also been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen.
* In 1960, [[McDonnell Aircraft]] test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin/spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his spacesuit feed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Giblin |first=Kelly A. |date=Spring 1998 |title =Fire in the Cockpit! |journal=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |volume=13 |issue=4 |publisher=American Heritage Publishing |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120153024/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archivedate=20 November 2008 |accessdate=23 March 2011}}
</ref> This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft.
* In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the {{OV|102}} at the [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010605212352/http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/chrono.html 1981 KSC Chronology Part 1 – pages 84, 85, 100; Part 2 – pages 181, 194, 195], NASA</ref>
* In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the [[Ariane 5]] launch pad at [[Guiana Space Centre]].<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_17_1995_p_EN.html "Fatal accident at the Guiana Space Centre"], ''ESA Portal'', 5 May 1993</ref>
A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of [[Apollo 1]] during a ground test at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34|Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34]] on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure (increased even higher by the fire) prevented removal of the [[plug door]] hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three, [[Gus Grissom]], [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]], and [[Roger Chaffee]], were killed.<ref name="SP4029">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=12 July 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-050631-4 |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 1 – The Fire: 27 January 1967 |chapterurl=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm}}</ref> This led NASA to use a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space.
==== Reliability ====
{{See also| Reliability engineering}}
The March 1966 [[Gemini 8]] mission was aborted in orbit when an [[attitude control system]] thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin which threatened the lives of [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]]. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a [[static electricity]] discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit.
The third lunar landing expedition [[Apollo 13]] in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew, [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]] and [[Fred Haise]], were threatened by failure of a [[cryogenic]] [[liquid oxygen]] tank en route to the Moon. The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the loss of its remaining oxygen in a span of 130 minutes. This in turn caused loss of electrical power provided by [[fuel cell]]s to the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]]. The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar landing craft]] as a "life boat". The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes. The tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing. This necessitated use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test, which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication.
The crew of [[Soyuz 11]] were killed on 30 June 1971 by a combination of mechanical malfunctions: they were [[asphyxia]]ted due to cabin decompression following separation of their descent capsule from the service module. A cabin ventilation valve had been jolted open at an altitude of {{convert|168|km|ft}} by the stronger than expected shock of explosive separation bolts which were designed to fire sequentially, but in fact, had fired simultaneously. The loss of pressure became fatal within about 30 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|title=The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project|accessdate=20 October 2007|publisher=NASA|year=1974|author=NASA|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|archivedate=23 August 2007}}</ref>
=== Fatality risk ===
{{Further|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents#Non-astronaut fatalities}}
{{As of|2015|December}}, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Date
!Mission
!Accident cause
!Deaths
!Cause of death
|-
| 27 January 1967
|[[Apollo 1]]
|Electrical fire in cabin, spread quickly by {{convert|16.7|psi|bar|abbr=on}} pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove [[plug door]] hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot
| style="text-align: center;" | 3
|[[Cardiac arrest]] from [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning
|-
|15 November 1967
|[[X-15 Flight 3-65-97]]
|The accident board found that the cockpit instrumentation had been functioning properly, and concluded that Adams had lost control of the X-15 as a result of a combination of distraction, misinterpretation of his instrumentation display, and possible [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]]. The electrical disturbance early in the flight degraded the overall effectiveness of the aircraft's control system and further added to pilot workload.
|style="text-align: center;"| 1
|Vehicle breakup
|-
| 24 April 1967
| [[Soyuz 1]]
|Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and entanglement of reserve parachute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitated emergency abort
|style="text-align: center;"| 1
| [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash landing
|-
| 30 June 1971
| [[Soyuz 11]]
|Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry
|style="text-align: center;"| 3
| [[Asphyxia]]
|-
| 28 January 1986
| [[STS-51L]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']]
|Failure of [[o-ring]] inter-segment seal in one [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Booster]] in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]]; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces
|style="text-align: center;"| 7
|Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |title=Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |archivedate=3 January 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| 1 February 2003
| [[STS-107]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']]
|Damaged [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by piece of [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]] foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of wing, loss of control and disintegration of orbiter
|style="text-align: center;"| 7
|Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<ref>{{cite web|title=COLUMBIA CREW SURVIVAL INVESTIGATION REPORT|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA}}</ref>
|-
| 31 October 2014
| [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Enterprise crash|VSS ''Enterprise'' powered drop-test]]
|Copilot error: premature deployment of "[[Feathering (reentry)|feathering]]" descent air-braking system caused disintegration of vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died
|style="text-align: center;"| 1
| [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash
|}
== Human representation and participation ==
{{See also|Space law|Space colonization}}
===Women===
{{Main|Women in space}}
The first woman to ever enter space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]]. She flew in 1963 but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again. All astronauts were required to be military test pilots at the time and women were not able to enter this career, this is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews.{{cn|date=June 2020}} After the rule changed, [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the second woman to enter space, she was also from the [[Soviet Union]]. [[Sally Ride]] became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program.
Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. Due to some slow changes in the space programs to allow women.
The first all female space walk occurred in 2018, including [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]]. These two women have both participated in separate space walks with NASA. The first woman to go to the moon is planned for 2024.
Despite these developments women are still underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs and limit the space missions they are able to go on, are for example:
* agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, argueing with unresearched potential risks for cancer.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.space.com/22252-women-astronauts-radiation-risk.html | title = Female Astronauts Face Discrimination from Space Radiation Concerns, Astronauts Say | first = Miriam | last = Kramer | date = August 27, 2013 | access-date = January 7, 2017 | work = Space.com | publisher = Purch}}</ref>
* a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts.<ref name="clothing">{{cite magazine |last=Sokolowski |first=Susan L.|title= Female astronauts: How performance products like space suits and bras are designed to pave the way for women’s accomplishments|url=https://theconversation.com/female-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346 |date=5 April 2019 | magazine =The Conversation |accessdate=10 May 2020 }}</ref>
Additionally women have been treated in discriminatory ways, for example as with Sally Ride by beeing scrutinized more than her male counterparts and asked sexist questions by the press.
== See also ==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
* [[List of human spaceflight programs]]
* [[List of human spaceflights]]
* [[List of spaceflight records]]
* [[List of crewed spacecraft]]
* [[Crewed Mars rover]]
* [[Mars to Stay]]
* [[NewSpace]]
* [[Space medicine]]
* [[Tourism on the Moon]]
* [[Women in space]]
== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* David Darling: ''The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity''. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, {{ISBN|0-471-05649-9}}.
* Wiley J. Larson (Hrsg.): ''Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design''. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, {{ISBN|0-07-236811-X}}.
* Donald Rapp: ''Human missions to Mars – enabling technologies for exploring the red planet''. Springer u. a., Berlin u. a. 2008, {{ISBN|978-3-540-72938-9}}.
* Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-7091-0666-2}}.
== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/ NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070802015842/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight Human Spaceflight Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
* [http://www.nasaconstellation.com Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190404044029/http://spaceflighthistory.com/ U.S. Spaceflight History]
{{Future spaceflights}}
{{Crewed spacecraft}}
{{Public sector space agencies}}
{{Spaceflight}}
{{NASA space program}}
{{Russian space program}}
{{Inspace}}
{{Space exploration lists and timelines}}
{{Solar System}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Human Spaceflight}}
[[Category:Human spaceflight| ]]
[[Category:Space transport]]
[[Category:Space policy]]
[[Category:Life in space]]
[[Category:1961 introductions]]'
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'{{Redirect|Space traveler}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{short description|Space travel by humans}}
{{multiple image
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| image2 = Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg
| image3 = SRBsepfromDiscovery07042006.png
| image4 = Wisoff on the Arm - GPN-2000-001069.jpg
| caption1 = [[Apollo 11]] astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon, 1969
| caption2 = [[International Space Station]] crewmember [[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] views the Earth, 2010
| caption3 = [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] heads into space with a crew aboard, [[STS-121]] in 2006
| caption4 = Astronaut [[Peter Wisoff|Jeff Wisoff]] on [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'']]{{'}}s [[Canadarm]], 1993
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}}
'''Human spaceflight''' (also referred to as '''crewed spaceflight''' or '''manned spaceflight''') is [[spaceflight]] with a [[Astronaut|crew]] or passengers aboard a [[spacecraft]]. Spacecraft carrying people may be operated directly, by human crew, or it may be either [[telerobotic|remotely operated]] from ground stations on Earth or be [[autonomous robot|autonomous]], able to carry out a specific mission with no human involvement.
The first human in space was [[Yuri Gagarin]], who flew the [[Vostok 1]] spacecraft, launched by the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]] as part of the [[Vostok program]]. Humans have flown to the Moon nine times from 1968 to 1972 in the United States [[Apollo program]], and have been continuously present in space for {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}} on the [[International Space Station]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Counting the Many Ways the International Space Station Benefits Humanity |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity |accessdate=4 May 2019}}</ref> All human spaceflight has so far been human-piloted, with the first autonomous human-carrying spacecraft under design starting in 2015.
[[Russia]] and [[China]] have human spaceflight capability with the [[Soyuz program]] and [[Shenzhou program]]. In the [[United States]], [[SpaceShipTwo]] reached the edge of space in 2018; this was the first crewed spaceflight from the US since the [[Space Shuttle]] retired in 2011. Currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The [[United States]] is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to the ISS, low Earth orbit and beyond such as the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] vehicle and the private [[SpaceX Starship]].
While spaceflight has typically been a government-directed activity, commercial spaceflight has gradually been taking on a greater role. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when [[SpaceShipOne]] conducted a suborbital flight, and a [[List of private spaceflight companies|number of non-governmental companies]] have been working to develop a [[space tourism]] industry. NASA has also played a role to stimulate [[private spaceflight]] through programs such as [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] (COTS) and [[Commercial Crew Development]] (CCDev). With its 2011 budget proposals released in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html |title=FY 2011 Budget |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221004158/http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html |archivedate=21 December 2010 }}</ref> the Obama administration moved towards a model where commercial companies would supply [[NASA]] with transportation services of both people and cargo transport to low Earth orbit. The vehicles used for these services could then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. Commercial resupply of ISS began two years after the retirement of the Shuttle, and commercial crew launches could begin by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|title=NASA Hails Success of Commercial Space Program|url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-hails-success-of-commercial-space-program/index.html#.U9DmePldV8G|website=nasa.gov|accessdate=24 July 2014}}</ref>
== History ==
{{Main|History of spaceflight}}
=== Cold War era ===
{{Main|Space Race}}
[[File:Vostok Spacecraft Diagram.svg|thumb|Vostok space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit]]
[[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|[[Neil Armstrong]] became the first human to land and walk on the Moon, July 1969.]]
Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR), which developed the first [[intercontinental ballistic missile]] rockets to deliver [[nuclear weapon]]s. These rockets were large enough to be adapted to carry the first [[artificial satellite]]s into [[low Earth orbit]]. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958, the US worked on [[Project Mercury]] to launch men singly into orbit, while the USSR secretly pursued the [[Vostok programme|Vostok program]] to accomplish the same thing. The USSR launched the first human in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]], into a single orbit in [[Vostok 1]] on a [[Vostok 3KA]] rocket, on 12 April 1961. The US launched its first [[astronaut]], [[Alan Shepard]], on a suborbital flight aboard ''[[Freedom 7]]'' on a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Mercury-Redstone rocket]], on 5 May 1961. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually [[attitude control|controlled his spacecraft's attitude]], and landed inside it. The first American in orbit was [[John Glenn]] aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'', launched 20 February 1962 on a [[Atlas LV-3B|Mercury-Atlas rocket]]. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok [[space capsule|capsule]]s, including the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] aboard [[Vostok 6]] on 16 June 1963. The US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four into orbit through 1963. The US also made two flights in the [[North American X-15]] (90 and 91) piloted by [[Joseph A. Walker]] that exceeded the Kármán line, the internationally recognized 100 km altitude used by the FAI to denote the edge of space.
US President [[John F. Kennedy]] raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely by the end of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Kennedy, John F. |date=25 May 1961 |title=Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |medium=Motion picture (excerpt) |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |accessdate=1 August 2013 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |location=Boston, MA |id=Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref> The US started the three-man [[Apollo program]] in 1961 to accomplish this, launched by the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family of launch vehicles]], and the interim two-man [[Project Gemini]] in 1962, which flew 10 missions launched by [[Titan II GLV|Titan II rockets]] in 1965 and 1966. Gemini's objective was to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used in the Moon mission.<ref>{{cite web
|last1=Loff
|first1=Sarah
|title=Gemini: Stepping Stone to the Moon
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/#.VKi1GsaWt78
|website=Gemini: Bridge to the Moon
|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration
|accessdate=4 January 2015
|ref=harv
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221151510/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/
|archivedate=21 December 2014
|location=Washington, DC
|date=21 October 2013
|url-status=dead
|df=dmy-all
}}</ref>
Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule into a two- or three-person [[Voskhod programme|Voskhod]] capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first [[spacewalk]], made by [[Alexei Leonov]] on [[Voskhod 2]] on 8 March 1965. But Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not accomplish the first spacewalk but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks and solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by overcoming the lack of gravity, demonstrating up to two weeks endurance in a human spaceflight, and the first [[space rendezvous]] and [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]]s of spacecraft.
The US succeeded in developing the [[Saturn V]] rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] into 10 orbits around the Moon in [[Apollo 8]] in December 1968. In July 1969, [[Apollo 11]] accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July along with Command Module pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]. A total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon through 1972, half of which drove [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|electric powered vehicles]] on the surface. The crew of [[Apollo 13]], Lovell, [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]], survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure and returned to Earth safely without landing on the Moon.
[[File:Soyuz 7K-OK(A) drawing.svg|thumb|Soyuz 7K-OK spacecraft, 1967]]
Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued [[Soviet crewed lunar programs|crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs]]. They successfully developed the three-person [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] necessary for a human landing, and discontinued the lunar programs in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|title = Challenge To Apollo The Soviet Union and The Space Race, 1945–1974|last = Siddiqi|first = Asif|page = 832|publisher = NASA|url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408}}</ref> On losing the Moon race, they concentrated on the development of [[space station]]s, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of [[Salyut program|Salyut]] sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.
After the Apollo program, the US launched the [[Skylab]] sortie space station in 1973, inhabiting it for 171 days with three crews aboard Apollo spacecraft. President [[Richard Nixon]] and Soviet Premier [[Leonid Brezhnev]] negotiated an easing of relations known as [[détente]], an easing of Cold War tensions. As part of this, they negotiated the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]], in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with [[Soyuz 19]] in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely diplomatic and symbolic.
[[File:North American Rockwell P333.jpg|thumb|right|Space Shuttle as originally designed by North American Rockwell, 1969]]
Nixon appointed his Vice President [[Spiro Agnew]] to head a Space Task Group in 1969 to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious [[Space Transportation System]] based on a [[Space Shuttle design process|reusable Space Shuttle]] which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched by a similar, but larger [[RP-1|kerosene]]-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent modular space station, reusable [[space tug]] and [[NERVA|nuclear]] interplanetary ferry, leading to a [[human mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars]] as early as 1986, or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support Congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. [[Space Shuttle|Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back]] to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted flyback booster with two reusable [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]]s, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable [[Space Shuttle external tank|external propellant tank]] to feed its hydrogen-fueled [[Space Shuttle main engine|main engine]]s. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.
[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|The Space Shuttle orbiter, as built]]
The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, dubbed ''[[Space Station Freedom|Freedom]]''.
The USSR launched three [[Almaz]] military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''[[Mir]]'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of {{convert|354|km|nmi|abbr=off|sp=us}}, at a 51.6° inclination. It was occupied for 4,592 days, and made a controlled reentry in 2001.
[[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|Buran Orbiter 1K1 at [[Le Bourget]] airshow, 1989]]
The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]''. A fifth shuttle, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|an accident during launch]] that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. Twenty-two Shuttle flights carried a [[European Space Agency]] sortie space station called [[Spacelab]] in the payload bay from 1983 to 1998.<ref name=StoryShuttle>{{cite book |title=The Story of the Space Shuttle |author=David Michael Harland |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] Praxis |date=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 444] |isbn=978-1-85233-793-3 |authorlink=David M. Harland |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 }}</ref>
The USSR copied the reusable [[Space Shuttle orbiter]], which it called ''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''. It was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable [[Energia]] rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the US Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Shuttle used its orbital maneuvering engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight was successfully made in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was cancelled due to lack of funding and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the first one was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.
=== US / Russian cooperation ===
[[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|right|International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and Russia]]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the [[Roscosmos State Corporation]]. The [[Shuttle-Mir Program]] included American Space Shuttles visiting the ''Mir'' space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard ''Mir''.
In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station ''Freedom'' into the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). Construction of the station began in 1998. The station orbits at an altitude of {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us}} and an inclination of 51.65°.
The Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 after 135 orbital flights, several of which helped assemble, supply, and crew the ISS. ''Columbia'' was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|another accident during reentry]], which killed 7 astronauts on 1 February 2003.
Russia has continued cooperation though half of the International Space Station is its sole singular half.
=== China ===
After Russia's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Chairman [[Mao Zedong]] intended to place a Chinese satellite in orbit by 1959 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|founding of the People's Republic of China]] (PRC),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Dir/2007/10/16/15/33/09.htm|script-title=zh:九章与中国卫星 |publisher= [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]]|date=16 October 2007|accessdate=3 July 2008 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080314030932/http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Dir/2007/10/16/15/33/09.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 14 March 2008}}</ref> However, China did not successfully launch its first satellite until 24 April 1970. Mao and Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] decided on 14 July 1967, that the PRC should not be left behind, and started China's own human spaceflight program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250955.html |script-title=zh:首批航天员19人胜出 为后来积累了宝贵的经验 |publisher=雷霆万钧 |date=16 September 2005 |accessdate=24 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051222024152/http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250955.html |archivedate=22 December 2005 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The first attempt, the [[Shuguang spacecraft]] copied from the US Gemini, was cancelled on 13 May 1972.
China later designed the [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]] resembling the Russian Soyuz, and became the third nation to achieve independent human spaceflight capability by launching [[Yang Liwei]] on a 21-hour flight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]] on 15 October 2003. China launched the [[Tiangong-1]] space station on 29 September 2011, and two sortie missions to it: [[Shenzhou 9]] 16–29 June 2012, with China's first female astronaut [[Liu Yang (astronaut)|Liu Yang]]; and [[Shenzhou 10]], 13–26 June 2013. The station was retired on 21 March 2016 and reentered on 2 April 2018, burning up with smaller fragments impacting the ocean. Tiangong-1's successor [[Tiangong-2]] was launched in September 2016 to then be derorbited in July 2019. Tiangong-2 hosted a crew of two ([[Jing Haipeng]] and [[Chen Dong (astronaut)|Chen Dong]]) for 26 days. The [[Tianzhou 1]] cargo spacecraft docked to the station on 22 April 2017.
=== Abandoned programs of other nations ===
The [[European Space Agency]] began development in 1987 of the [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]] [[spaceplane]], to be launched on the [[Ariane 5]] expendable launch vehicle. The project was cancelled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built.
Japan began development in the 1980s of the [[HOPE-X]] experimental spaceplane, to be launched on its [[H-IIA]] expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reduction, and the project's cancellation in 2003.
=== United States post-Space Shuttle gap ===
[[File:Ares I-X launch 08.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The launch of Ares I prototype, [[Ares I-X]]
on 28 October 2009]]
Under the Bush administration, the [[Constellation program]] included plans for retiring the Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the [[2011 United States federal budget]], the Obama administration cancelled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<ref>[http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html Congressional watchdog finds NASA's new rocket is in trouble] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129102151/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html |date=29 November 2011 }}. Orlando Sentinel blog summary of official reports. 3 November 2008</ref> As part of the [[Artemis program]], NASA is developing the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to be launched by the [[Space Launch System]]. Under the [[Commercial Crew Development]] plan, NASA will rely on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low Earth orbit, such as [[SpaceX]]'s [[Dragon 2]], [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]]'s [[Dream Chaser]], or [[Boeing CST-100 Starliner]]. The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch to space of [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Unity VP-03|Flight VP-03]] on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of [[Apollo program|Apollo]] in 1975 and the [[STS-1|first Space Shuttle flight]] in 1981, is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.
SpaceX [[Dragon 2]] launched on May 30, 2020 with a crew of 2 US astronauts, making it the first flight to the [[International Space Station]] from US soil since [[STS-135]]. <ref>Klamper, Amy (8 September 2009) [http://www.space.com/7255-white-house-panel-spells-human-spaceflight-options-nasa.html White House Panel Spells Out Human Spaceflight Options for NASA]. Space News</ref>
=== Commercial private spaceflight ===
Since the early 2000s, a variety of [[private spaceflight]] ventures have been undertaken. Several of the companies, including [[Blue Origin]], [[SpaceX]], [[Virgin Galactic]], and [[Sierra Nevada Corporation|Sierra Nevada]] have explicit plans to advance human spaceflight. {{asof|2016}}, all four of those companies have development programs underway to fly commercial passengers.
A commercial [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] spacecraft aimed at the [[space tourism]] market is being developed by [[Virgin Galactic]] called [[SpaceshipTwo]] which reached space in December 2018.<ref>https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html</ref><ref>David, Leonard. (11 January 2014) [http://www.space.com/24249-commercial-space-travel-blasts-off-2014.html Will Commercial Space Travel Blast Off in 2014?]. Space.com. Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref>
[[Blue Origin]] has begun a multi-year [[flight test|test]] program of their [[New Shepard]] vehicle and carried out 11 successful uncrewed test flights in 2015–2019. Blue Origin planned to fly with humans in 2019.
SpaceX and [[Boeing Defense, Space & Security|Boeing]] are both developing passenger-capable [[orbital spaceflight|orbital]] [[space capsule]]s as of 2020, with SpaceX carrying [[Commercial Crew Development|NASA astronauts to the International Space Station]] onboard a [[Crew Dragon]] spacecraft launched on a [[Falcon 9 Block 5]] launch vehicle. Boeing will be doing it with their [[CST-100]] launched on a [[United Launch Alliance]] [[Atlas V]] launch vehicle.<ref name=nasaAnnounce20140906>{{cite web |title=American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil |last=Bolden |first=Charlie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/ |website=NASA.gov |accessdate=16 September 2014}}</ref>
Development funding for these orbital-capable technologies has been provided by a mix of [[government funding|government]] and [[private capital|private]] funds, with SpaceX providing a greater portion of total development funding for this human-carrying capability from private investment.<ref name=sn20140921>{{cite news |last1=Foust|first1=Jeff |title=NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |accessdate=21 September 2014 |work=Space News |date=19 September 2014 |quote="We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given", Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. "Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that".}}</ref><ref name=NASApress20140916>{{cite web |title=RELEASE 14-256 NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international |website=www.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |accessdate=29 October 2014}}</ref>
There have been no public announcements of commercial offerings for orbital flights from either company, although both companies are planning some flights with their own private, not NASA, astronauts on board.
== Milestones ==
=== By achievement ===
; {{Date|1961-04-12}}
: [[Yuri Gagarin]] was the first human in space and the first in Earth orbit, on [[Vostok 1]] on 12 April 1961.
; {{Date|1962-07-17}} or {{Date|1963-07-19}}
: Either [[Robert Michael White|Robert M. White]] or [[Joseph A. Walker]] (depending on the definition of the [[space border]]) were first to pilot a [[spaceplane]], the [[North American X-15]], on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker).
; {{Date|1965-03-18}}
: [[Alexei Leonov]] was first to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]], on 18 March 1965.
; {{Date|1965-12-15}}
: [[Walter M. Schirra]] and [[Thomas P. Stafford|Tom Stafford]] were first to perform a [[space rendezvous]], piloting their [[Gemini 6A]] spacecraft and station-keeping one foot (30 cm) from [[Gemini 7]] for over 5 hours.
; {{Date|1966-03-16}}
: [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]] were first to [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|rendezvous and dock]], piloting their [[Gemini 8]] spacecraft to dock with an uncrewed [[Agena Target Vehicle]].
; December 1968
: [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] were first to travel beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and first to orbit the Moon, on the [[Apollo 8]] mission which orbited the Moon ten times before returning to Earth, from 21-27 Dec 1968.
; {{Date|1969-07-20}}
: Neil Armstrong and [[Buzz Aldrin]] were first to land on the Moon, on 20 July 1969 during [[Apollo 11]].
; Longest time in space
: [[Valeri Polyakov]] performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days, 17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds). [[Gennady Padalka]] has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days.
; Longest crewed space station
:The [[International Space Station]] has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present ({{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}}). This record was previously held by [[Mir]], from [[Soyuz TM-8]] on 5 September 1989 to the [[Soyuz TM-29]] on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,634 days (almost 10 years).
=== By nationality or sex ===
; {{Date|1961-04-12}}
: [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first Soviet as well as the first human to reach space on [[Vostok 1]] on 12 April 1961.
; {{Date|1961-05-05}}
: [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American to reach space on ''[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]]'' on 5 May 1961.
; {{Date|1962-02-20}}
: [[John Glenn]] became the first American to orbit the Earth on 20 February 1962.
; {{Date|1963-06-16}}
: [[Valentina Tereshkova]] became the first woman to go into space and to orbit the Earth on 16 June 1963.
; {{Date|1978-03-02}}
: [[Vladimír Remek]], a [[Czechoslovakia]]n, became the first non-American and non-Soviet in space on 2 March 1978.
; {{Date|1984-04-02}}
: [[Rakesh Sharma]], became the first Indian citizen to reach Earth's orbit on 2 April 1984.
; {{Date|1984-07-25}}
: [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the first woman to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]] on 25 July 1984.
; {{Date|2003-10-15}}
: [[Yang Liwei]] became the first Chinese in space and the Earth's orbit on [[Shenzhou 5]] on 15 October 2003.
; {{Date|2019-10-18}}
: [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]] conduct the first woman-only [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/10/18/nasa-astronauts-wrap-up-historic-all-woman-spacewalk/ | title=NASA Astronauts Wrap Up Historic All-Woman Spacewalk | date=18 October 2019 | first=Mark | last=Garcia | publisher=NASA | accessdate=23 January 2020}}</ref>
[[Sally Ride]] became the first American woman in space in 1983. [[Eileen Collins]] was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission [[STS-93]] in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft.
For many years, only the USSR (later [[Russia]]) and the United States had their own astronauts. Citizens of other nations flew in space, beginning with the flight of [[Vladimir Remek]], a [[Czech Republic|Czech]], on a Soviet spacecraft on 2 March 1978, in the [[Interkosmos]] programme. {{As of|2010}}, citizens from 38 nations (including [[space tourism|space tourists]]) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft.
== Space programs ==
Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the former Soviet Union and currently Russia, the United States, [[Mainland China]], and by the American [[private spaceflight]] companies.
{{Graph:Map|US=#204a87|RU=#204a87|CN=#204a87|IN=#729fcf|NO=#729fcf|SE=#729fcf|DK=#729fcf|DE=#729fcf|BE=#729fcf|CZ=#729fcf|GR=#729fcf|IT=#729fcf|FR=#729fcf|ES=#729fcf|PT=#729fcf|NL=#729fcf|GB=#ce5c00<!-- According to Reaction Engines, Skylon can loft passengers -->|CH=#729fcf|IR=#729fcf|JP=#729fcf|RO=#4e9a06|EC=#4e9a06|TR=#ce5c00|KP=#ce5c00|MY=#ce5c00|IQ=#2e3436|scale=100}}
{{legend|#204a87|Currently have human spaceflight programs.}}
{{legend|#729fcf|Confirmed and dated plans for human spaceflight programs.}}
{{legend|#4e9a06|Plans for human spaceflight on the simplest form (suborbital spaceflight, ''etc.'').}}
{{legend|#ce5c00|Plans for human spaceflight on the extreme form (space stations, ''etc.'').}}
{{legend|#2e3436|Once had official plans for human spaceflight programs, but have since been abandoned.}}
===Current programs===
[[Space vehicle]]s are [[spacecraft]] used for transportation between the Earth's surface and outer space, or between locations in outer space. The following space vehicles and [[spaceport]]s are currently used for launching human spaceflights:
* [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz program]] ([[Soviet Union|USSR]]/Russia): spacecraft on [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz launch vehicle]], from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]]; 140 crewed orbital flights since 1967, including two in-flight aborts which failed to reach orbit, {{As of|alt=as of March 2019|2019|March}}
* [[Shenzhou program]] (China): spacecraft on [[Long March (rocket family)|Long March launch vehicle]], from [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]]; 5 flights since 2003, {{As of|alt=as of July 2016|2016|July}}
*[[SpaceShipTwo|Spaceshiptwo]] (US): Air launched from [[Scaled Composites White Knight Two|White knight two]] carrier aircraft. 2 suborbital spaceflights since 2018, as of February 2019
*[[Crew Dragon]] (US): Part of the [[Commercial Crew Program]], launched from [[Kennedy Space Center]] on a [[Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9]] rocket. One successful launch with more in the planning stages.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Test of SpaceX Crew Dragon|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-america-in-historic-test-flight-of-spacex-crew-dragon|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2020-05-30|website=NASA|access-date=2020-05-31}}</ref>
The following [[space stations]] are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation:
* [[International Space Station]] (US and Russia) assembled in orbit: altitude {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}, 51.65° inclination; crews transported by Soyuz spacecraft
Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million [[Ansari X Prize]]. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. SpaceShipOne captured the prize on 4 October 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week.
Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, whose crew of six spends up to six months at a time in [[low Earth orbit]].
[[NASA]] and [[ESA]] use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions," though because of gender specificity this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/styleguide.html |title=Style Guide |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=6 January 2016}}</ref>
===Planned future programs===
On 15 August 2018 the [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Narendra Modi]], from the rampart of the [[Red Fort]] in [[New Delhi]], formally announced the [[Indian Human Spaceflight Programme]]. Through this Programme, India is planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle [[Gaganyaan]] by the end of 2021. The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.<ref>Indian Space Research Organisation ([[ISRO]])[http://www.isro.org/scripts/futureprogramme.aspx Future Programme].</ref> The objective is to carry a crew of three to [[low Earth orbit]] (LEO) and return them safely for a water-landing at a predefined landing zone. The program is proposed to be implemented in defined phases. Currently, the activities are progressing with a focus on the development of critical technologies for subsystems such as the Crew Module (CM), Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), Crew Escape System, etc. The department has initiated activities to study technical and managerial issues related to crewed missions. The program envisages the development of a fully autonomous orbital vehicle carrying 2 or 3 crew members to about {{cvt|300|km}} low Earth orbit and to bring them safely back home. In June 2019, ISRO Chairman K. Sivan revealed plans for a space station by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission.
[[NASA]] is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s. The first step will begin with [[Artemis 1]] in 2021, sending an uncrewed [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to a [[distant retrograde orbit]] around the Moon and return it to Earth after a 25-day mission.
Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs utilizing natively developed equipment and technology, including [[Japan]] ([[JAXA]]), [[Iran]] ([[Iranian Space Agency|ISA]]), and [[Malaysia]] ([[Malaysian National Space Agency|MNSA]]).
{{Human Spaceflight Timeline}}
{{Space station crew timeline}}
== Passenger travel via spacecraft ==
A number of spacecraft have been proposed over the decades that might facilitate spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by [[airliner]] after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to [[space transport|transport]] a large number of passengers to destinations in space, or to destinations on Earth which travel through space. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the [[test flight|flight testing]] phase of their development process.
One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the [[SpaceX Starship]] which, in addition to replacing the [[Falcon 9]] and [[Falcon Heavy]] [[launch vehicle]]s in the legacy Earth-orbit [[Space launch market competition|market]] after 2020, has been proposed by SpaceX for long-distance commercial travel on Earth. This is to transport people on point-to-point [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] flights between two points on Earth in under one hour, also known as "Earth-to-Earth," and carrying 100+ passengers.<ref name=rollingstone20171115>
{{cite news|last1=Strauss|first1=Neil|title=Elon Musk: The Architect of Tomorrow|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747|accessdate=15 November 2017|work=Rolling Stone|date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=sxEarthToEarth201709>
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0 Starship Earth to Earth], SpaceX, 28 September 2017, accessed 23 December 2017.</ref><ref name=sn20171015c>
{{cite news |last=Foust|first=Jeff |url=http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |title=Musk offers more technical details on BFR system |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=15 October 2017 |accessdate=15 October 2017 |quote=[the] spaceship portion of the BFR, which would transport people on point-to-point suborbital flights or on missions to the moon or Mars, will be tested on Earth first in a series of short hops. ... a full-scale Ship doing short hops of a few hundred kilometers altitude and lateral distance ... fairly easy on the vehicle, as no heat shield is needed, we can have a large amount of reserve propellant and don't need the high area ratio, deep space Raptor engines. }}</ref>
Small [[spaceplane]] or small [[space capsule|capsule]] suborbital spacecraft have been under development for the past decade or so and, {{asof|2017|lc=y}}, at least one of each type are under development. Both [[Virgin Galactic]] and [[Blue Origin]] are in active [[new product development|development]], with the [[SpaceShipTwo]] spaceplane and the [[New Shepard]] capsule, respectively. Both would carry approximately a half-dozen passengers up to space for a brief time of zero gravity before returning to the same location from where the trip began. [[XCOR Aerospace]] had been developing the [[Lynx (spacecraft)|Lynx single-passenger spaceplane]] since the 2000s<ref>(2012) [http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ SXC - Buying your tickets into space!] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306043002/http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ |date=6 March 2013 }} SXC web page, Retrieved 5 April 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Staff writers | title = Space Expedition Corporation Announces Wet Lease of XCOR Lynx Suborbital | work = Space Media Network Promotions | publisher = Space-Travel.com | date = 6 October 2010 | url = http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Space_Experience_Curacao_Announces_Wet_Lease_of_XCOR_Lynx_Suborbital_999.html | accessdate = 6 October 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Space Experience Curacao | work = Home | publisher = Space Experience Curacao | date = 2009–2010 | url = http://spaceexperiencecuracao.com/ | accessdate = 6 October 2010 }}</ref> but development was halted in 2017.<ref name=sn20171109>[http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/ http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/]</ref>
== National spacefaring attempts ==
: ''This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with [[List of space travelers by nationality|nations with citizens who have traveled into space]] including space tourists, flown or intended to fly by foreign country's or non-domestic private space systems – these are not counted as national spacefaring attempts in this list.''
<!--
: Successfully executed programs are in '''bold'''.
: [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|Suborbital]] spaceflights are in ''italics''.
-->
{| class="wikitable"| border=2 cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;"
|- style="background:#f9f9b0;"
! Nation/Organization
! Space agency
! Term(s) for space traveler
! First launched astronaut
! Date
! Spacecraft
! Launcher
! Type
|-
| {{Flag|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics}}<br />(1922–1991)
| [[Soviet space program]]<br />([[OKB-1|OKB-1 Design Bureau]])
| космонавт (same word in:) {{in lang|ru|uk}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut<br />Ғарышкер{{in lang|kk}}
| [[Yuri Gagarin]]
| 12 April 1961
| [[Vostok spacecraft]]
| [[Vostok rocket|Vostok]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{US}}
| [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]]
| astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
| [[Alan Shepard]] (suborbital)
| 5 May 1961
| [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]]
| [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone]]
| Suborbital
|-
| {{US}}
| [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]]
| astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
| [[John Glenn]] (orbital)
| 20 February 1962
| [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]]
| [[Atlas LV-3B]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}
| ...
| 1973 (abandoned)
| [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang 1]]
| [[Long March 2A]]
| –
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}
| ...
| 1981 (abandoned)
| [[Fanhui Shi Weixing|Piloted FSW]]
| [[Long March 2]]
| –
|-
| [[File:Not the esa logo.png]] [[European Space Agency]]
| [[CNES]] / [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]]
| ''spationaute'' {{in lang|fr}}<br />astronaut
| ...
| 1992 (abandoned)
| [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]]
| [[Ariane V]]
| –
|-
| {{Flag|Russia}}<br />
| [[Russian Federal Space Agency|Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos)]] <br />
| космонавт {{in lang|ru}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut
| [[Alexander Viktorenko]], [[Alexander Kaleri]]
| 17 March 1992
| [[Soyuz-TM]]
| [[Soyuz-U2]]
| [[Soyuz TM-14]] to MIR
|-
| {{Flagicon|Iraq|1991}} [[Ba'athist Iraq]]<br />(1968–2003){{NoteTag|According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz]] space launcher, [[Iraq]] intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.}}
| ...
| {{nativename|ar|رجل فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rajul faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|رائد فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rāʼid faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|ملاح فضائي }}<br />''mallāḥ faḍāʼiy''
| ...
| 2001 (abandoned)
| ...
| [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz 2 or 3]]
| –
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| ...
| 2003 (abandoned)
| [[HOPE-X|HOPE]]
| [[H-II]]
| –
|-
| {{PRC}}
| [[China National Space Administration|China National Space Administration (CNSA)]]
| {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}<br />taikonaut ({{zh|labels=no|c=太空人 |p=tàikōng rén}})
| [[Yang Liwei]]
| 15 October 2003
| [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]]
| [[Long March 2F]]
| Orbital
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| [[Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)]]
| Vyomanaut <br /> {{in lang|sa}}
| ...
| 2022<ref name='launch 2022'>[https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/gaganyaan-mission-to-take-indian-astronaut-to-space-by-2022-pm-modi/article24695817.ece Gaganyaan mission to take Indian astronaut to space by 2022: PM Modi]. ''The Hindu''. 15 August 2018.</ref>
| ''[[Gaganyaan]]''
| [[Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III|GSLV Mk III]]
| Orbital
<ref>{{cite web |url = https://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/technology/four-years-is-tight-but-can-achieve-the-human-spaceflight-isros-k-sivan/65411891 |title = Four years is tight, but can achieve the human spaceflight: ISRO's K Sivan - ETtech |author = ETtech.com |website = ETtech.com |language = en |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-will-put-man-in-space-for-seven-days-isro-chairman-118081500485_1.html |title= India will put man in space for seven days: ISRO Chairman |author = IANS |date = 15 August 2018 |work = Business Standard India |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Not the esa logo.png]] [[European Space Agency]]
| [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]]
| astronaut
| ...
| 2020 (concept approved in 2009; but full development not begun)<ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8139347.stm |work=BBC News |title=Europe targets manned spaceship |date=7 July 2009 |accessdate=27 March 2010 |first=Jonathan |last=Amos }}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/05/22/223941/apollo-like-capsule-chosen-for-crew-space-transportation.html Apollo-like capsule chosen for Crew Space Transportation System], 22 May 2008</ref><ref>[http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ATV/infokit/english/Complete_Infokit_ATVreentry.pdf "Jules Verne" Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Re-entry]. Information Kit (PDF). Updated September 2008. European Space Agency. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7749761.stm |work = BBC News |title = Europe's 10bn-euro space vision |date=26 November 2008 |accessdate = 27 March 2010 |first = Jonathan |last = Amos }}</ref>
| [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ARV phase-2]]
| [[Ariane V]]
| –
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]]
| {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}}
| ...
|
| [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-based spacecraft]]
| [[H-IIB]]
| –
|}
<!--
Please, DO NOT INCLUDE Equador. Its human spaceflight program http://exa.ec/ESAA-PECE_files/frame.htm with first suborbital mission ESAA-01 is not based on indigenous technology. It will be one of the first payed client's missions aboard on foreign airplane-launched spacecraft [[Space Adventures Explorer|M55X+Explorer system]] that now is under development by Russian NPOM-Almaz company (former Myasishchev Bureau) according to order of British-US commercial space touristic company [[Space Adventures]].
-->
== Safety concerns ==
{{See also|Dead astronauts}}
There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the environment of space which make it hostile to the human body, and the potential for mechanical malfunctions of the equipment required to accomplish space flight.
=== Environmental hazards ===
{{See also|Space habitat|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Locomotion in Space}}
Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.
==== Life support ====
{{Main| Life support system}}
The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the [[life support system]] of the spacecraft.
{{See also|Astronautical hygiene}}
==== Medical issues ====
{{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Sleep in space|Space medicine}}
Medical consequences such as possible [[blindness]] and [[Bone Loss|bone loss]] have been associated with human [[space flight]].<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=27 January 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=27 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite magazine |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities |url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=23 July 2012 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=23 July 2012 }}</ref>
On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the [[brain]] of [[astronauts]] and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last=Cherry |first=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |issue=12 |page=e53275 |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |pmid=23300905 |date=2012 |pmc=3534034|bibcode=2012PLoSO...753275C }}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref>
In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[space exploration]], including a [[human mission to Mars]].<ref name="AP-20151029">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |title=Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html |date=29 October 2015 |agency=Associated Press |accessdate=30 October 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20151029oig">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003) |url=https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY16/IG-16-003.pdf |date=29 October 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=29 October 2015 }}</ref>
On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the [[brain]] have been found in [[astronaut]]s who have taken [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|trips in space]], based on [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI studies]]. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.<ref name="NEJM-20171102">{{cite journal |author=Roberts, Donna R. |display-authors=etal |title=Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI |date=2 November 2017 |journal=[[New England Journal of Medicine]] |volume=377 |issue=18 |pages=1746–1753 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 |pmid=29091569 }}</ref><ref name="QTZ-20171103">{{cite web |last=Foley |first=Katherine Ellen |title=Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls |url=https://qz.com/1119668/space-travel-changes-astronauts-brains/ |date=3 November 2017 |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |accessdate=3 November 2017 }}</ref>
Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) of five ''[[Enterobacter|Enterobacter bugandensis]]'' bacterial strains, none [[pathogen]]ic to humans, that [[microorganism]]s on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for [[astronaut]]s.<ref name="EA-20181122">{{cite web |author=BioMed Central |title=ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/bc-ims112018.php |date=22 November 2018 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=25 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name="BMC-20181123">{{cite journal |author=Singh, Nitin K. |display-authors=etal |title=Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains |date=23 November 2018 |journal=[[BMC Microbiology]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=175 |doi=10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2 |pmid=30466389 |pmc=6251167 }}</ref>
In March 2019, NASA reported that latent [[virus]]es in humans may be activated during space missions, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.<ref name="EA-20190315">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Dormant viruses activate during spaceflight -- NASA investigates - The stress of spaceflight gives viruses a holiday from immune surveillance, putting future deep-space missions in jeopardy |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/f-dva031519.php |date=15 March 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=16 March 2019 }}</ref>
===== Microgravity =====
{{See also|Weightlessness}}
[[File:Space fluid shift.gif|thumb|The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).]]
Medical data from astronauts in low Earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of [[bone]] density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these [[deconditioning]] effects can impair astronauts' performance or increase their risk of injury.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |title=Exploration Systems Human Research Program – Exercise Countermeasures |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |archivedate=11 October 2008 }}</ref>
In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back [[muscle]]s or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes them to weaken and get smaller. Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days. The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/64249main_ffs_factsheets_hbp_atrophy.pdf|title = NASA Information: Muscle Atrophy|accessdate = 20 November 2015|website = NASA}}</ref> Upon return to Earth from long-duration flights, astronauts are considerably weakened, and are not allowed to drive a car for twenty-one days.<ref>{{cite web|title = Earth Living Is Tough for Astronaut Used to Space|url = http://www.space.com/21413-hadfield-astronaut-health-return-earth.html|website = Space.com|accessdate = 21 November 2015}}</ref>
Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get [[motion sickness]], and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, or any other mass with gravity, they have to readjust to the gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. Importantly, those body motor disturbances after changing from different gravities only get worse the longer the exposure to little gravity.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=3830060&page=1 | last=Watson | first=Traci | date=11 November 2007 | title=Readjusting to gravity anti-fun for astronauts | publisher=ABC News | accessdate=14 February 2020}}</ref> These changes will affect operational activities including approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may happen while landing. This can be a major roadblock to mission success.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
In addition, after long [[space flight]] missions, male astronauts may experience severe [[visual system|eyesight]] problems.<ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal|author=Mader, T. H. |display-authors=etal |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|date=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)|Ophthalmology]] |volume=118 |issue=10|pages=2058–2069 |doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=nasapub }}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu |first=Tibi |title=Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=9 November 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |accessdate=9 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">[http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN News (CNN-TV, 02/09/2012) – Video (02:14) – Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems]. Cnn.com (9 February 2012). Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests |url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=13 March 2012 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=14 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. |display-authors=etal |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging |journal=[[Radiology (journal)|Radiology]] |volume=263 |issue=3 |pages=819–27 |doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |pmid=22416248 |date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a [[crewed mission]] to the planet [[Mars]].<ref name="Mader-2011" /><ref name="Puiu-20111109" /><ref name="CNN-20120109" /><ref name="Space-20120313" /><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite web |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=https://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=12 February 2014 |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=12 February 2014 }}</ref>
===== Radiation =====
{{See also|Health threat from cosmic rays}}
[[File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png|thumb|right|Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the [[Radiation assessment detector|RAD]] on the [[Mars Science Laboratory|MSL]] (2011–2013).<ref name="SCI-20130531a">{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Richard |title=Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier |date=31 May 2013 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=340 |issue=6136 |page=1031 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6136.1031 |pmid=23723213 |bibcode=2013Sci...340.1031K}}</ref>]]
Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by [[solar flare]]s and associated [[solar particle event]]s (SPEs). [[Lawrence Townsend]] of the University of Tennessee and others have studied the [[Solar storm of 1859|overall most powerful solar storm ever recorded]]. The flare was seen by the British astronomer [[Richard Christopher Carrington|Richard Carrington]] in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type storm could cause acute [[Acute radiation syndrome|radiation sickness]] and possibly even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142 |title= Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts|work=New Scientist |date=21 March 2005 |first=Stephen |last=Battersby}}</ref> Another storm that could have incurred a lethal radiation dose if astronauts were outside the Earth's protective [[magnetosphere]] occurred during the [[Space Age]], in fact, shortly after [[Apollo 16]] landed and before [[Apollo 17]] launched.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Lockwood |first = Mike |author2 = M. Hapgood |title = The Rough Guide to the Moon and Mars |journal = Astron. Geophys. |volume = 48 |issue = 6 |pages = 11–17 |date = 2007 |doi = 10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48611.x |doi-access = free }}</ref> This [[solar storm of August 1972]] would likely at least have caused acute illness.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Parsons |first = Jennifer L. |author2 = L. W. Townsend |title = Interplanetary Crew Dose Rates for the August 1972 Solar Particle Event |journal = Radiat. Res. |volume = 153 |issue = 6 |pages = 729–733 |date = 2000 |doi = 10.1667/0033-7587(2000)153[0729:ICDRFT]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref>
Another type of radiation, galactic [[cosmic ray]]s, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-309-10264-3|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760 |title=Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration |publisher=NAP |date=2006}}</ref>
There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1189/jlb.0309167 |title=Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit|date=2009|last1=Gueguinou|first1=N.|last2=Huin-Schohn|first2=C.|last3=Bascove|first3=M.|last4=Bueb|first4=J.-L.|last5=Tschirhart|first5=E.|last6=Legrand-Frossi|first6=C.|last7=Frippiat|first7=J.-P.|journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1027–1038|pmid=19690292}}</ref> Some of the problems are a weakened [[immune system]] and the activation of dormant [[virus]]es in the body. [[Radiation]] can cause both short and long term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
===== Isolation =====
{{Further|Effect of spaceflight on the human body#Psychological effects|Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight}}
During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined into small spaces. [[depression (mood)|Depression]], [[cabin fever]] and other psychological problems may impact the crew's safety and mission success.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flynn|first=Christopher F.|date=1 June 2005|title=An Operational Approach to Long-Duration Mission Behavioral Health and Performance Factors|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/asma/asem/2005/00000076/A00106s1/art00007|journal=Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine|volume=76|issue=6|pages=B42–B51}}</ref>
Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on their limited existing resources and medical advice from the ground.
During astronauts' stay in space, they may experience mental disorders (such as post-trauma, depression, anxiety, etc.), more than for an average person. NASA spends millions of dollars on psychological treatments for astronauts and former astronauts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Space psychology and psychiatry |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |last=Kanas |first=Nick |last2=Manzey |first2=Dietrich |isbn=9781402067709 |edition=2nd |location=Dordrecht |oclc=233972618}}</ref> To date, there is no way to prevent or reduce mental problems caused by extended periods of stay in space.
Due to these mental disorders, the efficiency of their work is impaired and sometimes they are forced to send the astronauts back to Earth, which is very expensive.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/05/hallucinations-isolation-astronauts-mental-health-space-missions|title=Isolation and hallucinations: the mental health challenges faced by astronauts |last=Bell|first=Vaughan|date=5 October 2014|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-02-01|language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that caused a fear of fluid leakage, but after a thorough investigation it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction. It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinations of the smell, which brought many unnecessary wasted expenses.
It is possible that the mental health of astronauts can be affected by the changes in the sensory systems while in prolonged space travel.
===== Sensory systems =====
During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in a very extreme state where there is no gravity. This given state and the fact that no change is taking place in the environment will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts in all seven senses.
* [[Hearing]] - In the space station and spacecraft there are only mechanical noises. There can be no environmental noise; there is no medium that can transmit the sound waves. Although there are other team members who can talk to each other, their voices stop stimulating the sense of hearing, since they get used to it quickly.
* [[Sight]] - Because of the zero gravity, the body's liquids equalize in pressure throughout the body, a situation which is different from that on the Earth, where the pressures are not equal. Because of this reason, the astronauts' face swells and presses on the eyes, and therefore their vision is impaired. In addition, the landscape surrounding the astronauts is constant, which damages the visual stimulations. In addition, due to cosmic rays, astronauts may see flashes.
* [[Sense of smell|Smell]] - The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.
* [[Taste]] - The sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is damaged, the sense of taste is also damaged. The astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten. The food comes only once every few months when supplies arrive, and there is little to no variety.
* [[Somatosensory system|Touch]] – There are almost no physical contact changes. There is almost no human physical contact during the journey.
* The [[vestibular system]] (motion and equilibrium system) - Due to the lack of gravity, all the movement of the astronauts changes, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change.
* The [[Proprioception|proprioception system]] (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) - As a result of the zero gravity, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles and there is no input to this system.
=== Mechanical hazards ===
Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, which in turn requires the use of high [[energy density]] propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.
==== Launch ====
{{See also| Launch escape system}}
[[File:Sts33-e204.jpg|thumb|There was no practical way for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'''s crew to safely abort before the vehicle's violent disintegration.]]
Since rockets carry the potential for fire or explosive destruction, [[space capsule]]s generally employ some sort of [[launch escape system]], consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the [[launch vehicle]] (employed on [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]], and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]]), or else [[ejection seat]]s (employed on [[Vostok spacecraft|Vostok]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landing. The escape tower is discarded at some point before the launch is complete, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines.
Such a system is not always practical for multiple crew member vehicles (particularly [[spaceplane]]s), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person [[Voskhod (spacecraft)|Voskhod]], the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps. The [[Space Shuttle]] carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights, but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued.
There have only been two in-flight launch aborts of a crewed flight. The first occurred on [[Soyuz 7K-T No.39|Soyuz 18a]] on 5 April 1975. The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited. The vehicle strayed off course, and the crew separated the spacecraft and fired its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket. Both cosmonauts landed safely. The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of [[Soyuz MS-10]]. Again, both crew members survived.
In the first use of a launch escape system on a crewed flight, the planned [[Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L|Soyuz T-10a]] launch on 26 September 1983 was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff. Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely.
The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]] seal which caused separation of the booster and failure of the [[Space Shuttle external tank|external fuel tank]], resulting in explosion of the fuel. All seven crew members were killed.
==== Spacewalking ====
Despite the ever-present risks related to mechanical failures while working in open space, no [[Spacewalking|spacewalking astronaut]] has ever been lost. There is a requirement for spacewalking astronauts to use tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors. If those fail, a spacewalking astronaut would most probably float away according to relevant forces that were acting on him when breaking loose. Astronaut would possibly be spinning as kicking and flailing is of no use. At the right angle and velocity, he might even re-enter the [[Earth's atmosphere]] and burn away completely. [[NASA]] has protocols for such situations: astronauts would be wearing an emergency jetpack, which would automatically counter any tumbling to stabilize them. Then NASA's plan states that astronauts should take manual control and fly back to safety.
However, if the pack's 3 pounds of fuel runs up, and if there is no other astronaut in close proximity to help, or if the air lock is irreparably damaged, the [[Death in space|outcome would certainly be fatal]]. At the moment, there is no spacecraft to save an astronaut floating in space as the only one with a rescue-ready air-locked compartment — [[Space Shuttle retirement|the Space Shuttle]] — retired years ago. There's approximately a litre of water available via straw in astronaut's helmet. He would wait roughly for 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sofge |first1=Eric |title=What Happens If An Astronaut Floats Off In Space? |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-09/what-happens-if-astronaut-floats-space/ |website=Popular Science}}</ref>
==== Reentry and landing ====
{{See also| Atmospheric reentry}}
The single pilot of [[Soyuz 1]], [[Vladimir Komarov]] was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash.
The crew of seven aboard the {{OV|102}} were [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|killed on reentry]] after completing a [[STS-107|successful mission in space]] on 1 February 2003. A wing leading edge [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] foam insulation which broke off and struck the wing during launch. Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to the breakup of the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|orbiter vehicle]].
==== Artificial atmosphere ====
There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for [[extravehicular activity]].
The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of [[decompression sickness]] (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment. There have also been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen.
* In 1960, [[McDonnell Aircraft]] test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin/spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his spacesuit feed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Giblin |first=Kelly A. |date=Spring 1998 |title =Fire in the Cockpit! |journal=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |volume=13 |issue=4 |publisher=American Heritage Publishing |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120153024/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archivedate=20 November 2008 |accessdate=23 March 2011}}
</ref> This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft.
* In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the {{OV|102}} at the [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010605212352/http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/chrono.html 1981 KSC Chronology Part 1 – pages 84, 85, 100; Part 2 – pages 181, 194, 195], NASA</ref>
* In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the [[Ariane 5]] launch pad at [[Guiana Space Centre]].<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_17_1995_p_EN.html "Fatal accident at the Guiana Space Centre"], ''ESA Portal'', 5 May 1993</ref>
A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of [[Apollo 1]] during a ground test at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34|Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34]] on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure (increased even higher by the fire) prevented removal of the [[plug door]] hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three, [[Gus Grissom]], [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]], and [[Roger Chaffee]], were killed.<ref name="SP4029">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=12 July 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-050631-4 |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 1 – The Fire: 27 January 1967 |chapterurl=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm}}</ref> This led NASA to use a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space.
==== Reliability ====
{{See also| Reliability engineering}}
The March 1966 [[Gemini 8]] mission was aborted in orbit when an [[attitude control system]] thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin which threatened the lives of [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]]. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a [[static electricity]] discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit.
The third lunar landing expedition [[Apollo 13]] in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew, [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]] and [[Fred Haise]], were threatened by failure of a [[cryogenic]] [[liquid oxygen]] tank en route to the Moon. The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the loss of its remaining oxygen in a span of 130 minutes. This in turn caused loss of electrical power provided by [[fuel cell]]s to the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]]. The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar landing craft]] as a "life boat". The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes. The tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing. This necessitated use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test, which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication.
The crew of [[Soyuz 11]] were killed on 30 June 1971 by a combination of mechanical malfunctions: they were [[asphyxia]]ted due to cabin decompression following separation of their descent capsule from the service module. A cabin ventilation valve had been jolted open at an altitude of {{convert|168|km|ft}} by the stronger than expected shock of explosive separation bolts which were designed to fire sequentially, but in fact, had fired simultaneously. The loss of pressure became fatal within about 30 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|title=The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project|accessdate=20 October 2007|publisher=NASA|year=1974|author=NASA|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|archivedate=23 August 2007}}</ref>
=== Fatality risk ===
{{Further|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents#Non-astronaut fatalities}}
{{As of|2015|December}}, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Date
!Mission
!Accident cause
!Deaths
!Cause of death
|-
| 27 January 1967
|[[Apollo 1]]
|Electrical fire in cabin, spread quickly by {{convert|16.7|psi|bar|abbr=on}} pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove [[plug door]] hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot
| style="text-align: center;" | 3
|[[Cardiac arrest]] from [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning
|-
|15 November 1967
|[[X-15 Flight 3-65-97]]
|The accident board found that the cockpit instrumentation had been functioning properly, and concluded that Adams had lost control of the X-15 as a result of a combination of distraction, misinterpretation of his instrumentation display, and possible [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]]. The electrical disturbance early in the flight degraded the overall effectiveness of the aircraft's control system and further added to pilot workload.
|style="text-align: center;"| 1
|Vehicle breakup
|-
| 24 April 1967
| [[Soyuz 1]]
|Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and entanglement of reserve parachute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitated emergency abort
|style="text-align: center;"| 1
| [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash landing
|-
| 30 June 1971
| [[Soyuz 11]]
|Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry
|style="text-align: center;"| 3
| [[Asphyxia]]
|-
| 28 January 1986
| [[STS-51L]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']]
|Failure of [[o-ring]] inter-segment seal in one [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Booster]] in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]]; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces
|style="text-align: center;"| 7
|Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |title=Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |archivedate=3 January 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| 1 February 2003
| [[STS-107]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']]
|Damaged [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by piece of [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]] foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of wing, loss of control and disintegration of orbiter
|style="text-align: center;"| 7
|Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<ref>{{cite web|title=COLUMBIA CREW SURVIVAL INVESTIGATION REPORT|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA}}</ref>
|-
| 31 October 2014
| [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Enterprise crash|VSS ''Enterprise'' powered drop-test]]
|Copilot error: premature deployment of "[[Feathering (reentry)|feathering]]" descent air-braking system caused disintegration of vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died
|style="text-align: center;"| 1
| [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash
|}
== Human representation and participation ==
{{See also|Space law|Space colonization}}
===Women===
{{Main|Women in space}}
The first woman to ever enter space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]]. She flew in 1963 but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again. All astronauts were required to be military test pilots at the time and women were not able to enter this career, this is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews.{{cn|date=June 2020}} After the rule changed, [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the second woman to enter space, she was also from the [[Soviet Union]]. [[Sally Ride]] became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program.
Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. Due to some slow changes in the space programs to allow women.
The first all female space walk occurred in 2018, including [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]]. These two women have both participated in separate space walks with NASA. The first woman to go to the moon is planned for 2024.
Despite these developments women are still underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs and limit the space missions they are able to go on, are for example:
* agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, argueing with unresearched potential risks for cancer.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.space.com/22252-women-astronauts-radiation-risk.html | title = Female Astronauts Face Discrimination from Space Radiation Concerns, Astronauts Say | first = Miriam | last = Kramer | date = August 27, 2013 | access-date = January 7, 2017 | work = Space.com | publisher = Purch}}</ref>
* a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts.<ref name="clothing">{{cite magazine |last=Sokolowski |first=Susan L.|title= Female astronauts: How performance products like space suits and bras are designed to pave the way for women’s accomplishments|url=https://theconversation.com/female-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346 |date=5 April 2019 | magazine =The Conversation |accessdate=10 May 2020 }}</ref>
Additionally women have been treated in discriminatory ways, for example as with Sally Ride by beeing scrutinized more than her male counterparts and asked sexist questions by the press.
== See also ==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
* [[List of human spaceflight programs]]
* [[List of human spaceflights]]
* [[List of spaceflight records]]
* [[List of crewed spacecraft]]
* [[Crewed Mars rover]]
* [[Mars to Stay]]
* [[NewSpace]]
* [[Space medicine]]
* [[Tourism on the Moon]]
* [[Women in space]]
== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* David Darling: ''The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity''. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, {{ISBN|0-471-05649-9}}.
* Wiley J. Larson (Hrsg.): ''Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design''. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, {{ISBN|0-07-236811-X}}.
* Donald Rapp: ''Human missions to Mars – enabling technologies for exploring the red planet''. Springer u. a., Berlin u. a. 2008, {{ISBN|978-3-540-72938-9}}.
* Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-7091-0666-2}}.
== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/ NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070802015842/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight Human Spaceflight Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
* [http://www.nasaconstellation.com Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190404044029/http://spaceflighthistory.com/ U.S. Spaceflight History]
{{Future spaceflights}}
{{Crewed spacecraft}}
{{Public sector space agencies}}
{{Spaceflight}}
{{NASA space program}}
{{Russian space program}}
{{Inspace}}
{{Space exploration lists and timelines}}
{{Solar System}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Human Spaceflight}}
[[Category:Human spaceflight| ]]
[[Category:Space transport]]
[[Category:Space policy]]
[[Category:Life in space]]
[[Category:1961 introductions]]'
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118 => 'https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity',
119 => 'https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142',
120 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html',
121 => 'https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-09/what-happens-if-astronaut-floats-space/',
122 => 'https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747',
123 => 'https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html',
124 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/05/hallucinations-isolation-astronauts-mental-health-space-missions',
125 => 'https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/gaganyaan-mission-to-take-indian-astronaut-to-space-by-2022-pm-modi/article24695817.ece',
126 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752783',
127 => 'https://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/',
128 => 'https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/',
129 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0'
]
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'<div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Space traveler" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Space_traveler_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Space traveler (disambiguation)">Space traveler (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Space travel by humans</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r923042769/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:left;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption-center{text-align:center;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Aldrin_nigger_1_original.jpg" class="new" title="File:Aldrin nigger 1 original.jpg">300px</a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> astronaut <a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a> on the Moon, 1969</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg/300px-Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> crewmember <a href="/wiki/Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson" title="Tracy Caldwell Dyson">Tracy Caldwell Dyson</a> views the Earth, 2010</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:SRBsepfromDiscovery07042006.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/SRBsepfromDiscovery07042006.png/300px-SRBsepfromDiscovery07042006.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="240" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery" title="Space Shuttle Discovery">Space Shuttle <i>Discovery</i></a> heads into space with a crew aboard, <a href="/wiki/STS-121" title="STS-121">STS-121</a> in 2006</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Wisoff_on_the_Arm_-_GPN-2000-001069.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Wisoff_on_the_Arm_-_GPN-2000-001069.jpg/300px-Wisoff_on_the_Arm_-_GPN-2000-001069.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="301" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3011" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Astronaut <a href="/wiki/Peter_Wisoff" title="Peter Wisoff">Jeff Wisoff</a> on <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour" title="Space Shuttle Endeavour">Space Shuttle <i>Endeavour</i></a><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s <a href="/wiki/Canadarm" title="Canadarm">Canadarm</a>, 1993</div></div></div></div></div>
<p><b>Human spaceflight</b> (also referred to as <b>crewed spaceflight</b> or <b>manned spaceflight</b>) is <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">crew</a> or passengers aboard a <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>. Spacecraft carrying people may be operated directly, by human crew, or it may be either <a href="/wiki/Telerobotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Telerobotic">remotely operated</a> from ground stations on Earth or be <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_robot" title="Autonomous robot">autonomous</a>, able to carry out a specific mission with no human involvement.
</p><p>The first human in space was <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, who flew the <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a> spacecraft, launched by the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">Soviet Union</a> on <a href="/wiki/Cosmonautics_Day" title="Cosmonautics Day">12 April 1961</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Vostok_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok program">Vostok program</a>. Humans have flown to the Moon nine times from 1968 to 1972 in the United States <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a>, and have been continuously present in space for 19 years and 223 days on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> All human spaceflight has so far been human-piloted, with the first autonomous human-carrying spacecraft under design starting in 2015.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> have human spaceflight capability with the <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz program">Soyuz program</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_program" title="Shenzhou program">Shenzhou program</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a> reached the edge of space in 2018; this was the first crewed spaceflight from the US since the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> retired in 2011. Currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)" title="Soyuz (spacecraft)">Soyuz</a> vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to the ISS, low Earth orbit and beyond such as the <a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a> vehicle and the private <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">SpaceX Starship</a>.
</p><p>While spaceflight has typically been a government-directed activity, commercial spaceflight has gradually been taking on a greater role. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when <a href="/wiki/SpaceShipOne" title="SpaceShipOne">SpaceShipOne</a> conducted a suborbital flight, and a <a href="/wiki/List_of_private_spaceflight_companies" title="List of private spaceflight companies">number of non-governmental companies</a> have been working to develop a <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourism</a> industry. NASA has also played a role to stimulate <a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">private spaceflight</a> through programs such as <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services" title="Commercial Orbital Transportation Services">Commercial Orbital Transportation Services</a> (COTS) and <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Development" title="Commercial Crew Development">Commercial Crew Development</a> (CCDev). With its 2011 budget proposals released in 2010,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> the Obama administration moved towards a model where commercial companies would supply <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> with transportation services of both people and cargo transport to low Earth orbit. The vehicles used for these services could then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. Commercial resupply of ISS began two years after the retirement of the Shuttle, and commercial crew launches could begin by 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Cold_War_era"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cold War era</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#US_/_Russian_cooperation"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">US / Russian cooperation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#China"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">China</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Abandoned_programs_of_other_nations"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Abandoned programs of other nations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#United_States_post-Space_Shuttle_gap"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">United States post-Space Shuttle gap</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Commercial_private_spaceflight"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Commercial private spaceflight</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Milestones"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Milestones</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#By_achievement"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">By achievement</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#By_nationality_or_sex"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">By nationality or sex</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Space_programs"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Space programs</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Current_programs"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Current programs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Planned_future_programs"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Planned future programs</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Passenger_travel_via_spacecraft"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Passenger travel via spacecraft</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#National_spacefaring_attempts"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">National spacefaring attempts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Safety_concerns"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Safety concerns</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Environmental_hazards"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Environmental hazards</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Life_support"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Life support</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Medical_issues"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medical issues</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-20"><a href="#Microgravity"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Microgravity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-21"><a href="#Radiation"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Radiation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-22"><a href="#Isolation"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Isolation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-23"><a href="#Sensory_systems"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Sensory systems</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Mechanical_hazards"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Mechanical hazards</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Launch"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Launch</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Spacewalking"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Spacewalking</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Reentry_and_landing"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Reentry and landing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Artificial_atmosphere"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Artificial atmosphere</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Reliability"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Reliability</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Fatality_risk"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Fatality risk</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Human_representation_and_participation"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Human representation and participation</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Women"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Women</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History of spaceflight</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cold_War_era">Cold War era</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vostok_Spacecraft_Diagram.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Vostok_Spacecraft_Diagram.svg/220px-Vostok_Spacecraft_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Vostok_Spacecraft_Diagram.svg/330px-Vostok_Spacecraft_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Vostok_Spacecraft_Diagram.svg/440px-Vostok_Spacecraft_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="524" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Vostok_Spacecraft_Diagram.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Vostok space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Armstrong_on_Moon_(As11-40-5886)_(cropped).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Armstrong_on_Moon_%28As11-40-5886%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Armstrong_on_Moon_%28As11-40-5886%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="603" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Armstrong_on_Moon_(As11-40-5886)_(cropped).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Neil_Armstrong" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> became the first human to land and walk on the Moon, July 1969.</div></div></div>
<p>Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> between the United States and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (USSR), which developed the first <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missile</a> rockets to deliver <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. These rockets were large enough to be adapted to carry the first <a href="/wiki/Artificial_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellite">artificial satellites</a> into <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958, the US worked on <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a> to launch men singly into orbit, while the USSR secretly pursued the <a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok program</a> to accomplish the same thing. The USSR launched the first human in space, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, into a single orbit in <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Vostok_3KA" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok 3KA">Vostok 3KA</a> rocket, on 12 April 1961. The US launched its first <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronaut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a>, on a suborbital flight aboard <i><a href="/wiki/Freedom_7" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom 7">Freedom 7</a></i> on a <a href="/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_Launch_Vehicle" title="Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle">Mercury-Redstone rocket</a>, on 5 May 1961. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually <a href="/wiki/Attitude_control" title="Attitude control">controlled his spacecraft's attitude</a>, and landed inside it. The first American in orbit was <a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a> aboard <i><a href="/wiki/Friendship_7" class="mw-redirect" title="Friendship 7">Friendship 7</a></i>, launched 20 February 1962 on a <a href="/wiki/Atlas_LV-3B" title="Atlas LV-3B">Mercury-Atlas rocket</a>. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok <a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">capsules</a>, including the first woman in space, <a href="/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a> aboard <a href="/wiki/Vostok_6" title="Vostok 6">Vostok 6</a> on 16 June 1963. The US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four into orbit through 1963. The US also made two flights in the <a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">North American X-15</a> (90 and 91) piloted by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_A._Walker" title="Joseph A. Walker">Joseph A. Walker</a> that exceeded the Kármán line, the internationally recognized 100 km altitude used by the FAI to denote the edge of space.
</p><p>US President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and returning him safely by the end of the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> The US started the three-man <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a> in 1961 to accomplish this, launched by the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_(rocket_family)" title="Saturn (rocket family)">Saturn family of launch vehicles</a>, and the interim two-man <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a> in 1962, which flew 10 missions launched by <a href="/wiki/Titan_II_GLV" title="Titan II GLV">Titan II rockets</a> in 1965 and 1966. Gemini's objective was to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used in the Moon mission.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule into a two- or three-person <a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a> capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first <a href="/wiki/Spacewalk" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacewalk">spacewalk</a>, made by <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Leonov" title="Alexei Leonov">Alexei Leonov</a> on <a href="/wiki/Voskhod_2" title="Voskhod 2">Voskhod 2</a> on 8 March 1965. But Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not accomplish the first spacewalk but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks and solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by overcoming the lack of gravity, demonstrating up to two weeks endurance in a human spaceflight, and the first <a href="/wiki/Space_rendezvous" title="Space rendezvous">space rendezvous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Docking_and_berthing_of_spacecraft" title="Docking and berthing of spacecraft">dockings</a> of spacecraft.
</p><p>The US succeeded in developing the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent <a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">James Lovell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" class="mw-redirect" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> into 10 orbits around the Moon in <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a> in December 1968. In July 1969, <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing <a href="/wiki/Neil_Armstrong" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a> on the Moon 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July along with Command Module pilot <a href="/wiki/Michael_Collins_(astronaut)" title="Michael Collins (astronaut)">Michael Collins</a>. A total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon through 1972, half of which drove <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Roving_Vehicle" title="Lunar Roving Vehicle">electric powered vehicles</a> on the surface. The crew of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_13" title="Apollo 13">Apollo 13</a>, Lovell, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Swigert" title="Jack Swigert">Jack Swigert</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Haise" title="Fred Haise">Fred Haise</a>, survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure and returned to Earth safely without landing on the Moon.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Soyuz_7K-OK(A)_drawing.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Soyuz_7K-OK%28A%29_drawing.svg/220px-Soyuz_7K-OK%28A%29_drawing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Soyuz_7K-OK%28A%29_drawing.svg/330px-Soyuz_7K-OK%28A%29_drawing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Soyuz_7K-OK%28A%29_drawing.svg/440px-Soyuz_7K-OK%28A%29_drawing.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="225" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Soyuz_7K-OK(A)_drawing.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Soyuz 7K-OK spacecraft, 1967</div></div></div>
<p>Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued <a href="/wiki/Soviet_crewed_lunar_programs" title="Soviet crewed lunar programs">crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs</a>. They successfully developed the three-person <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz spacecraft">Soyuz spacecraft</a> for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the <a href="/wiki/N1_(rocket)" title="N1 (rocket)">N1 rocket</a> necessary for a human landing, and discontinued the lunar programs in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> On losing the Moon race, they concentrated on the development of <a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space stations</a>, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of <a href="/wiki/Salyut_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Salyut program">Salyut</a> sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.
</p><p>After the Apollo program, the US launched the <a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a> sortie space station in 1973, inhabiting it for 171 days with three crews aboard Apollo spacecraft. President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> and Soviet Premier <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> negotiated an easing of relations known as <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">détente</a>, an easing of Cold War tensions. As part of this, they negotiated the <a href="/wiki/Apollo-Soyuz_Test_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo-Soyuz Test Project">Apollo-Soyuz Test Project</a>, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_19" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz 19">Soyuz 19</a> in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely diplomatic and symbolic.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg/220px-North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="222" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:North_American_Rockwell_P333.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Space Shuttle as originally designed by North American Rockwell, 1969</div></div></div>
<p>Nixon appointed his Vice President <a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Spiro Agnew</a> to head a Space Task Group in 1969 to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious <a href="/wiki/Space_Transportation_System" title="Space Transportation System">Space Transportation System</a> based on a <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process" title="Space Shuttle design process">reusable Space Shuttle</a> which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched by a similar, but larger <a href="/wiki/RP-1" title="RP-1">kerosene</a>-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a> launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent modular space station, reusable <a href="/wiki/Space_tug" title="Space tug">space tug</a> and <a href="/wiki/NERVA" title="NERVA">nuclear</a> interplanetary ferry, leading to a <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">human expedition to Mars</a> as early as 1986, or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support Congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back</a> to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted flyback booster with two reusable <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster" title="Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster">solid rocket boosters</a>, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">external propellant tank</a> to feed its hydrogen-fueled <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_main_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Shuttle main engine">main engines</a>. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_landing_at_KSC_following_STS-122_(crop).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_landing_at_KSC_following_STS-122_%28crop%29.jpg/220px-Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_landing_at_KSC_following_STS-122_%28crop%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="1400" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_landing_at_KSC_following_STS-122_(crop).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Space Shuttle orbiter, as built</div></div></div>
<p>The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, dubbed <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Station_Freedom" title="Space Station Freedom">Freedom</a></i>.
The USSR launched three <a href="/wiki/Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of <i><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a></i>, the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. <i>Mir</i> orbited at an altitude of 354 kilometers (191 nautical miles), at a 51.6° inclination. It was occupied for 4,592 days, and made a controlled reentry in 2001.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Buran_on_An-225_(Le_Bourget_1989)_(cropped).JPEG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Buran_on_An-225_%28Le_Bourget_1989%29_%28cropped%29.JPEG/220px-Buran_on_An-225_%28Le_Bourget_1989%29_%28cropped%29.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1076" data-file-height="568" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Buran_on_An-225_(Le_Bourget_1989)_(cropped).JPEG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Buran Orbiter 1K1 at <a href="/wiki/Le_Bourget" title="Le Bourget">Le Bourget</a> airshow, 1989</div></div></div>
<p>The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make <i>Freedom</i> a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia" title="Space Shuttle Columbia">Columbia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger" title="Space Shuttle Challenger">Challenger</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery" title="Space Shuttle Discovery">Discovery</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis" title="Space Shuttle Atlantis">Atlantis</a></i>. A fifth shuttle, <i><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour" title="Space Shuttle Endeavour">Endeavour</a></i>, was built to replace <i>Challenger</i>, which was destroyed in <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">an accident during launch</a> that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. Twenty-two Shuttle flights carried a <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> sortie space station called <a href="/wiki/Spacelab" title="Spacelab">Spacelab</a> in the payload bay from 1983 to 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-StoryShuttle_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StoryShuttle-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>The USSR copied the reusable <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" title="Space Shuttle orbiter">Space Shuttle orbiter</a>, which it called <i><a href="/wiki/Buran_programme" title="Buran programme">Buran</a></i>. It was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable <a href="/wiki/Energia" title="Energia">Energia</a> rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the US Shuttle, <i>Buran</i> had no main rocket engines, but like the Shuttle used its orbital maneuvering engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight was successfully made in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was cancelled due to lack of funding and the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the first one was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.
</p>
<h3><span id="US_.2F_Russian_cooperation"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="US_/_Russian_cooperation">US / Russian cooperation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg/220px-International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="3319" data-file-height="2116" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and Russia</div></div></div>
<p>The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos_State_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Roscosmos State Corporation">Roscosmos State Corporation</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Shuttle-Mir_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuttle-Mir Program">Shuttle-Mir Program</a> included American Space Shuttles visiting the <i>Mir</i> space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard <i>Mir</i>.
</p><p>In 1993, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station <i>Freedom</i> into the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS). Construction of the station began in 1998. The station orbits at an altitude of 409 kilometers (221 nmi) and an inclination of 51.65°.
</p><p>The Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 after 135 orbital flights, several of which helped assemble, supply, and crew the ISS. <i>Columbia</i> was destroyed in <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">another accident during reentry</a>, which killed 7 astronauts on 1 February 2003.
</p><p>Russia has continued cooperation though half of the International Space Station is its sole singular half.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="China">China</span></h3>
<p>After Russia's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Chairman <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> intended to place a Chinese satellite in orbit by 1959 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">founding of the People's Republic of China</a> (PRC),<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> However, China did not successfully launch its first satellite until 24 April 1970. Mao and Premier <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> decided on 14 July 1967, that the PRC should not be left behind, and started China's own human spaceflight program.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> The first attempt, the <a href="/wiki/Shuguang_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuguang spacecraft">Shuguang spacecraft</a> copied from the US Gemini, was cancelled on 13 May 1972.
</p><p>China later designed the <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_(spacecraft)" title="Shenzhou (spacecraft)">Shenzhou spacecraft</a> resembling the Russian Soyuz, and became the third nation to achieve independent human spaceflight capability by launching <a href="/wiki/Yang_Liwei" title="Yang Liwei">Yang Liwei</a> on a 21-hour flight aboard <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_5" title="Shenzhou 5">Shenzhou 5</a> on 15 October 2003. China launched the <a href="/wiki/Tiangong-1" title="Tiangong-1">Tiangong-1</a> space station on 29 September 2011, and two sortie missions to it: <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_9" title="Shenzhou 9">Shenzhou 9</a> 16–29 June 2012, with China's first female astronaut <a href="/wiki/Liu_Yang_(astronaut)" title="Liu Yang (astronaut)">Liu Yang</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_10" title="Shenzhou 10">Shenzhou 10</a>, 13–26 June 2013. The station was retired on 21 March 2016 and reentered on 2 April 2018, burning up with smaller fragments impacting the ocean. Tiangong-1's successor <a href="/wiki/Tiangong-2" title="Tiangong-2">Tiangong-2</a> was launched in September 2016 to then be derorbited in July 2019. Tiangong-2 hosted a crew of two (<a href="/wiki/Jing_Haipeng" title="Jing Haipeng">Jing Haipeng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chen_Dong_(astronaut)" title="Chen Dong (astronaut)">Chen Dong</a>) for 26 days. The <a href="/wiki/Tianzhou_1" title="Tianzhou 1">Tianzhou 1</a> cargo spacecraft docked to the station on 22 April 2017.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Abandoned_programs_of_other_nations">Abandoned programs of other nations</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> began development in 1987 of the <a href="/wiki/Hermes_(spacecraft)" title="Hermes (spacecraft)">Hermes</a> <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a>, to be launched on the <a href="/wiki/Ariane_5" title="Ariane 5">Ariane 5</a> expendable launch vehicle. The project was cancelled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built.
</p><p>Japan began development in the 1980s of the <a href="/wiki/HOPE-X" title="HOPE-X">HOPE-X</a> experimental spaceplane, to be launched on its <a href="/wiki/H-IIA" title="H-IIA">H-IIA</a> expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reduction, and the project's cancellation in 2003.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States_post-Space_Shuttle_gap">United States post-Space Shuttle gap</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ares_I-X_launch_08.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ares_I-X_launch_08.jpg/170px-Ares_I-X_launch_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1996" data-file-height="3000" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Ares_I-X_launch_08.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The launch of Ares I prototype, <a href="/wiki/Ares_I-X" title="Ares I-X">Ares I-X</a> on 28 October 2009</div></div></div>
<p>Under the Bush administration, the <a href="/wiki/Constellation_program" title="Constellation program">Constellation program</a> included plans for retiring the Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the <a href="/wiki/2011_United_States_federal_budget" title="2011 United States federal budget">2011 United States federal budget</a>, the Obama administration cancelled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> As part of the <a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis program</a>, NASA is developing the <a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a> spacecraft to be launched by the <a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_System" title="Space Launch System">Space Launch System</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Development" title="Commercial Crew Development">Commercial Crew Development</a> plan, NASA will rely on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low Earth orbit, such as <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dragon_2" title="Dragon 2">Dragon 2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_Corporation" title="Sierra Nevada Corporation">Sierra Nevada Corporation</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dream_Chaser" title="Dream Chaser">Dream Chaser</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Boeing_CST-100_Starliner" title="Boeing CST-100 Starliner">Boeing CST-100 Starliner</a>. The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch to space of <a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a> <a href="/wiki/VSS_Unity_VP-03" title="VSS Unity VP-03">Flight VP-03</a> on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> in 1975 and the <a href="/wiki/STS-1" title="STS-1">first Space Shuttle flight</a> in 1981, is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.
</p><p>SpaceX <a href="/wiki/Dragon_2" title="Dragon 2">Dragon 2</a> launched on May 30, 2020 with a crew of 2 US astronauts, making it the first flight to the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> from US soil since <a href="/wiki/STS-135" title="STS-135">STS-135</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Commercial_private_spaceflight">Commercial private spaceflight</span></h3>
<p>Since the early 2000s, a variety of <a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">private spaceflight</a> ventures have been undertaken. Several of the companies, including <a href="/wiki/Blue_Origin" title="Blue Origin">Blue Origin</a>, <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Galactic" title="Virgin Galactic">Virgin Galactic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_Corporation" title="Sierra Nevada Corporation">Sierra Nevada</a> have explicit plans to advance human spaceflight. As of 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, all four of those companies have development programs underway to fly commercial passengers.
</p><p>A commercial <a href="/wiki/Suborbital_spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Suborbital spaceflight">suborbital</a> spacecraft aimed at the <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourism</a> market is being developed by <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Galactic" title="Virgin Galactic">Virgin Galactic</a> called <a href="/wiki/SpaceshipTwo" class="mw-redirect" title="SpaceshipTwo">SpaceshipTwo</a> which reached space in December 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
<a href="/wiki/Blue_Origin" title="Blue Origin">Blue Origin</a> has begun a multi-year <a href="/wiki/Flight_test" title="Flight test">test</a> program of their <a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a> vehicle and carried out 11 successful uncrewed test flights in 2015–2019. Blue Origin planned to fly with humans in 2019.
</p><p>SpaceX and <a href="/wiki/Boeing_Defense,_Space_%26_Security" title="Boeing Defense, Space & Security">Boeing</a> are both developing passenger-capable <a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">orbital</a> <a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">space capsules</a> as of 2020, with SpaceX carrying <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Development" title="Commercial Crew Development">NASA astronauts to the International Space Station</a> onboard a <a href="/wiki/Crew_Dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Crew Dragon">Crew Dragon</a> spacecraft launched on a <a href="/wiki/Falcon_9_Block_5" title="Falcon 9 Block 5">Falcon 9 Block 5</a> launch vehicle. Boeing will be doing it with their <a href="/wiki/CST-100" class="mw-redirect" title="CST-100">CST-100</a> launched on a <a href="/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance" title="United Launch Alliance">United Launch Alliance</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_V" title="Atlas V">Atlas V</a> launch vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-nasaAnnounce20140906_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasaAnnounce20140906-14">[14]</a></sup>
Development funding for these orbital-capable technologies has been provided by a mix of <a href="/wiki/Government_funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Government funding">government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Private_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Private capital">private</a> funds, with SpaceX providing a greater portion of total development funding for this human-carrying capability from private investment.<sup id="cite_ref-sn20140921_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sn20140921-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASApress20140916_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASApress20140916-16">[16]</a></sup>
There have been no public announcements of commercial offerings for orbital flights from either company, although both companies are planning some flights with their own private, not NASA, astronauts on board.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Milestones">Milestones</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="By_achievement">By achievement</span></h3>
<dl><dt>12 April 1961</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> was the first human in space and the first in Earth orbit, on <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a> on 12 April 1961.</dd>
<dt>17 July 1962 or 19 July 1963</dt>
<dd>Either <a href="/wiki/Robert_Michael_White" title="Robert Michael White">Robert M. White</a> or <a href="/wiki/Joseph_A._Walker" title="Joseph A. Walker">Joseph A. Walker</a> (depending on the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Space_border" class="mw-redirect" title="Space border">space border</a>) were first to pilot a <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a>, the <a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">North American X-15</a>, on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker).</dd>
<dt>18 March 1965</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Leonov" title="Alexei Leonov">Alexei Leonov</a> was first to <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">walk in space</a>, on 18 March 1965.</dd>
<dt>15 December 1965</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_M._Schirra" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter M. Schirra">Walter M. Schirra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_P._Stafford" title="Thomas P. Stafford">Tom Stafford</a> were first to perform a <a href="/wiki/Space_rendezvous" title="Space rendezvous">space rendezvous</a>, piloting their <a href="/wiki/Gemini_6A" title="Gemini 6A">Gemini 6A</a> spacecraft and station-keeping one foot (30 cm) from <a href="/wiki/Gemini_7" title="Gemini 7">Gemini 7</a> for over 5 hours.</dd>
<dt>16 March 1966</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Neil_Armstrong" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Scott" title="David Scott">David Scott</a> were first to <a href="/wiki/Docking_and_berthing_of_spacecraft" title="Docking and berthing of spacecraft">rendezvous and dock</a>, piloting their <a href="/wiki/Gemini_8" title="Gemini 8">Gemini 8</a> spacecraft to dock with an uncrewed <a href="/wiki/Agena_Target_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Agena Target Vehicle">Agena Target Vehicle</a>.</dd>
<dt>December 1968</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">Jim Lovell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" class="mw-redirect" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> were first to travel beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and first to orbit the Moon, on the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a> mission which orbited the Moon ten times before returning to Earth, from 21-27 Dec 1968.</dd>
<dt>20 July 1969</dt>
<dd>Neil Armstrong and <a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a> were first to land on the Moon, on 20 July 1969 during <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a>.</dd>
<dt>Longest time in space</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Valeri_Polyakov" title="Valeri Polyakov">Valeri Polyakov</a> performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days, 17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds). <a href="/wiki/Gennady_Padalka" title="Gennady Padalka">Gennady Padalka</a> has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days.</dd>
<dt>Longest crewed space station</dt>
<dd>The <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present (19 years and 223 days). This record was previously held by <a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_TM-8" title="Soyuz TM-8">Soyuz TM-8</a> on 5 September 1989 to the <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_TM-29" title="Soyuz TM-29">Soyuz TM-29</a> on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,634 days (almost 10 years).</dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="By_nationality_or_sex">By nationality or sex</span></h3>
<dl><dt>12 April 1961</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> became the first Soviet as well as the first human to reach space on <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a> on 12 April 1961.</dd></dl>
<dl><dt>5 May 1961</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a> became the first American to reach space on <i><a href="/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_3" title="Mercury-Redstone 3">Freedom 7</a></i> on 5 May 1961.</dd>
<dt>20 February 1962</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a> became the first American to orbit the Earth on 20 February 1962.</dd>
<dt>16 June 1963</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a> became the first woman to go into space and to orbit the Earth on 16 June 1963.</dd>
<dt>2 March 1978</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Vladim%C3%ADr_Remek" title="Vladimír Remek">Vladimír Remek</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakian</a>, became the first non-American and non-Soviet in space on 2 March 1978.</dd>
<dt>2 April 1984</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_Sharma" title="Rakesh Sharma">Rakesh Sharma</a>, became the first Indian citizen to reach Earth's orbit on 2 April 1984.</dd>
<dt>25 July 1984</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Savitskaya" title="Svetlana Savitskaya">Svetlana Savitskaya</a> became the first woman to <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">walk in space</a> on 25 July 1984.</dd>
<dt>15 October 2003</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Yang_Liwei" title="Yang Liwei">Yang Liwei</a> became the first Chinese in space and the Earth's orbit on <a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_5" title="Shenzhou 5">Shenzhou 5</a> on 15 October 2003.</dd>
<dt>18 October 2019</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Christina_Koch" title="Christina Koch">Christina Koch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Meir" title="Jessica Meir">Jessica Meir</a> conduct the first woman-only <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">walk in space</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p><a href="/wiki/Sally_Ride" title="Sally Ride">Sally Ride</a> became the first American woman in space in 1983. <a href="/wiki/Eileen_Collins" title="Eileen Collins">Eileen Collins</a> was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission <a href="/wiki/STS-93" title="STS-93">STS-93</a> in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft.
</p><p>For many years, only the USSR (later <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>) and the United States had their own astronauts. Citizens of other nations flew in space, beginning with the flight of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Remek" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir Remek">Vladimir Remek</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech</a>, on a Soviet spacecraft on 2 March 1978, in the <a href="/wiki/Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a> programme. As of 2010<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, citizens from 38 nations (including <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourists</a>) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Space_programs">Space programs</span></h2>
<p>Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the former Soviet Union and currently Russia, the United States, <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a>, and by the American <a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">private spaceflight</a> companies.
</p>
<div class="mw-graph" style="min-width:1px;min-height:1px"><img class="mw-graph-img" src="/api/rest_v1/page/graph/png/Human_spaceflight/0/d8c4029e416c4998cdc2b1ab99666f5abff9e113.png" /></div>
<div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #204a87; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Currently have human spaceflight programs.</div>
<div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #729fcf; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Confirmed and dated plans for human spaceflight programs.</div>
<div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #4e9a06; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Plans for human spaceflight on the simplest form (suborbital spaceflight, <i>etc.</i>).</div>
<div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ce5c00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Plans for human spaceflight on the extreme form (space stations, <i>etc.</i>).</div>
<div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #2e3436; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Once had official plans for human spaceflight programs, but have since been abandoned.</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Current_programs">Current programs</span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Space_vehicle" title="Space vehicle">Space vehicles</a> are <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> used for transportation between the Earth's surface and outer space, or between locations in outer space. The following space vehicles and <a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">spaceports</a> are currently used for launching human spaceflights:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz program</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>/Russia): spacecraft on <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz launch vehicle</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a>; 140 crewed orbital flights since 1967, including two in-flight aborts which failed to reach orbit, as of March 2019<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_program" title="Shenzhou program">Shenzhou program</a> (China): spacecraft on <a href="/wiki/Long_March_(rocket_family)" title="Long March (rocket family)">Long March launch vehicle</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Jiuquan_Satellite_Launch_Center" title="Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center">Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center</a>; 5 flights since 2003, as of July 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">Spaceshiptwo</a> (US): Air launched from <a href="/wiki/Scaled_Composites_White_Knight_Two" title="Scaled Composites White Knight Two">White knight two</a> carrier aircraft. 2 suborbital spaceflights since 2018, as of February 2019</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crew_Dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Crew Dragon">Crew Dragon</a> (US): Part of the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Program" title="Commercial Crew Program">Commercial Crew Program</a>, launched from <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Falcon_9_Block_5" title="Falcon 9 Block 5">Falcon 9</a> rocket. One successful launch with more in the planning stages.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>The following <a href="/wiki/Space_stations" class="mw-redirect" title="Space stations">space stations</a> are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (US and Russia) assembled in orbit: altitude 409 kilometers (221 nautical miles), 51.65° inclination; crews transported by Soyuz spacecraft</li></ul>
<p>Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million <a href="/wiki/Ansari_X_Prize" title="Ansari X Prize">Ansari X Prize</a>. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. SpaceShipOne captured the prize on 4 October 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week.
</p><p>Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, whose crew of six spends up to six months at a time in <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and <a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA">ESA</a> use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions," though because of gender specificity this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Planned_future_programs">Planned future programs</span></h3>
<p>On 15 August 2018 the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister of India</a> <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a>, from the rampart of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Fort" title="Red Fort">Red Fort</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>, formally announced the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Human_Spaceflight_Programme" title="Indian Human Spaceflight Programme">Indian Human Spaceflight Programme</a>. Through this Programme, India is planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle <a href="/wiki/Gaganyaan" title="Gaganyaan">Gaganyaan</a> by the end of 2021. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</a> (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> The objective is to carry a crew of three to <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> (LEO) and return them safely for a water-landing at a predefined landing zone. The program is proposed to be implemented in defined phases. Currently, the activities are progressing with a focus on the development of critical technologies for subsystems such as the Crew Module (CM), Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), Crew Escape System, etc. The department has initiated activities to study technical and managerial issues related to crewed missions. The program envisages the development of a fully autonomous orbital vehicle carrying 2 or 3 crew members to about 300 km (190 mi) low Earth orbit and to bring them safely back home. In June 2019, ISRO Chairman K. Sivan revealed plans for a space station by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s. The first step will begin with <a href="/wiki/Artemis_1" title="Artemis 1">Artemis 1</a> in 2021, sending an uncrewed <a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a> spacecraft to a <a href="/wiki/Distant_retrograde_orbit" title="Distant retrograde orbit">distant retrograde orbit</a> around the Moon and return it to Earth after a 25-day mission.
</p><p>Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs utilizing natively developed equipment and technology, including <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> (<a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">JAXA</a>), <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">ISA</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Malaysian_National_Space_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian National Space Agency">MNSA</a>).
</p>
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alt="Valentin Lebedev" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Anatoli_Berezovoy" coords="336,45,373,66" title="Anatoli Berezovoy" alt="Anatoli Berezovoy" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Viktor_Savinykh" coords="314,189,350,210" title="Viktor Savinykh" alt="Viktor Savinykh" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kovalyonok" coords="314,175,350,196" title="Vladimir Kovalyonok" alt="Vladimir Kovalyonok" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Valery_Ryumin" coords="305,161,341,181" title="Valery Ryumin" alt="Valery Ryumin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Leonid_Popov" coords="305,146,341,167" title="Leonid Popov" alt="Leonid Popov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Georgi_Ivanov_(cosmonaut)" coords="283,132,319,152" title="Georgi Ivanov (cosmonaut)" alt="Georgi Ivanov (cosmonaut)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Valery_Ryumin" coords="288,117,324,138" title="Valery Ryumin" alt="Valery Ryumin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lyankhov" coords="288,103,324,124" title="Vladimir Lyankhov" alt="Vladimir Lyankhov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Ivanchenkov" coords="277,89,313,109" title="Aleksandr Ivanchenkov" alt="Aleksandr Ivanchenkov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kovalyonok" coords="277,74,313,95" title="Vladimir Kovalyonok" alt="Vladimir Kovalyonok" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Gerogi_Grencho" coords="267,60,304,80" title="Gerogi Grencho" alt="Gerogi Grencho" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yuri_Romanenko" coords="267,45,304,66" title="Yuri Romanenko" alt="Yuri Romanenko" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yuri_Glazkov" coords="252,218,288,239" title="Yuri Glazkov" alt="Yuri Glazkov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Viktor_Gorbatko" coords="252,204,288,224" title="Viktor Gorbatko" alt="Viktor Gorbatko" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vitali_Zholobov" coords="245,189,281,210" title="Vitali Zholobov" alt="Vitali Zholobov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Boris_Volynov" coords="245,175,281,196" title="Boris Volynov" alt="Boris Volynov" 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coords="208,132,244,152" title="Gerald Carr" alt="Gerald Carr" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Owen_Garriot" coords="202,117,239,138" title="Owen Garriot" alt="Owen Garriot" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jack_Lousma" coords="202,103,239,124" title="Jack Lousma" alt="Jack Lousma" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Alan_Bean" coords="202,89,239,109" title="Alan Bean" alt="Alan Bean" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Joeseph_Kerwin" coords="199,74,235,95" title="Joeseph Kerwin" alt="Joeseph Kerwin" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paul_Weitz" coords="199,60,235,80" title="Paul Weitz" alt="Paul Weitz" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Pete_Conrad" coords="199,45,235,66" title="Pete Conrad" alt="Pete Conrad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Vladislav_Volkov" coords="170,74,206,95" title="Vladislav Volkov" alt="Vladislav Volkov" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Viktor_Patsayev" coords="170,60,206,80" title="Viktor Patsayev" alt="Viktor Patsayev" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Georgi_Dobrovolski" coords="170,45,206,66" title="Georgi Dobrovolski" alt="Georgi Dobrovolski" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_7aa37849a512dbc80987535f35687e38" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/7aa37849a512dbc80987535f35687e38.png" /></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Passenger_travel_via_spacecraft">Passenger travel via spacecraft</span></h2>
<p>A number of spacecraft have been proposed over the decades that might facilitate spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by <a href="/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">airliner</a> after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to <a href="/wiki/Space_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Space transport">transport</a> a large number of passengers to destinations in space, or to destinations on Earth which travel through space. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the <a href="/wiki/Test_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Test flight">flight testing</a> phase of their development process.
</p><p>One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the <a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">SpaceX Starship</a> which, in addition to replacing the <a href="/wiki/Falcon_9" title="Falcon 9">Falcon 9</a> and <a href="/wiki/Falcon_Heavy" title="Falcon Heavy">Falcon Heavy</a> <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a> in the legacy Earth-orbit <a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">market</a> after 2020, has been proposed by SpaceX for long-distance commercial travel on Earth. This is to transport people on point-to-point <a href="/wiki/Suborbital_spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Suborbital spaceflight">suborbital</a> flights between two points on Earth in under one hour, also known as "Earth-to-Earth," and carrying 100+ passengers.<sup id="cite_ref-rollingstone20171115_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rollingstone20171115-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sxEarthToEarth201709_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sxEarthToEarth201709-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sn20171015c_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sn20171015c-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>Small <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a> or small <a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">capsule</a> suborbital spacecraft have been under development for the past decade or so and, as of 2017<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, at least one of each type are under development. Both <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Galactic" title="Virgin Galactic">Virgin Galactic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blue_Origin" title="Blue Origin">Blue Origin</a> are in active <a href="/wiki/New_product_development" title="New product development">development</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a> spaceplane and the <a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a> capsule, respectively. Both would carry approximately a half-dozen passengers up to space for a brief time of zero gravity before returning to the same location from where the trip began. <a href="/wiki/XCOR_Aerospace" title="XCOR Aerospace">XCOR Aerospace</a> had been developing the <a href="/wiki/Lynx_(spacecraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynx (spacecraft)">Lynx single-passenger spaceplane</a> since the 2000s<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> but development was halted in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-sn20171109_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sn20171109-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="National_spacefaring_attempts">National spacefaring attempts</span></h2>
<dl><dd><i>This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/List_of_space_travelers_by_nationality" title="List of space travelers by nationality">nations with citizens who have traveled into space</a> including space tourists, flown or intended to fly by foreign country's or non-domestic private space systems – these are not counted as national spacefaring attempts in this list.</i></dd></dl>
<p><br />
</p>
<table class="wikitable" border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;">
<tbody><tr style="background:#f9f9b0;">
<th>Nation/Organization
</th>
<th>Space agency
</th>
<th>Term(s) for space traveler
</th>
<th>First launched astronaut
</th>
<th>Date
</th>
<th>Spacecraft
</th>
<th>Launcher
</th>
<th>Type
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a><br />(1922–1991)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/OKB-1" class="mw-redirect" title="OKB-1">OKB-1 Design Bureau</a>)
</td>
<td>космонавт (same word in:) <span class="languageicon">(in Russian and Ukrainian)</span><br /><i>kosmonavt</i><br />cosmonaut<br />Ғарышкер<span class="languageicon">(in Kazakh)</span>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>
</td>
<td>12 April 1961
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Vostok_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok spacecraft">Vostok spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Vostok_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok rocket">Vostok</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)</a>
</td>
<td>astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a> (suborbital)
</td>
<td>5 May 1961
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mercury_spacecraft#Spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercury spacecraft">Mercury spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_Launch_Vehicle" title="Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle">Redstone</a>
</td>
<td>Suborbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)</a>
</td>
<td>astronaut<br />spaceflight participant
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a> (orbital)
</td>
<td>20 February 1962
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Mercury_spacecraft#Spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercury spacecraft">Mercury spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Atlas_LV-3B" title="Atlas LV-3B">Atlas LV-3B</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program of the People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><span lang="zh-Hans" title="Chinese language text">宇航员</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><i lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization">yǔhángyuán</i><br /><span lang="zh-Hans" title="Chinese language text">航天员</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><i lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization">hángtiānyuán</i>
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td>1973 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Shuguang_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuguang spacecraft">Shuguang 1</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Long_March_2A" title="Long March 2A">Long March 2A</a>
</td>
<td>–
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program of the People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><span lang="zh-Hans" title="Chinese language text">宇航员</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><i lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization">yǔhángyuán</i><br /><span lang="zh-Hans" title="Chinese language text">航天员</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><i lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization">hángtiānyuán</i>
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td>1981 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Fanhui_Shi_Weixing" title="Fanhui Shi Weixing">Piloted FSW</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Long_March_2" title="Long March 2">Long March 2</a>
</td>
<td>–
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Not_the_esa_logo.png" class="image"><img alt="Not the esa logo.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Not_the_esa_logo.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="15" data-file-width="24" data-file-height="15" /></a> <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">CNES</a> / <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency (ESA)</a>
</td>
<td><i>spationaute</i> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span><br />astronaut
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td>1992 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Hermes_(shuttle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermes (shuttle)">Hermes</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Ariane_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariane V">Ariane V</a>
</td>
<td>–
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a><br />
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Russian_Federal_Space_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federal Space Agency">Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos)</a> <br />
</td>
<td>космонавт <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span><br /><i>kosmonavt</i><br />cosmonaut
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Viktorenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Viktorenko">Alexander Viktorenko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kaleri" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Kaleri">Alexander Kaleri</a>
</td>
<td>17 March 1992
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz-TM" title="Soyuz-TM">Soyuz-TM</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz-U2" title="Soyuz-U2">Soyuz-U2</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_TM-14" title="Soyuz TM-14">Soyuz TM-14</a> to MIR
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a><br />(1968–2003)<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[note 1]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td><span lang="ar" dir="rtl" title="Arabic language text">رجل فضاء</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>)</span><br /><i lang="ar-Latn" title="Arabic-language romanization">rajul faḍāʼ</i><br /><span lang="ar" dir="rtl" title="Arabic language text">رائد فضاء</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>)</span><br /><i lang="ar-Latn" title="Arabic-language romanization">rāʼid faḍāʼ</i><br /><span lang="ar" dir="rtl" title="Arabic language text">ملاح فضائي</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>)</span><br /><i>mallāḥ faḍāʼiy</i>
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td>2001 (abandoned)
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tammouz_rocket&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tammouz rocket (page does not exist)">Tammouz 2 or 3</a>
</td>
<td>–
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/National_Space_Development_Agency_of_Japan" title="National Space Development Agency of Japan">National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)</a>
</td>
<td><span lang="ja" title="Japanese language text">宇宙飛行士</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>)</span><br /><i lang="ja-Latn" title="Japanese-language romanization">uchūhikōshi</i> or<br /> <span class="t_nihongo_kanji"><span lang="ja" title="Japanese language text">アストロノート</span></span><br /> <i lang="ja-Latn" title="Japanese-language romanization">asutoronoto</i>
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td>2003 (abandoned)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/HOPE-X" title="HOPE-X">HOPE</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/H-II" title="H-II">H-II</a>
</td>
<td>–
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration" title="China National Space Administration">China National Space Administration (CNSA)</a>
</td>
<td><span lang="zh-Hans" title="Chinese language text">宇航员</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><i lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization">yǔhángyuán</i><br /><span lang="zh-Hans" title="Chinese language text">航天员</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>)</span><br /><i lang="zh-Latn" title="Chinese-language romanization">hángtiānyuán</i><br />taikonaut (<span lang="zh">太空人</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">tàikōng rén</span></i>)
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Yang_Liwei" title="Yang Liwei">Yang Liwei</a>
</td>
<td>15 October 2003
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_(spacecraft)" title="Shenzhou (spacecraft)">Shenzhou spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Long_March_2F" title="Long March 2F">Long March 2F</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /> </span><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)</a>
</td>
<td>Vyomanaut <br /> <span class="languageicon">(in Sanskrit)</span>
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td>2022<sup id="cite_ref-launch_2022_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-launch_2022-29">[28]</a></sup>
</td>
<td><i><a href="/wiki/Gaganyaan" title="Gaganyaan">Gaganyaan</a></i>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_Satellite_Launch_Vehicle_Mk_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III">GSLV Mk III</a>
</td>
<td>Orbital
<p><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/File:Not_the_esa_logo.png" class="image"><img alt="Not the esa logo.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Not_the_esa_logo.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="15" data-file-width="24" data-file-height="15" /></a> <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency (ESA)</a>
</td>
<td>astronaut
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td>2020 (concept approved in 2009; but full development not begun)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle" title="Automated Transfer Vehicle">ARV phase-2</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Ariane_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariane V">Ariane V</a>
</td>
<td>–
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Japan_Aerospace_Exploration_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency">Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)</a>
</td>
<td><span lang="ja" title="Japanese language text">宇宙飛行士</span>  <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:85%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>)</span><br /><i lang="ja-Latn" title="Japanese-language romanization">uchūhikōshi</i> or<br /> <span class="t_nihongo_kanji"><span lang="ja" title="Japanese language text">アストロノート</span></span><br /> <i lang="ja-Latn" title="Japanese-language romanization">asutoronoto</i>
</td>
<td>...
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/H-II_Transfer_Vehicle" title="H-II Transfer Vehicle">HTV-based spacecraft</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/H-IIB" title="H-IIB">H-IIB</a>
</td>
<td>–
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><br />
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Safety_concerns">Safety concerns</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dead_astronauts" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead astronauts">Dead astronauts</a></div>
<p>There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the environment of space which make it hostile to the human body, and the potential for mechanical malfunctions of the equipment required to accomplish space flight.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Environmental_hazards">Environmental hazards</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Space_habitat" title="Space habitat">Space habitat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Locomotion_in_Space" class="mw-redirect" title="Locomotion in Space">Locomotion in Space</a></div>
<p>Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Life_support">Life support</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Life_support_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support system">Life support system</a></div>
<p>The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the <a href="/wiki/Life_support_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support system">life support system</a> of the spacecraft.
</p>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astronautical_hygiene" title="Astronautical hygiene">Astronautical hygiene</a></div>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Medical_issues">Medical issues</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep in space</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></div>
<p>Medical consequences such as possible <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blindness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bone_Loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone Loss">bone loss</a> have been associated with human <a href="/wiki/Space_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Space flight">space flight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20140127_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140127-36">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wired-20120723_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wired-20120723-37">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 31 December 2012, a <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> of <a href="/wiki/Astronauts" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronauts">astronauts</a> and accelerate the onset of <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PLOS-20121231_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLOS-20121231-38">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SpaceRef-20130101_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpaceRef-20130101-39">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NasaWatch-20130103_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NasaWatch-20130103-40">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>In October 2015, the <a href="/wiki/NASA_Office_of_Inspector_General" title="NASA Office of Inspector General">NASA Office of Inspector General</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">health hazards report</a> related to <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>, including a <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">human mission to Mars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20151029_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20151029-41">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20151029oig_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20151029oig-42">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> have been found in <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a> who have taken <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">trips in space</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI studies</a>. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.<sup id="cite_ref-NEJM-20171102_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEJM-20171102-43">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-QTZ-20171103_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QTZ-20171103-44">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS) of five <i><a href="/wiki/Enterobacter" title="Enterobacter">Enterobacter bugandensis</a></i> bacterial strains, none <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a> to humans, that <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EA-20181122_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EA-20181122-45">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BMC-20181123_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMC-20181123-46">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>In March 2019, NASA reported that latent <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> in humans may be activated during space missions, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.<sup id="cite_ref-EA-20190315_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EA-20190315-47">[46]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Microgravity">Microgravity</span></h5>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_fluid_shift.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Space_fluid_shift.gif/220px-Space_fluid_shift.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="293" data-file-height="151" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_fluid_shift.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).</div></div></div>
<p>Medical data from astronauts in low Earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these <a href="/wiki/Deconditioning" title="Deconditioning">deconditioning</a> effects can impair astronauts' performance or increase their risk of injury.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a> or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes them to weaken and get smaller. Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days. The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a></sup> Upon return to Earth from long-duration flights, astronauts are considerably weakened, and are not allowed to drive a car for twenty-one days.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get <a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">motion sickness</a>, and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, or any other mass with gravity, they have to readjust to the gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. Importantly, those body motor disturbances after changing from different gravities only get worse the longer the exposure to little gravity.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a></sup> These changes will affect operational activities including approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may happen while landing. This can be a major roadblock to mission success.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In addition, after long <a href="/wiki/Space_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Space flight">space flight</a> missions, male astronauts may experience severe <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">eyesight</a> problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Mader-2011_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mader-2011-52">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Puiu-20111109_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puiu-20111109-53">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNN-20120109_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20120109-54">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Space-20120313_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Space-20120313-55">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Radiology-20120313_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radiology-20120313-56">[55]</a></sup> Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a <a href="/wiki/Crewed_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Crewed mission">crewed mission</a> to the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mader-2011_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mader-2011-52">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Puiu-20111109_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puiu-20111109-53">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNN-20120109_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20120109-54">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Space-20120313_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Space-20120313-55">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WIRED-20140212_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIRED-20140212-57">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Radiation">Radiation</span></h5>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png/220px-PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1017" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_assessment_detector" title="Radiation assessment detector">RAD</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">MSL</a> (2011–2013).<sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20130531a_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531a-58">[57]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a> and associated <a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">solar particle events</a> (SPEs). <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Townsend" title="Lawrence Townsend">Lawrence Townsend</a> of the University of Tennessee and others have studied the <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of 1859">overall most powerful solar storm ever recorded</a>. The flare was seen by the British astronomer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Christopher_Carrington" title="Richard Christopher Carrington">Richard Carrington</a> in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type storm could cause acute <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">radiation sickness</a> and possibly even death.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a></sup> Another storm that could have incurred a lethal radiation dose if astronauts were outside the Earth's protective <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a>, in fact, shortly after <a href="/wiki/Apollo_16" title="Apollo 16">Apollo 16</a> landed and before <a href="/wiki/Apollo_17" title="Apollo 17">Apollo 17</a> launched.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_August_1972" title="Solar storm of August 1972">solar storm of August 1972</a> would likely at least have caused acute illness.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another type of radiation, galactic <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a></sup> Some of the problems are a weakened <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> and the activation of dormant <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> in the body. <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> can cause both short and long term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Isolation">Isolation</span></h5>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body#Psychological_effects" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body § Psychological effects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight</a></div>
<p>During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined into small spaces. <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cabin_fever" title="Cabin fever">cabin fever</a> and other psychological problems may impact the crew's safety and mission success.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on their limited existing resources and medical advice from the ground.
</p><p>During astronauts' stay in space, they may experience mental disorders (such as post-trauma, depression, anxiety, etc.), more than for an average person. NASA spends millions of dollars on psychological treatments for astronauts and former astronauts.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a></sup> To date, there is no way to prevent or reduce mental problems caused by extended periods of stay in space.
</p><p>Due to these mental disorders, the efficiency of their work is impaired and sometimes they are forced to send the astronauts back to Earth, which is very expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a></sup> A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that caused a fear of fluid leakage, but after a thorough investigation it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction.  It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinations of the smell, which brought many unnecessary wasted expenses.
</p><p>It is possible that the mental health of astronauts can be affected by the changes in the sensory systems while in prolonged space travel.
</p>
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Sensory_systems">Sensory systems</span></h5>
<p>During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in a very extreme state where there is no gravity. This given state and the fact that no change is taking place in the environment will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts in all seven senses.
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">Hearing</a> - In the space station and spacecraft there are only mechanical noises. There can be no environmental noise; there is no medium that can transmit the sound waves. Although there are other team members who can talk to each other, their voices stop stimulating the sense of hearing, since they get used to it quickly.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sight" class="mw-redirect" title="Sight">Sight</a> - Because of the zero gravity, the body's liquids equalize in pressure throughout the body, a situation which is different from that on the Earth, where the pressures are not equal. Because of this reason, the astronauts' face swells and presses on the eyes, and therefore their vision is impaired. In addition, the landscape surrounding the astronauts is constant, which damages the visual stimulations. In addition, due to cosmic rays, astronauts may see flashes.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_smell" class="mw-redirect" title="Sense of smell">Smell</a> - The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taste" title="Taste">Taste</a> - The sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is damaged, the sense of taste is also damaged. The astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten. The food comes only once every few months when supplies arrive, and there is little to no variety.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Touch</a> – There are almost no physical contact changes. There is almost no human physical contact during the journey.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">vestibular system</a> (motion and equilibrium system) - Due to the lack of gravity, all the movement of the astronauts changes, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change.</li>
<li>The <a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception system</a> (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) - As a result of the zero gravity, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles and there is no input to this system.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mechanical_hazards">Mechanical hazards</span></h3>
<p>Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, which in turn requires the use of high <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Launch">Launch</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Launch_escape_system" title="Launch escape system">Launch escape system</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sts33-e204.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sts33-e204.jpg/220px-Sts33-e204.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="409" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Sts33-e204.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>There was no practical way for the Space Shuttle <i>Challenger'</i>s crew to safely abort before the vehicle's violent disintegration.</div></div></div>
<p>Since rockets carry the potential for fire or explosive destruction, <a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">space capsules</a> generally employ some sort of <a href="/wiki/Launch_escape_system" title="Launch escape system">launch escape system</a>, consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the <a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicle</a> (employed on <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apollo_(spacecraft)" title="Apollo (spacecraft)">Apollo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz spacecraft">Soyuz</a>), or else <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seats</a> (employed on <a href="/wiki/Vostok_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok spacecraft">Vostok</a> and <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a>) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landing. The escape tower is discarded at some point before the launch is complete, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines.
</p><p>Such a system is not always practical for multiple crew member vehicles (particularly <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplanes</a>), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person <a href="/wiki/Voskhod_(spacecraft)" title="Voskhod (spacecraft)">Voskhod</a>, the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps. The <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights, but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued.
</p><p>There have only been two in-flight launch aborts of a crewed flight. The first occurred on <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T_No.39" title="Soyuz 7K-T No.39">Soyuz 18a</a> on 5 April 1975. The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited. The vehicle strayed off course, and the crew separated the spacecraft and fired its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket. Both cosmonauts landed safely. The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_MS-10" title="Soyuz MS-10">Soyuz MS-10</a>. Again, both crew members survived.
</p><p>In the first use of a launch escape system on a crewed flight, the planned <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_7K-ST_No._16L" title="Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L">Soyuz T-10a</a> launch on 26 September 1983 was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff. Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely.
</p><p>The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i></a> broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster" title="Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster">solid rocket booster</a> seal which caused separation of the booster and failure of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">external fuel tank</a>, resulting in explosion of the fuel. All seven crew members were killed.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Spacewalking">Spacewalking</span></h4>
<p>Despite the ever-present risks related to mechanical failures while working in open space, no <a href="/wiki/Spacewalking" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacewalking">spacewalking astronaut</a> has ever been lost. There is a requirement for spacewalking astronauts to use tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors. If those fail, a spacewalking astronaut would most probably float away according to relevant forces that were acting on him when breaking loose. Astronaut would possibly be spinning as kicking and flailing is of no use. At the right angle and velocity, he might even re-enter the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> and burn away completely. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> has protocols for such situations: astronauts would be wearing an emergency jetpack, which would automatically counter any tumbling to stabilize them. Then NASA's plan states that astronauts should take manual control and fly back to safety.
</p><p>However, if the pack's 3 pounds of fuel runs up, and if there is no other astronaut in close proximity to help, or if the air lock is irreparably damaged, the <a href="/wiki/Death_in_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Death in space">outcome would certainly be fatal</a>. At the moment, there is no spacecraft to save an astronaut floating in space as the only one with a rescue-ready air-locked compartment — <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_retirement" title="Space Shuttle retirement">the Space Shuttle</a> — retired years ago. There's approximately a litre of water available via straw in astronaut's helmet. He would wait roughly for 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Reentry_and_landing">Reentry and landing</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_reentry" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric reentry">Atmospheric reentry</a></div>
<p>The single pilot of <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_1" title="Soyuz 1">Soyuz 1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Komarov" title="Vladimir Komarov">Vladimir Komarov</a> was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash.
</p><p>The crew of seven aboard the <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia" title="Space Shuttle Columbia"><i>Columbia</i></a> were <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">killed on reentry</a> after completing a <a href="/wiki/STS-107" title="STS-107">successful mission in space</a> on 1 February 2003. A wing leading edge <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_carbon-carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced carbon-carbon">reinforced carbon-carbon</a> heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">external tank</a> foam insulation which broke off and struck the wing during launch. Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to the breakup of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" title="Space Shuttle orbiter">orbiter vehicle</a>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Artificial_atmosphere">Artificial atmosphere</span></h4>
<p>There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for <a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">extravehicular activity</a>.
</p><p>The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a> (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment. There have also been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen.
</p>
<ul><li>In 1960, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonnell Aircraft">McDonnell Aircraft</a> test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin/spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his spacesuit feed.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a></sup> This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft.</li>
<li>In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia" title="Space Shuttle Columbia"><i>Columbia</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39">Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a></sup></li>
<li>In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the <a href="/wiki/Ariane_5" title="Ariane 5">Ariane 5</a> launch pad at <a href="/wiki/Guiana_Space_Centre" title="Guiana Space Centre">Guiana Space Centre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of <a href="/wiki/Apollo_1" title="Apollo 1">Apollo 1</a> during a ground test at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Air_Force_Station_Launch_Complex_34" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34">Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34</a> on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure (increased even higher by the fire) prevented removal of the <a href="/wiki/Plug_door" title="Plug door">plug door</a> hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three, <a href="/wiki/Gus_Grissom" title="Gus Grissom">Gus Grissom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ed_White_(astronaut)" title="Ed White (astronaut)">Ed White</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Chaffee" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Chaffee">Roger Chaffee</a>, were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-SP4029_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SP4029-71">[70]</a></sup> This led NASA to use a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Reliability">Reliability</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a></div>
<p>The March 1966 <a href="/wiki/Gemini_8" title="Gemini 8">Gemini 8</a> mission was aborted in orbit when an <a href="/wiki/Attitude_control_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Attitude control system">attitude control system</a> thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin which threatened the lives of <a href="/wiki/Neil_Armstrong" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Scott" title="David Scott">David Scott</a>. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a> discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit.
</p><p>The third lunar landing expedition <a href="/wiki/Apollo_13" title="Apollo 13">Apollo 13</a> in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">James Lovell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Swigert" title="Jack Swigert">Jack Swigert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Haise" title="Fred Haise">Fred Haise</a>, were threatened by failure of a <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">cryogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a> tank en route to the Moon. The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the loss of its remaining oxygen in a span of 130 minutes. This in turn caused loss of electrical power provided by <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Command/Service_Module" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo Command/Service Module">command spacecraft</a>. The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module" title="Apollo Lunar Module">lunar landing craft</a> as a "life boat". The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes. The tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing. This necessitated use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test, which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication.
</p><p>The crew of <a href="/wiki/Soyuz_11" title="Soyuz 11">Soyuz 11</a> were killed on 30 June 1971 by a combination of mechanical malfunctions: they were <a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxiated</a> due to cabin decompression following separation of their descent capsule from the service module. A cabin ventilation valve had been jolted open at an altitude of 168 kilometres (551,000 ft) by the stronger than expected shock of explosive separation bolts which were designed to fire sequentially, but in fact, had fired simultaneously. The loss of pressure became fatal within about 30 seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fatality_risk">Fatality risk</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents#Non-astronaut_fatalities" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents § Non-astronaut fatalities</a></div>
<p>As of December 2015<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_spaceflight&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing.
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Date
</th>
<th>Mission
</th>
<th>Accident cause
</th>
<th>Deaths
</th>
<th>Cause of death
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>27 January 1967
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Apollo_1" title="Apollo 1">Apollo 1</a>
</td>
<td>Electrical fire in cabin, spread quickly by 16.7 psi (1.15 bar) pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove <a href="/wiki/Plug_door" title="Plug door">plug door</a> hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">3
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_arrest" title="Cardiac arrest">Cardiac arrest</a> from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> poisoning
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>15 November 1967
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/X-15_Flight_3-65-97" title="X-15 Flight 3-65-97">X-15 Flight 3-65-97</a>
</td>
<td>The accident board found that the cockpit instrumentation had been functioning properly, and concluded that Adams had lost control of the X-15 as a result of a combination of distraction, misinterpretation of his instrumentation display, and possible <a href="/wiki/Vertigo_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertigo (medical)">vertigo</a>. The electrical disturbance early in the flight degraded the overall effectiveness of the aircraft's control system and further added to pilot workload.
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1
</td>
<td>Vehicle breakup
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>24 April 1967
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_1" title="Soyuz 1">Soyuz 1</a>
</td>
<td>Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and entanglement of reserve parachute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitated emergency abort
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Physical_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical trauma">Trauma</a> from crash landing
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>30 June 1971
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_11" title="Soyuz 11">Soyuz 11</a>
</td>
<td>Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">3
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">Asphyxia</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>28 January 1986
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/STS-51L" class="mw-redirect" title="STS-51L">STS-51L</a> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i></a>
</td>
<td>Failure of <a href="/wiki/O-ring" title="O-ring">o-ring</a> inter-segment seal in one <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster" title="Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster">Solid Rocket Booster</a> in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">External Tank</a>; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">7
</td>
<td>Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>1 February 2003
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/STS-107" title="STS-107">STS-107</a> <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Columbia</i></a>
</td>
<td>Damaged <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_carbon-carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced carbon-carbon">reinforced carbon-carbon</a> heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by piece of <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" title="Space Shuttle external tank">External Tank</a> foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of wing, loss of control and disintegration of orbiter
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">7
</td>
<td>Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>31 October 2014
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a> <a href="/wiki/VSS_Enterprise_crash" title="VSS Enterprise crash">VSS <i>Enterprise</i> powered drop-test</a>
</td>
<td>Copilot error: premature deployment of "<a href="/wiki/Feathering_(reentry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Feathering (reentry)">feathering</a>" descent air-braking system caused disintegration of vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died
</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Physical_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical trauma">Trauma</a> from crash
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Human_representation_and_participation">Human representation and participation</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Women">Women</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Women in space</a></div>
<p>The first woman to ever enter space was <a href="/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a>. She flew in 1963 but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again. All astronauts were required to be military test pilots at the time and women were not able to enter this career, this is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> After the rule changed, <a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Savitskaya" title="Svetlana Savitskaya">Svetlana Savitskaya</a> became the second woman to enter space, she was also from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sally_Ride" title="Sally Ride">Sally Ride</a> became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program.
</p><p>Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. Due to some slow changes in the space programs to allow women.
The first all female space walk occurred in 2018, including <a href="/wiki/Christina_Koch" title="Christina Koch">Christina Koch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Meir" title="Jessica Meir">Jessica Meir</a>. These two women have both participated in separate space walks with NASA. The first woman to go to the moon is planned for 2024.
</p><p>Despite these developments women are still underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs and limit the space missions they are able to go on, are for example:
</p>
<ul><li>agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, argueing with unresearched potential risks for cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a></sup></li>
<li>a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts.<sup id="cite_ref-clothing_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clothing-76">[75]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>Additionally women have been treated in discriminatory ways, for example as with Sally Ride by beeing scrutinized more than her male counterparts and asked sexist questions by the press.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r936637989">.mw-parser-output .portal{border:solid #aaa 1px;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .portal.tleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portal.tright{margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul{display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul>li{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul>li>span:first-child{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portal>ul>li>span:last-child{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}</style><div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal plainlist tright">
<ul>
<li><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/28px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/42px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/56px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight portal</a></span></li></ul></div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflight_programs" title="List of human spaceflight programs">List of human spaceflight programs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights" title="List of human spaceflights">List of human spaceflights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">List of spaceflight records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">List of crewed spacecraft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crewed_Mars_rover" title="Crewed Mars rover">Crewed Mars rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_to_Stay" title="Mars to Stay">Mars to Stay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NewSpace" title="NewSpace">NewSpace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_on_the_Moon" title="Tourism on the Moon">Tourism on the Moon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Women in space</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tammouz_rocket&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tammouz rocket (page does not exist)">Tammouz</a> space launcher, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
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<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNASA1974" class="citation web">NASA (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm">"The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project"</a>. NASA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm">the original</a> on 23 August 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Partnership%3A+A+History+of+the+Apollo-Soyuz+Test+Project&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=1974&rft.au=NASA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2FSP-4209%2Fch8-2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html">"Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident"</a>. <i>NASA</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html">the original</a> on 3 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA&rft.atitle=Report+from+Joseph+P.+Kerwin%2C+biomedical+specialist+from+the+Johnson+Space+Center+in+Houston%2C+Texas%2C+relating+to+the+deaths+of+the+astronauts+in+the+Challenger+accident&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.nasa.gov%2Fkerwin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf">"COLUMBIA CREW SURVIVAL INVESTIGATION REPORT"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>NASA.gov</i>. NASA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA.gov&rft.atitle=COLUMBIA+CREW+SURVIVAL+INVESTIGATION+REPORT&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fpdf%2F298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKramer2013" class="citation web">Kramer, Miriam (27 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/22252-women-astronauts-radiation-risk.html">"Female Astronauts Face Discrimination from Space Radiation Concerns, Astronauts Say"</a>. <i>Space.com</i>. Purch<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Female+Astronauts+Face+Discrimination+from+Space+Radiation+Concerns%2C+Astronauts+Say&rft.date=2013-08-27&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F22252-women-astronauts-radiation-risk.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-clothing-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-clothing_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSokolowski2019" class="citation magazine">Sokolowski, Susan L. (5 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/female-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346">"Female astronauts: How performance products like space suits and bras are designed to pave the way for women's accomplishments"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Female+astronauts%3A+How+performance+products+like+space+suits+and+bras+are+designed+to+pave+the+way+for+women%E2%80%99s+accomplishments&rft.date=2019-04-05&rft.aulast=Sokolowski&rft.aufirst=Susan+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Ffemale-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+spaceflight" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span></h2>
<ul><li>David Darling: <i>The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity</i>. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-05649-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-05649-9">0-471-05649-9</a>.</li>
<li>Wiley J. Larson (Hrsg.): <i>Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design</i>. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-236811-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-236811-X">0-07-236811-X</a>.</li>
<li>Donald Rapp: <i>Human missions to Mars – enabling technologies for exploring the red planet</i>. Springer u. a., Berlin u. a. 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-72938-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-72938-9">978-3-540-72938-9</a>.</li>
<li>Haeuplik-Meusburger: <i>Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach</i>. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7091-0666-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7091-0666-2">978-3-7091-0666-2</a>.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_spaceflight" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human spaceflight"><span style="">Human spaceflight</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/">NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070802015842/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight">Human Spaceflight Profile</a> by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://solarsystem.nasa.gov">NASA's Solar System Exploration</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasaconstellation.com">Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404044029/http://spaceflighthistory.com/">U.S. Spaceflight History</a></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Future_spaceflights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Future_spaceflights" title="Template:Future spaceflights"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Future_spaceflights" title="Template talk:Future spaceflights"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Future_spaceflights&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Future_spaceflights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Future spaceflights</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crewed</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2020_in_spaceflight" title="2020 in spaceflight">2020</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-1" title="SpaceX Crew-1">SpaceX Crew-1</a> (September)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_MS-17" title="Soyuz MS-17">Soyuz MS-17</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard crewed flight test</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_12" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenzhou 12">Shenzhou 12</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/VSS_Unity" title="VSS Unity">VSS <i>Unity</i> VF02</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2021_in_spaceflight" title="2021 in spaceflight">2021</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_Space_Crew_Dragon_mission" title="Axiom Space Crew Dragon mission">Axiom Space Crew Dragon mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Crewed_Flight_Test" title="Boeing Crewed Flight Test">Boeing Crew Flight Test</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Starliner-1" title="Boeing Starliner-1">Boeing Starliner-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_MS-18" title="Soyuz MS-18">Soyuz MS-18</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_MS-19" title="Soyuz MS-19">Soyuz MS-19</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_MS-20" title="Soyuz MS-20">Soyuz MS-20</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2022_in_spaceflight" title="2022 in spaceflight">2022</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaganyaan" title="Gaganyaan">Gaganyaan crewed flight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Adventures_Crew_Dragon_mission" title="Space Adventures Crew Dragon mission">Space Adventures Crew Dragon mission</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;">2023+</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><i>#<a href="/wiki/DearMoon_project" title="DearMoon project">dearMoon project</a></i> (2023)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_2" title="Artemis 2">Artemis 2</a> (2023)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_3" title="Artemis 3">Artemis 3</a> (2024)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Uncrewed</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2020_in_spaceflight" title="2020 in spaceflight">2020</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Advanced_Optical_satellite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Advanced Optical satellite (page does not exist)">ALOS-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Orbital_Flight_Test_2" title="Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2">Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_5" title="Chang'e 5">Chang'e 5</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GSAT-20" title="GSAT-20">GSAT-20</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hope_Mars_Mission" title="Hope Mars Mission">Hope Mars Mission</a> (July)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tianwen-1" title="Tianwen-1">Tianwen-1</a> (July–August)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ingenio_(satellite)" title="Ingenio (satellite)">Ingenio</a> / <a href="/wiki/TARANIS" title="TARANIS">TARANIS</a> (June)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inmarsat-6_F1" title="Inmarsat-6 F1">Inmarsat-6 F1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ION_CubeSat_Carrier" title="ION CubeSat Carrier">ION CubeSat Carrier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_2020" title="Mars 2020">Mars 2020</a> (July–August)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Q-PACE" title="Q-PACE">Q-PACE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/QZS-1" class="mw-redirect" title="QZS-1">QZS-1R</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-21" title="SpaceX CRS-21">SpaceX CRS-21</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bishop_Airlock_Module" title="Bishop Airlock Module">Bishop Airlock Module</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2021_in_spaceflight" title="2021 in spaceflight">2021</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aditya-L1" title="Aditya-L1">Aditya-L1</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Advanced_Radar_satellite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Advanced Radar satellite (page does not exist)">ALOS-4</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_1" title="Artemis 1">Artemis 1</a> (November)
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Flashlight" title="Lunar Flashlight">Lunar Flashlight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_Asteroid_Scout" title="Near-Earth Asteroid Scout">NEA Scout</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BioSentinel" title="BioSentinel">BioSentinel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SkyFire_(spacecraft)" title="SkyFire (spacecraft)">SkyFire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_IceCube" title="Lunar IceCube">Lunar IceCube</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CubeSat_for_Solar_Particles" title="CubeSat for Solar Particles">CuSP</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Polar_Hydrogen_Mapper" title="Lunar Polar Hydrogen Mapper">LunaH-Map</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EQUULEUS_(spacecraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="EQUULEUS (spacecraft)">EQUULEUS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/OMOTENASHI" title="OMOTENASHI">OMOTENASHI</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ArgoMoon" title="ArgoMoon">ArgoMoon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cislunar_Explorers" title="Cislunar Explorers">Cislunar Explorers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Escape_Explorer" title="Earth Escape Explorer">CU-E<sup>3</sup></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Team_Miles" title="Team Miles">Team Miles</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotic_Technology#Lunar_missions" title="Astrobotic Technology">Astrobotic M1</a> (June)
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agencia_Espacial_Mexicana#Activities" title="Agencia Espacial Mexicana">AEM rovers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Team_AngelicvM" title="Team AngelicvM">Uni</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_Civilian_Space_Agency" title="Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency">EXA</a>/AEC lunar orbiter</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/B330" title="B330">B330</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CAPSTONE_(spacecraft)" title="CAPSTONE (spacecraft)">CAPSTONE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chandrayaan-3" title="Chandrayaan-3">Chandrayaan-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Double_Asteroid_Redirection_Test" title="Double Asteroid Redirection Test">DART</a> / <a href="/wiki/Double_Asteroid_Redirection_Test#Secondary_spacecraft" title="Double Asteroid Redirection Test">LICIA</a> (July)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dream_Chaser" title="Dream Chaser">Dream Chaser</a> (September)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ispace_(Japanese_company)#Hakuto-R_Program" title="Ispace (Japanese company)">Hakuto-R M1</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IXPE" title="IXPE">IXPE</a> (April)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (March)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Landsat_9" title="Landsat 9">Landsat 9</a> (January)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Nauka_(ISS_module)" title="Nauka (ISS module)">Nauka</a></i> / <a href="/wiki/European_Robotic_Arm" title="European Robotic Arm">European Robotic Arm</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_(spacecraft)" title="Lucy (spacecraft)">Lucy</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_25" title="Luna 25">Luna 25</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nova-C" title="Nova-C">Nova-C</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PTScientists" title="PTScientists">PTScientists</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Innovative_Satellite_Demonstration_Program&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Innovative Satellite Demonstration Program (page does not exist)">RAISE-2</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hibari_(satellite)" title="Hibari (satellite)">Hibari</a> / Z-Sat / <a href="/w/index.php?title=DRUMS&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DRUMS (page does not exist)">DRUMS</a> / ASTERISC / <a href="/w/index.php?title=ARICA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ARICA (page does not exist)">ARICA</a> / NANODRAGON / <a href="/w/index.php?title=KOSEN-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KOSEN-1 (page does not exist)">KOSEN-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Core_Cabin_Module" title="Core Cabin Module">Tianhe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SES-17" title="SES-17">SES-17</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_CRS-22" title="SpaceX CRS-22">SpaceX CRS-22</a> (March)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time-Resolved_Observations_of_Precipitation_structure_and_storm_Intensity_with_a_Constellation_of_Smallsats" title="Time-Resolved Observations of Precipitation structure and storm Intensity with a Constellation of Smallsats">TROPICS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Cabin_Module" title="Laboratory Cabin Module">Wentian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_Polarimeter_Satellite" title="X-ray Polarimeter Satellite">XPoSat</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2022_in_spaceflight" title="2022 in spaceflight">2022</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/BIOMASS" title="BIOMASS">Biomass</a> (October)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EarthCARE" title="EarthCARE">EarthCARE</a> (June)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_(spacecraft)" title="Euclid (spacecraft)">Euclid</a> (June)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Garat%C3%A9a-L" title="Garatéa-L">Garatéa-L</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/HTV-X" class="mw-redirect" title="HTV-X">HTV-X1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer" title="Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer">JUICE</a> (June)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Pathfinder_Lunar_Orbiter" title="Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter">KPLO</a> (July)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MetOp-SG" title="MetOp-SG">MetOp-SG</a> Series A</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NISAR_(satellite)" title="NISAR (satellite)">NISAR</a> (September)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Gateway" title="Lunar Gateway">Power and Propulsion Element</a> (December)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prichal_(ISS_module)" title="Prichal (ISS module)">Prichal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PROBA-3" title="PROBA-3">PROBA-3</a> (mid-year)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psyche_(spacecraft)" title="Psyche (spacecraft)">Psyche</a> (July)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin_(rover)" title="Rosalind Franklin (rover)"><i>Rosalind Franklin</i> rover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazachok" title="Kazachok"><i>Kazachok</i> lander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_GVK" title="Soyuz GVK">Soyuz GVK-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_RIDER" class="mw-redirect" title="Space RIDER">Space RIDER</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">SpaceX Starship</a> (1st Mars departure)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tera-hertz_Explorer" title="Tera-hertz Explorer">TEREX-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/X-Ray_Imaging_and_Spectroscopy_Mission" title="X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission">XRISM</a> / <a href="/wiki/Smart_Lander_for_Investigating_Moon" title="Smart Lander for Investigating Moon">SLIM</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2023_in_spaceflight" title="2023 in spaceflight">2023</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chang%27e_7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chang'e 7 (page does not exist)">Chang'e 7</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GOSAT-GW&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GOSAT-GW (page does not exist)">GOSAT-GW</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ispace_(Japanese_company)#Hakuto-R_Program" title="Ispace (Japanese company)">Hakuto-R M2</a> (March)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MetOp-SG" title="MetOp-SG">MetOp-SG</a> Series B</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polarimeter_to_Unify_the_Corona_and_Heliosphere" title="Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere">PUNCH</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tandem_Reconnection_and_Cusp_Electrodynamics_Reconnaissance_Satellites" title="Tandem Reconnection and Cusp Electrodynamics Reconnaissance Satellites">TRACERS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/QZS-5" class="mw-redirect" title="QZS-5">QZS-5</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/QZS-6" class="mw-redirect" title="QZS-6">QZS-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/QZS-7" class="mw-redirect" title="QZS-7">QZS-7</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shukrayaan-1" title="Shukrayaan-1">Shukrayaan-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SMILE_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="SMILE (satellite)">SMILE</a> (November)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weather_System_Follow-on_Microwave" title="Weather System Follow-on Microwave">Weather System Follow-on Microwave</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/2020s_in_spaceflight" title="2020s in spaceflight">2024+</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_6" title="Chang'e 6">Chang'e 6</a> (2023 or 2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DESTINY_PLUS" class="mw-redirect" title="DESTINY PLUS">DESTINY<sup>+</sup></a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/FLEX_(satellite)" title="FLEX (satellite)">FLEX</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GOES-U" title="GOES-U">GOES-U</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_(mission)" title="AIDA (mission)">Hera</a> / <a href="/wiki/AIDA_(mission)#Collaboration" title="AIDA (mission)">APEX</a> / <a href="/wiki/AIDA_(mission)#Collaboration" title="AIDA (mission)">Juventas</a> (October 2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_Mapping_and_Acceleration_Probe" title="Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe">IMAP</a> / <a href="/wiki/Space_Weather_Follow-On_L1" title="Space Weather Follow-On L1">SWFO-L1</a> (October 2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_26" title="Luna 26">Luna 26</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Polar_Exploration_Mission" title="Lunar Polar Exploration Mission">Lunar Polar Exploration Mission</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_Moons_Exploration" title="Martian Moons Exploration">MMX</a> (September 2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Orbiter_Mission_2" title="Mars Orbiter Mission 2">MOM 2</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Small-JASMINE" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-JASMINE">Small-JASMINE</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SPHEREx" title="SPHEREx">SPHEREx</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dream_Chaser#United_Nations" title="Dream Chaser">UN/Dream Chaser</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ZhengHe_(spacecraft)" title="ZhengHe (spacecraft)">ZhengHe</a> (2024)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Clipper" title="Europa Clipper">Europa Clipper</a> (2025)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_27" title="Luna 27">Luna 27</a> (2025)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_28" title="Luna 28">Luna 28</a> (2025+)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-UV" title="Spektr-UV">Spektr-UV</a> (2025)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dragonfly_(spacecraft)" title="Dragonfly (spacecraft)">Dragonfly</a> (2026)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PLATO_(spacecraft)" title="PLATO (spacecraft)">PLATO</a> (2026)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venera-D" title="Venera-D">Venera-D</a> (2026 or 2031)</li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chang%27e_8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chang'e 8 (page does not exist)">Chang'e 8</a> (2027)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/LiteBIRD" title="LiteBIRD">LiteBIRD</a> (2027)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ARIEL" title="ARIEL">ARIEL</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comet_Interceptor" title="Comet Interceptor">Comet Interceptor</a> (2028)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Telescope_for_High_Energy_Astrophysics" title="Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics">ATHENA</a> (2031)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laser_Interferometer_Space_Antenna" title="Laser Interferometer Space Antenna">LISA</a> (2034)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/TBA" class="mw-redirect" title="TBA">TBA</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energia-100" title="Energia-100">Energia-100</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Lander_(NASA)" title="Europa Lander (NASA)">Europa Lander</a> (2025?)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/KiwiSAT" title="KiwiSAT">KiwiSAT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lybid_1" title="Lybid 1">Lybid 1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nano-JASMINE" title="Nano-JASMINE">Nano-JASMINE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_Object_Surveillance_Mission" title="Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission">Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Next_Mars_Orbiter" title="Next Mars Orbiter">Next Mars Orbiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Complex_Alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Complex Alpha">Space Complex Alpha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Grace_Roman_Space_Telescope" title="Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a> (mid-2020s)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Recently<br />launched</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kounotori_9" title="Kounotori 9">Kounotori 9</a> (20 May)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EKS_(satellite_system)" title="EKS (satellite system)">EKS-4</a> (22 May)</li>
<li>XJS-G / H (29 May)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2" title="Crew Dragon Demo-2">Crew Dragon Demo-2</a> (30 May)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_missions_to_the_Moon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of proposed missions to the Moon">List of proposed missions to the Moon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_space_observatories" title="List of proposed space observatories">List of proposed space observatories</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Crewed_spacecraft" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Crewed_spacecraft" title="Template:Crewed spacecraft"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Crewed_spacecraft" title="Template talk:Crewed spacecraft"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Crewed_spacecraft&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Crewed_spacecraft" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">Crewed spacecraft</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li>China
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_(spacecraft)" title="Shenzhou (spacecraft)">Shenzhou</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Russia
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)" title="Soyuz (spacecraft)">Soyuz</a></li></ul></li>
<li>United States
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_2" title="Dragon 2">Dragon 2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_CST-100_Starliner" title="Boeing CST-100 Starliner">Starliner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipTwo" title="SpaceShipTwo">SpaceShipTwo</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In development</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li>China
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_crewed_spacecraft" title="Next-generation crewed spacecraft">Next-generation</a></li></ul></li>
<li>India
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaganyaan" title="Gaganyaan">Gaganyaan</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Russia
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orel_(spacecraft)" title="Orel (spacecraft)">Orel</a></li></ul></li>
<li>United States
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Starship" title="SpaceX Starship">Starship</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li>Soviet Union
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_(spacecraft)" title="Vostok (spacecraft)">Vostok</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_(spacecraft)" title="Voskhod (spacecraft)">Voskhod</a></li></ul></li>
<li>United States
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">X-15</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_(spacecraft)" title="Apollo (spacecraft)">Apollo</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_command_and_service_module" title="Apollo command and service module">CSM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module" title="Apollo Lunar Module">LM</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceShipOne" title="SpaceShipOne">SpaceShipOne</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public-sector_space_agencies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public-sector_space_agencies" title="Template:Public-sector space agencies"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public-sector_space_agencies" title="Template talk:Public-sector space agencies"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Public-sector_space_agencies&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public-sector_space_agencies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">Public-sector space agencies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria"><img alt="Algeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Space_Agency" title="Algerian Space Agency">ASAL</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana"><img alt="Ghana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Space_Science_and_Technology_Centre" title="Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre">GSSTC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt"><img alt="Egypt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/15px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/23px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/30px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Authority_for_Remote_Sensing_and_Space_Sciences" title="National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences">NARRS</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia"><img alt="Ethiopia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethiopian_Space_Science_and_Technology_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute (page does not exist)">ESSTI</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria"><img alt="Nigeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Research_and_Development_Agency" title="National Space Research and Development Agency">NASRDA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/15px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/30px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/South_African_National_Space_Agency" title="South African National Space Agency">SANSA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency" title="Canadian Space Agency">CSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/15px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/30px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Agencia_Espacial_Mexicana" title="Agencia Espacial Mexicana">AEM</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">USSF</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/15px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/30px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_Nacional_de_Actividades_Espaciales" title="Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales">CONAE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia"><img alt="Bolivia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="750" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bolivian_Space_Agency" title="Bolivian Space Agency">ABE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/15px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/23px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/30px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Space_Agency" title="Brazilian Space Agency">AEB</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Aerospace_Science_and_Technology" title="Department of Aerospace Science and Technology">DCTA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Space_Research" title="National Institute for Space Research">INPE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Instituto_Tecnol%C3%B3gico_de_Aeron%C3%A1utica" title="Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica">ITA</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia"><img alt="Colombia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Colombian_Space_Commission" title="Colombian Space Commission">CCE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela"><img alt="Venezuela" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/15px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/23px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg/30px-Flag_of_Venezuela.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Agency_for_Space_Activities" title="Bolivarian Agency for Space Activities">ABAE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_Institute_for_Scientific_Research" title="Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research">IVIC</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Asia</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan"><img alt="Kazakhstan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/KazCosmos" title="KazCosmos">KazCosmos</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan"><img alt="Turkmenistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan_National_Space_Agency" title="Turkmenistan National Space Agency">TNSA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East Asia</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration" title="China National Space Administration">CNSA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Academy_of_Launch_Vehicle_Technology" title="China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology">CALT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Academy_of_Space_Technology" title="China Academy of Space Technology">CAST</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Chang_Feng" title="China Chang Feng">CCF</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Aerospace_Science_and_Technology_Corporation" title="China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation">CGWIC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commission_for_Science,_Technology_and_Industry_for_National_Defense" title="Commission for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense">COSTIND</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Organization" title="National Space Organization">NSPO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">JAXA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Space_and_Astronautical_Science" title="Institute of Space and Astronautical Science">ISAS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Laboratory_of_Japan" title="National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan">NAL</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Space_Development_Agency_of_Japan" title="National Space Development Agency of Japan">NASDA</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Information_and_Communications_Technology" title="National Institute of Information and Communications Technology">NICT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Unmanned_Space_Experiment_Free_Flyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Unmanned Space Experiment Free Flyer">USEF</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea"><img alt="North Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/15px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/30px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Development_Administration" title="National Aerospace Development Administration">NADA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea"><img alt="South Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/15px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/30px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute" title="Korea Aerospace Research Institute">KARI</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/KAIST_Satellite_Technology_Research_Center" title="KAIST Satellite Technology Research Center">SaTReC</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Asia</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh"><img alt="Bangladesh" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/15px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/30px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Research_and_Remote_Sensing_Organization" title="Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization">SPARRSO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/15px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/30px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">ISRO</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antrix_Corporation" title="Antrix Corporation">Antrix Corp</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Space" title="Department of Space">DoS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Remote_Sensing_Centre" title="National Remote Sensing Centre">NRSC</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission">SUPARCO</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeast Asia</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia"><img alt="Indonesia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Aeronautics_and_Space" title="National Institute of Aeronautics and Space">LAPAN</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia"><img alt="Malaysia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Agency_(Malaysia)" title="National Space Agency (Malaysia)">MNSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines"><img alt="Philippines" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Space_Agency" title="Philippine Space Agency">PhilSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore"><img alt="Singapore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/15px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/30px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="2880" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Singapore_Space_and_Technology_Association" title="Singapore Space and Technology Association">SSTA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand"><img alt="Thailand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/15px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/30px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Geo-Informatics_and_Space_Technology_Development_Agency" title="Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency">GISTDA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southwest Asia</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan"><img alt="Azerbaijan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_National_Aerospace_Agency" title="Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency">MAKA</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><img alt="Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/15px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/30px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Iran_Aviation_Industries_Organization" title="Iran Aviation Industries Organization">IAIO</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">ISA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SAHA_(Iran_aviation)" title="SAHA (Iran aviation)">SAHA</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel"><img alt="Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/15px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/23px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/30px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="480" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Israel_Space_Agency" title="Israel Space Agency">ISA</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Committee_for_Space_Research" title="National Committee for Space Research">NCSR</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/General_Organization_of_Remote_Sensing" title="General Organization of Remote Sensing">GORS</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/T%C3%9CB%C4%B0TAK_Space_Technologies_Research_Institute" title="TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute">TÜBİTAK UZAY</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates"><img alt="United Arab Emirates" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates_Space_Agency" title="United Arab Emirates Space Agency">UAESA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria"><img alt="Austria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Space_Agency" title="Austrian Space Agency">ALR</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia"><img alt="Armenia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/ArmCosmos" title="ArmCosmos">ArmCosmos</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan"><img alt="Azerbaijan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_National_Aerospace_Agency" title="Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency">MAKA</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus"><img alt="Belarus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/15px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/30px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="450" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Belarus_Space_Agency" title="Belarus Space Agency">BSA</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Federal_Science_Policy_Office" title="Belgian Federal Science Policy Office">BelSPo</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria"><img alt="Bulgaria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/15px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_Research_and_Technology_Institute" title="Space Research and Technology Institute">SRTI</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Czech_Space_Office" title="Czech Space Office">CSO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark"><img alt="Denmark" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/15px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/23px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/30px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/DTU_Space" title="DTU Space">DTU Space</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><img alt="European Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/15px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/30px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/European_Cooperation_for_Space_Standardization" title="European Cooperation for Space Standardization">ECSS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EUMETSAT" class="mw-redirect" title="EUMETSAT">EUMETSAT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Satellite_Centre" title="European Union Satellite Centre">EUSC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/15px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">CNES</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/15px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/30px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center" title="German Aerospace Center">DLR</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece"><img alt="Greece" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/15px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/30px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_Space_Agency" title="Hellenic Space Agency">HSC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary"><img alt="Hungary" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/15px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/30px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Space_Office" title="Hungarian Space Office">HSO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/15px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/30px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">ASI</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg"><img alt="Luxembourg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/15px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Luxinnovation" title="Luxinnovation">Luxinnovation</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands"><img alt="Netherlands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Institute_for_Space_Research" title="Netherlands Institute for Space Research">SRON</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway"><img alt="Norway" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/15px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/23px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/30px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Space_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegian Space Centre">NSC</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/15px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Polish_Space_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Space Agency">PSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania"><img alt="Romania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/15px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/30px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Space_Agency" title="Romanian Space Agency">ROSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">RKA</a><sup><small>1</small></sup>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Research_Institute" title="Russian Space Research Institute">SRI</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Defence_Forces" title="Russian Aerospace Defence Forces">VKO</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">SSP</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/15px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/30px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_T%C3%A9cnica_Aeroespacial" title="Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial">INTA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden"><img alt="Sweden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/15px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/30px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_National_Space_Agency" title="Swedish National Space Agency">SNSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland"><img alt="Switzerland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/15px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Space_Office" title="Swiss Space Office">SSO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/15px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/30px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/T%C3%9CB%C4%B0TAK_Space_Technologies_Research_Institute" title="TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute">TÜBİTAK UZAY</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/UK_Space_Agency" title="UK Space Agency">UKSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine"><img alt="Ukraine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/State_Space_Agency_of_Ukraine" title="State Space Agency of Ukraine">SSAU</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Australian_Space_Agency" title="Australian Space Agency">ASA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation">CSIRO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand"><img alt="New Zealand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/15px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/30px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Space_Agency" title="New Zealand Space Agency">NZSA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">World</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Space_Cooperation_Organization" title="Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization">APSCO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Space_Research" title="Committee on Space Research">COSPAR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Academy_of_Astronautics" title="International Academy of Astronautics">IAA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunications_Satellite_Organization" title="International Telecommunications Satellite Organization">INTELSAT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intersputnik" title="Intersputnik">Intersputnik</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations"><img alt="United Nations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Committee_on_the_Peaceful_Uses_of_Outer_Space" title="United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space">UNCOPUOS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Outer_Space_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs">UNOOSA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country" title="Timeline of first orbital launches by country">Timeline of first orbital launches by country</a></li>
<li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaceflight" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaceflight" title="Template:Spaceflight"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaceflight" title="Template talk:Spaceflight"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Spaceflight&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spaceflight" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Astrodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Asian_national_space_programs" title="Comparison of Asian national space programs">Asian Space Race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">Records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy" title="Space policy">Space policy</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Space_programme_of_Australia" title="Category:Space programme of Australia">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_European_Union" title="Space policy of the European Union">European Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_space_program" title="Japanese space program">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Agreement" title="Rescue Agreement">Rescue Agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Liability_Convention" title="Space Liability Convention">Space Liability Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Registration_Convention" title="Registration Convention">Registration Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space warfare</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Militarisation_of_space" title="Militarisation of space">Militarisation of space</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">Private spaceflight</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:MAVENnMars.jpg" class="image"><img alt="MAVENnMars.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/MAVENnMars.jpg/105px-MAVENnMars.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="81" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="2550" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">Archaeology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Imagery and mapping</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Weather and environment monitoring</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Telephone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Television</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_space" title="Commercial use of space">Commercial use of space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">Space launch market competition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Space architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_research" title="Space research">Space research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronaut</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_astronaut" title="Commercial astronaut">commercial</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">Extravehicular activity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Space toilet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_diving" title="Space diving">Space diving</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz_Test_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo–Soyuz Test Project">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_program" title="Shenzhou program">Shenzhou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_program" title="Tiangong program">Tiangong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Health issues</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space psychology</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">Launch vehicle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">Space capsule</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_module" title="Orbital module">Orbital module</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reentry_capsule" title="Reentry capsule">Reentry capsule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Service_module" title="Service module">Service module</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lander_(spacecraft)" title="Lander (spacecraft)">Lander</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rover_(space_exploration)" title="Rover (space exploration)">Rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electrically_powered_spacecraft_propulsion" title="Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion">Electric propulsion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">Gravity assist</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Destinations</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">Sub-orbital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">Orbital</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">Geosynchronous</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_ascent" title="Direct ascent">Direct ascent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Expendable_launch_system" title="Expendable launch system">Expendable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_system" title="Reusable launch system">reusable launch systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">Launch pad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">Non-rocket spacelaunch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_segment" title="Ground segment">Ground segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_controller" title="Flight controller">Flight controller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ground_station" title="Ground station">Ground station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pass_(spaceflight)" title="Pass (spaceflight)">Pass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mission_control_center" title="Mission control center">Mission control center</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">Space agencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/15px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/30px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_Nacional_de_Actividades_Espaciales" title="Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales">CoNAE</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Australian_Space_Agency" title="Australian Space Agency">ASA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/15px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/23px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/30px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Space_Agency" title="Brazilian Space Agency">AEB</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/15px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency" title="Canadian Space Agency">CSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration" title="China National Space Administration">CNSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe"><img alt="Europe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/15px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/30px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/15px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">CNES</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/15px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/30px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center" title="German Aerospace Center">DLR</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/15px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/30px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">ISRO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia"><img alt="Indonesia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Aeronautics_and_Space" title="National Institute of Aeronautics and Space">LAPAN</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><img alt="Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/15px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/30px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">ISA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel"><img alt="Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/15px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="11" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/23px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/30px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="480" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Israel_Space_Agency" title="Israel Space Agency">ISA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/15px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/30px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">ASI</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/15px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/30px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Agencia_Espacial_Mexicana" title="Agencia Espacial Mexicana">AEM</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">JAXA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea"><img alt="North Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/15px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/30px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Development_Administration" title="National Aerospace Development Administration">NADA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea"><img alt="South Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/15px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/30px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute" title="Korea Aerospace Research Institute">KARI</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/15px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission">SUPARCO</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/15px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden"><img alt="Sweden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/15px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="9" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/30px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_National_Space_Agency" title="Swedish National Space Agency">SNSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine"><img alt="Ukraine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/15px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="10" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/State_Space_Agency_of_Ukraine" title="State Space Agency of Ukraine">SSAU</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/UK_Space_Agency" title="UK Space Agency">UKSA</a></li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="8" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">USSF</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div>
<ul><li> <img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Spaceflight" title="Category:Spaceflight">Category</a></b></li>
<li> <img alt="Portal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28" /> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Portal</a></b></li>
<li> <img alt="WikiProject" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="WikiProject" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Spaceflight" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Spaceflight">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="NASA" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:NASA_space_program" title="Template:NASA space program"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:NASA_space_program" title="Template talk:NASA space program"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:NASA_space_program&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="NASA" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">Policy</a> and history</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">History</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">NACA</a> (1915)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act" title="National Aeronautics and Space Act">National Aeronautics and Space Act</a> (1958)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Task_Group" title="Space Task Group">Space Task Group</a> (1958)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_O._Paine#National_Commission_on_Space" title="Thomas O. Paine">Paine</a> (1986)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Commission_Report" title="Rogers Commission Report">Rogers</a> (1986)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ride_Report" title="Ride Report">Ride</a> (1987)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Exploration_Initiative" title="Space Exploration Initiative">Space Exploration Initiative</a> (1989)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_on_the_Future_of_the_United_States_Space_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program">Augustine</a> (1990)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Clinton_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">U.S. National Space Policy</a> (1996)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commission_on_the_Future_of_the_United_States_Aerospace_Industry" title="Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry">CFUSAI</a> (2002)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Accident_Investigation_Board" title="Columbia Accident Investigation Board">CAIB</a> (2003)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vision_for_Space_Exploration" title="Vision for Space Exploration">Vision for Space Exploration</a> (2004)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Commission_on_Implementation_of_United_States_Space_Exploration_Policy" title="President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy">Aldridge</a> (2004)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Review_of_United_States_Human_Space_Flight_Plans_Committee" title="Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee">Augustine</a> (2009)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Administrators_and_Deputy_Administrators_of_NASA" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Administrators and Deputy Administrators of NASA">Administrator and Deputy Administrator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Chief_Scientist" title="NASA Chief Scientist">Chief Scientist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Corps" title="NASA Astronaut Corps">Astronaut Corps</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut_ranks_and_positions" title="Astronaut ranks and positions">Ranks and positions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Astronaut_Office" title="Chief of the Astronaut Office">Chief</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_NASA" title="Budget of NASA">Budget</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_spin-off_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="NASA spin-off technologies">Spin-off technologies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_TV" title="NASA TV">NASA TV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Social" title="NASA Social">NASA Social</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Launch_Services_Program" title="Launch Services Program">Launch Services Program</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_Control_Center" title="Mercury Control Center">Mercury Control Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manned_Space_Flight_Network" title="Manned Space Flight Network">Manned Space Flight Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center" title="Kennedy Space Center">Kennedy Space Center</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_Assembly_Building" title="Vehicle Assembly Building">Vehicle Assembly Building</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39">Launch Complex 39</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_48" title="Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 48">Launch Complex 48</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Launch_Control_Center" title="Launch Control Center">Launch Control Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operations_and_Checkout_Building" title="Operations and Checkout Building">Operations and Checkout Building</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Space_Center" title="Johnson Space Center">Johnson Space Center</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center" title="Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center">Mission Control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Sample_Laboratory_Facility" title="Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility">Lunar Sample Laboratory</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:NASA_logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="NASA logo.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/70px-NASA_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="59" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/105px-NASA_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/NASA_logo.svg/140px-NASA_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="92" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic</a> programs</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program" title="Hitchhiker Program">Hitchhiker</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mariner_program" title="Mariner program">Mariner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mariner_Mark_II" title="Mariner Mark II">Mariner Mark II</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MESUR" title="MESUR">MESUR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Surveyor_%2798_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars Surveyor '98 program">Mars Surveyor '98</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Millennium_Program" title="New Millennium Program">New Millennium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_program" title="Lunar Orbiter program">Lunar Orbiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_Observer_program" title="Planetary Observer program">Planetary Observer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ranger_program" title="Ranger program">Ranger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Surveyor_program" title="Surveyor program">Surveyor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Prometheus" title="Project Prometheus">Project Prometheus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Scout_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars Scout Program">Mars Scout</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rover</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Living_With_a_Star" title="Living With a Star">Living With a Star</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Precursor_Robotic_Program" title="Lunar Precursor Robotic Program">Lunar Precursor Robotic Program</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Observing_System" title="Earth Observing System">Earth Observing System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Great_Observatories_program" title="Great Observatories program">Great Observatories program</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Explorers_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Explorers program">Explorer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Small_Explorer_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Explorer program">Small explorer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voyager_program" title="Voyager program">Voyager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Program" title="Discovery Program">Discovery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Frontiers_program" title="New Frontiers program">New Frontiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Terrestrial_Probes_program" title="Solar Terrestrial Probes program">Solar Terrestrial Probes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services" title="Commercial Lunar Payload Services">Commercial Lunar Payload Services</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a><br />programs</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">X-15</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">suborbital</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo-Soyuz" title="Apollo-Soyuz">Apollo-Soyuz</a> (with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuttle–Mir Program">Shuttle–<i>Mir</i></a> (with <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos State Corporation</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constellation_program" title="Constellation program">Constellation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station_program" title="International Space Station program">International Space Station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services" title="Commercial Orbital Transportation Services">Commercial Orbital Transportation Services</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Program" title="Commercial Crew Program">Commercial Crew</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Orion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Gateway" title="Lunar Gateway">Lunar Gateway</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Individual featured<br /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_missions" title="List of NASA missions">missions</a><br />(human and robotic)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Past</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_3" title="Mercury-Redstone 3">Mercury 3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-Atlas_6" title="Mercury-Atlas 6">Mercury-Atlas 6</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Magellan_(spacecraft)" title="Magellan (spacecraft)">Magellan</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_10" title="Pioneer 10">Pioneer 10</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_11" title="Pioneer 11">Pioneer 11</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Galileo (spacecraft)"><i>Galileo</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GALEX" title="GALEX">GALEX</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Interior_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory">GRAIL</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">WMAP</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope" title="Spitzer Space Telescope">Spitzer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_(rover)" title="Sojourner (rover)"><i>Sojourner</i> rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_(rover)" title="Spirit (rover)"><i>Spirit</i> rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Atmosphere_and_Dust_Environment_Explorer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer">LADEE</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/MESSENGER" title="MESSENGER">MESSENGER</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aquarius_(SAC-D_instrument)" title="Aquarius (SAC-D instrument)">Aquarius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens"><i>Cassini</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dawn_(spacecraft)" title="Dawn (spacecraft)"><i>Dawn</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kepler_space_telescope" title="Kepler space telescope">Kepler space telescope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)"><i>Opportunity</i> rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reuven_Ramaty_High_Energy_Solar_Spectroscopic_Imager" title="Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager">RHESSI</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surface_features_of_Mars_seen_by_Opportunity" class="mw-redirect" title="List of surface features of Mars seen by Opportunity">observed</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currently<br />operating</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey" title="2001 Mars Odyssey">2001 Mars Odyssey</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gehrels_Swift_Observatory" title="Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory"><i>Swift</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/THEMIS" title="THEMIS">THEMIS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)"><i>Curiosity</i> rover</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/InSight" title="InSight">InSight</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GOES_14" title="GOES 14">GOES 14</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter">Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GOES_15" title="GOES 15">GOES 15</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_Probes" title="Van Allen Probes">Van Allen Probes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">Solar Dynamics Observatory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Juno_(spacecraft)" title="Juno (spacecraft)"><i>Juno</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">Mars Science Laboratory</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NuSTAR" title="NuSTAR">NuSTAR</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Voyager_1" title="Voyager 1">Voyager 1</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer" title="Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer">WISE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MAVEN" title="MAVEN">MAVEN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magnetospheric_Multiscale_Mission" title="Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission">MMS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/OSIRIS-REx" title="OSIRIS-REx">OSIRIS-REx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transiting_Exoplanet_Survey_Satellite" title="Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite">Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Future</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Polar_Satellite_System" title="Joint Polar Satellite System">Joint Polar Satellite System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wide_Field_Infrared_Survey_Telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope">Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_2020" title="Mars 2020">Mars 2020</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perseverance_(rover)" title="Perseverance (rover)">rover</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NISAR_(satellite)" title="NISAR (satellite)">NISAR</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Europa_Clipper" title="Europa Clipper">Europa Clipper</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Grace_Roman_Space_Telescope" title="Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_Communications_and_Navigation_Program" title="Space Communications and Navigation Program">Communications<br />and navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near_Earth_Network" title="Near Earth Network">Near Earth Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Network" title="Space Network">Space Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Deep_Space_Network" title="NASA Deep Space Network">Deep Space Network</a> (<a href="/wiki/Goldstone_Deep_Space_Communications_Complex" title="Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex">Goldstone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Madrid_Deep_Space_Communications_Complex" title="Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex">Madrid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canberra_Deep_Space_Communication_Complex" title="Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex">Canberra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Flight_Operations_Facility" title="Space Flight Operations Facility">Space Flight Operations Facility</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Space_Atomic_Clock" title="Deep Space Atomic Clock">Deep Space Atomic Clock</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">NASA lists</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronauts</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_name" title="List of astronauts by name">by name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_year_of_selection" title="List of astronauts by year of selection">by year</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gemini_astronauts" title="List of Gemini astronauts">Gemini astronauts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_astronauts" title="List of Apollo astronauts">Apollo astronauts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews" title="List of Space Shuttle crews">Space Shuttle crews</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_aircraft" title="List of NASA aircraft">NASA aircraft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_missions" title="List of NASA missions">NASA missions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_uncrewed_NASA_missions" title="List of uncrewed NASA missions">uncrewed missions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_missions" title="List of Apollo missions">Apollo missions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" title="List of Space Shuttle missions">Space Shuttle missions</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_contractors" title="List of NASA contractors">NASA contractors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_rockets" title="List of United States rockets">United States rockets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_cancellations" title="List of NASA cancellations">NASA cancellations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_cameras_on_spacecraft" title="List of NASA cameras on spacecraft">NASA cameras on spacecraft</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">NASA images<br />and artwork</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Earthrise" title="Earthrise">Earthrise</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Blue_Marble" title="The Blue Marble">The Blue Marble</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Family_Portrait_(Voyager)" title="Family Portrait (Voyager)">Family Portrait</a></i>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pale_Blue_Dot" title="Pale Blue Dot">Pale Blue Dot</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pillars_of_Creation" title="Pillars of Creation">Pillars of Creation</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mystic_Mountain" title="Mystic Mountain">Mystic Mountain</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Family_Portrait_(MESSENGER)" title="Family Portrait (MESSENGER)"><i>Solar System Family Portrait</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Day_the_Earth_Smiled" title="The Day the Earth Smiled">The Day the Earth Smiled</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Fallen_Astronaut" title="Fallen Astronaut">Fallen Astronaut</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_plaque" title="Lunar plaque">Lunar plaques</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_plaque" title="Pioneer plaque">Pioneer plaques</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record" title="Voyager Golden Record">Voyager Golden Record</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11_goodwill_messages" title="Apollo 11 goodwill messages">Apollo 11 goodwill messages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_insignia" title="NASA insignia">NASA insignia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_space-flown_Gemini_and_Apollo_medallions" title="NASA space-flown Gemini and Apollo medallions">Gemini and Apollo medallions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mission_patch" title="Mission patch">Mission patches</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_8_Genesis_reading" title="Apollo 8 Genesis reading">Apollo 8 Genesis reading</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_15_postal_covers_incident" title="Apollo 15 postal covers incident">Apollo 15 postal covers incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_Mirror_Memorial" title="Space Mirror Memorial">Space Mirror Memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Astronaut_Monument" title="The Astronaut Monument">The Astronaut Monument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_sample_displays" title="Lunar sample displays">Lunar sample displays</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Astronaut_Hall_of_Fame" title="United States Astronaut Hall of Fame">U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/U.S._space_exploration_history_on_U.S._stamps" title="U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps">Space program on U.S. stamps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fe,_Fi,_Fo,_Fum,_and_Phooey" title="Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey">Apollo 17 Moon mice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moon_tree" title="Moon tree">Moon tree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space#United_States" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Other primates in space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NASA_spinoff_technologies" title="NASA spinoff technologies">NASA spinoff technologies</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div>
<ul><li><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:NASA" title="Category:NASA"><b>Category</b></a></li>
<li><img alt="Commons page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:NASA" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:NASA"><b>Commons</b></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_and_Russian_space_program" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_space_program" title="Template:Russian space program"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_space_program" title="Template talk:Russian space program"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Russian_space_program&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_and_Russian_space_program" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russian space program</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div id="*_Roscosmos">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launch sites</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a> <small>(in <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dombarovsky_(air_base)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dombarovsky (air base)">Dombarovsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kapustin_Yar" title="Kapustin Yar">Kapustin Yar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plesetsk_Cosmodrome" title="Plesetsk Cosmodrome">Plesetsk Cosmodrome</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Svobodny_Cosmodrome" title="Svobodny Cosmodrome">Svobodny Cosmodrome</a> <small>(defunct)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vostochny_Cosmodrome" title="Vostochny Cosmodrome">Vostochny Cosmodrome</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg" class="image"><img alt="Roscosmos logo ru.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg/80px-Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="51" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg/120px-Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg/160px-Roscosmos_logo_ru.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="325" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launch vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angara_(rocket_family)" title="Angara (rocket family)">Angara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proton_(rocket_family)" title="Proton (rocket family)">Proton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a><br />programs</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Salyut_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Salyut program">Salyut</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> <small>(incorporated into Salyut program)</small> / <a href="/wiki/TKS_(spacecraft)" title="TKS (spacecraft)">TKS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apollo-Soyuz" title="Apollo-Soyuz">Soyuz-Apollo</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuttle–Mir Program">Shuttle–Mir</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Energia" title="Energia">Energia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buran_programme" title="Buran programme">Buran</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cancelled</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond (7K-L1)</a> <small>(Moon flyby)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_crewed_lunar_programs" title="Soviet crewed lunar programs">Soviet crewed lunar programs</a> <small>(Moon landing)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zvezda_(moonbase)" title="Zvezda (moonbase)">Zvezda</a> <small>(moonbase)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TMK" title="TMK">TMK</a> <small>(Mars/Venus flyby)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-105" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105">Spiral</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Military_Soyuz#Soyuz_7K-VI_Zvezda" title="Military Soyuz">Zvezda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zarya_(spacecraft)" title="Zarya (spacecraft)">Zarya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MAKS_(spacecraft)" title="MAKS (spacecraft)">MAKS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kliper" title="Kliper">Kliper</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> <small>(joint)</small>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Orbital_Segment" title="Russian Orbital Segment">Russian Orbital Segment</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In development</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orel_(spacecraft)" title="Orel (spacecraft)">Orel</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic</a><br />programs</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik programme">Sputnik programme</a> (1957–1960)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dnepropetrovsk_Sputnik" title="Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik">DS</a> (1960–1977)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prognoz_(satellite)" title="Prognoz (satellite)">Prognoz</a> (1972–1996)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_programme" title="Luna programme">Luna programme</a> (1959–1976)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> (1961–1984)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond program</a> (1964–1970)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astron_(spacecraft)" title="Astron (spacecraft)">Astron</a> (1983)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vega_program" title="Vega program">Vega program</a> (1984)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Granat" title="Granat">Granat</a> (1989)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_(satellite)" title="Gamma (satellite)">Gamma</a> (1990)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_96" title="Mars 96">Mars 96</a> <small>(failed)</small> (1996)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Resurs-DK_No.1" title="Resurs-DK No.1">Resurs-DK No.1</a> (2006)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Koronas-Foton" title="Koronas-Foton">Koronas-Foton</a> (2009)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fobos-Grunt" title="Fobos-Grunt">Fobos-Grunt</a> <small>(failed)</small> (2011)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-R" title="Spektr-R">Spektr-R</a> (2011–2019)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bion_(satellite)" title="Bion (satellite)">Bion-M</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elektro%E2%80%93L" title="Elektro–L">Elektro–L</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_(satellite)" title="Meteor (satellite)">Meteor-M</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Resurs-P" title="Resurs-P">Resurs-P</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-RG" title="Spektr-RG">Spektr-RG</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In development</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luna-Glob" title="Luna-Glob">Luna-Glob</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luna_25" title="Luna 25">Luna 25</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_26" title="Luna 26">Luna 26</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_27" title="Luna 27">Luna 27</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luna_28" title="Luna 28">Luna 28</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Kazachok" title="Kazachok">Kazachok</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-UV" title="Spektr-UV">Spektr-UV</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Communications</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luch_(satellite)" title="Luch (satellite)">Luch (satellite)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Deep_Space_Network" title="Soviet Deep Space Network">Soviet Deep Space Network</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baikal_(rocket_booster)" title="Baikal (rocket booster)">Baikal-Angara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laplace-P" title="Laplace-P">Laplace-P</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars-Grunt" title="Mars-Grunt">Mars-Grunt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-P" title="Mercury-P">Mercury-P</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_Piloted_Assembly_and_Experiment_Complex" title="Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex">OPSEK</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spektr-M" title="Spektr-M">Spektr-M</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venera-D" title="Venera-D">Venera-D</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Images and artwork</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mission_patch" title="Mission patch">Mission patches</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmonauts" title="List of cosmonauts">List of cosmonauts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut_ranks_and_positions" title="Astronaut ranks and positions">Cosmonaut ranks and positions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot-Cosmonaut_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation">Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Soviet space dogs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ivanovich_(Vostok_programme)" title="Ivan Ivanovich (Vostok programme)">Ivan Ivanovich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_exploration_history_on_Soviet_stamps" title="Soviet space exploration history on Soviet stamps">Soviet space exploration history on Soviet stamps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmonauts_Alley" title="Cosmonauts Alley">Cosmonauts Alley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_Conquerors_of_Space" title="Monument to the Conquerors of Space">Monument to the Conquerors of Space</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Museum_of_Cosmonautics" title="Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics">Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Space_industry_of_Russia" title="Space industry of Russia">Space industry of Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Defence_Forces" title="Russian Aerospace Defence Forces">Russian Aerospace Defence Forces</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="..._in_space" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;;background:"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:In_space" title="Template:In space"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align: center;;background:;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:In_space" title="Template talk:In space"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align: center;;background:;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:In_space&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align: center;;background:;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="..._in_space" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></i></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">Biology</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals</a> (<a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licette" title="Félicette">Cats</a> · <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Dogs</a> · <a href="/wiki/Fe,_Fi,_Fo,_Fum,_and_Phooey" title="Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey">Mice</a> · <a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Non-human primates</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zond_5" title="Zond 5">Tortoises</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Extraterrestrial</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human</a> (<a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">in spacecraft</a> · <a href="/wiki/Space_exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Space exposure">exposed</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Astronautical_hygiene" title="Astronautical hygiene">Hygiene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Locomotion_in_space" title="Locomotion in space">Locomotion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space" title="List of microorganisms tested in outer space">Microorganisms</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_in_space" title="Neuroscience in space">Neuroscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plants_in_space" title="Plants in space">Plants</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_space" title="Sex in space">Sex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" class="image" title="STS-39 in Earth orbit"><img alt="STS-39 in Earth orbit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/140px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="92" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="1173" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:"><a href="/wiki/Space_environment" title="Space environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Climate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_in_space" title="Corrosion in space">Corrosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Debris</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Dust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Weather</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">Weathering</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">Society</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_advertising" title="Space advertising">Advertising</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_spaceflight" title="Alcohol and spaceflight">Alcohol</a></li>
<li>Archaeology (<a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">of Earth</a> · <a href="/wiki/Space_archaeology" title="Space archaeology">of items in space</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_burial" title="Space burial">Burial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_on_the_International_Space_Station" title="Christmas on the International Space Station">Christmas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Colonization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_economy" title="Space-based economy">Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Exploration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_space" title="Music in space">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_space" title="Religion in space">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">War</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Women</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:"><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Food</a></li>
<li>Power (<a href="/wiki/Batteries_in_space" title="Batteries in space">Batteries</a> · <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_space" title="Nuclear power in space">Nuclear power</a> · <a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Solar power for Earth</a> · <a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">Solar panels on spacecraft</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_radar" title="Space-based radar">Radar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Telescopes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Toilets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">Weapons</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Writing_in_space" title="Writing in space">Writing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">See also</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Near space">Near space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">Outer space</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines" title="Template:Spaceflight lists and timelines"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines" title="Template talk:Spaceflight lists and timelines"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spaceflight_lists_and_timelines" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a> lists and timelines</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div id="*_Timeline_of_spaceflight">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline of spaceflight</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration" title="Outline of space exploration">outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_space_exploration" title="Timeline of space exploration">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">Spaceflight records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Space_Race" title="Timeline of the Space Race">Space Race</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Asian_national_space_programs" title="Comparison of Asian national space programs">Asian Space Race</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_rocket_and_missile_technology" title="Timeline of rocket and missile technology">Rocket and missile technology</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo_7_photographed_in_flight_by_ALOTS_(68-HC-641).jpg" class="image"><img alt="Apollo 7 photographed in flight by ALOTS (68-HC-641).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Apollo_7_photographed_in_flight_by_ALOTS_%2868-HC-641%29.jpg/75px-Apollo_7_photographed_in_flight_by_ALOTS_%2868-HC-641%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="53" data-file-width="2652" data-file-height="1890" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">Crewed spacecraft</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights#Timeline" title="List of human spaceflights">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights" title="List of human spaceflights">Spaceflights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1961%E2%80%931970" title="List of human spaceflights, 1961–1970">1961–1970</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1971%E2%80%931980" title="List of human spaceflights, 1971–1980">1971–1980</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1981%E2%80%931990" title="List of human spaceflights, 1981–1990">1981–1990</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_1991%E2%80%932000" title="List of human spaceflights, 1991–2000">1991–2000</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_2001%E2%80%932010" title="List of human spaceflights, 2001–2010">2001–2010</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights,_2011%E2%80%93present" title="List of human spaceflights, 2011–present">2011–present</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflight_programs" title="List of human spaceflight programs">by program</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_human_spaceflight_missions" title="List of Soviet human spaceflight missions">Soviet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_human_spaceflight_missions" title="List of Russian human spaceflight missions">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soyuz_missions" title="List of Soyuz missions">Soyuz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_missions" title="List of Apollo missions">Apollo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_program" title="Shenzhou program">Shenzhou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Human_Spaceflight_Programme" title="Indian Human Spaceflight Programme">Gaganyaan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spacelab" title="Spacelab">Spacelab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Artemis_missions" title="List of Artemis missions">Artemis</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salyut_programme" title="Salyut programme">Salyut</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Salyut_expeditions" title="List of Salyut expeditions">Expeditions</a></li>
<li>Spaceflights
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights_to_Salyut_space_stations" title="List of human spaceflights to Salyut space stations">crewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_uncrewed_spaceflights_to_Salyut_space_stations" title="List of uncrewed spaceflights to Salyut space stations">uncrewed</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Salyut_spacewalks" title="List of Salyut spacewalks">Spacewalks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Salyut_visitors" title="List of Salyut visitors">Visitors</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mir_expeditions" title="List of Mir expeditions">Expeditions</a></li>
<li>Spaceflights
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights_to_Mir" title="List of human spaceflights to Mir">crewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_uncrewed_spaceflights_to_Mir" title="List of uncrewed spaceflights to Mir">uncrewed</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mir_spacewalks" title="List of Mir spacewalks">Spacewalks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mir_visitors" title="List of Mir visitors">Visitors</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">ISS</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_International_Space_Station_expeditions" title="List of International Space Station expeditions">Expeditions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflights_to_the_International_Space_Station" title="List of spaceflights to the International Space Station">Spaceflights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflights_to_the_International_Space_Station" title="List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station">crewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uncrewed_spaceflights_to_the_International_Space_Station" title="Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station">uncrewed</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_International_Space_Station_spacewalks" title="List of International Space Station spacewalks">Spacewalks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_visitors_to_the_International_Space_Station" title="List of visitors to the International Space Station">Visitors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacecraft_deployed_from_the_International_Space_Station" title="List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station">Deployed</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Shuttle</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_crews" title="List of Space Shuttle crews">Crews</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" title="List of Space Shuttle missions">Missions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Space_Shuttle_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Space Shuttle missions">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_rollbacks" title="List of Space Shuttle rollbacks">Rollbacks</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li>Astronauts
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_name" title="List of astronauts by name">by name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_year_of_selection" title="List of astronauts by year of selection">by year of selection</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_first_flight" title="List of astronauts by first flight">by first flight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Apollo_astronauts" title="List of Apollo astronauts">Apollo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gemini_astronauts" title="List of Gemini astronauts">Gemini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_astronauts" title="List of Chinese astronauts">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_astronauts" title="List of European astronauts">European</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmonauts" title="List of cosmonauts">Cosmonauts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_spacefarers" title="List of female spacefarers">female</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_astronauts" title="List of Jewish astronauts">Jewish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_astronauts" title="List of Muslim astronauts">Muslim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_Astronauts" title="List of Arab Astronauts">Arab</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">African-American</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_travelers_by_name" title="List of space travelers by name">Space travelers by name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_travelers_by_nationality" title="List of space travelers by nationality">Space travelers by nationality</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_space_travel_by_nationality" title="Timeline of space travel by nationality">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Dead astronauts</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">EVA</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacewalks_and_moonwalks_1965%E2%80%931999" title="List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999">1965–1999</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacewalks_2000%E2%80%932014" title="List of spacewalks 2000–2014">2000–2014</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacewalks_since_2015" title="List of spacewalks since 2015">2015–present</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cumulative_spacewalk_records" title="List of cumulative spacewalk records">Cumulative spacewalk records</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_longest_spacewalks" title="List of longest spacewalks">Longest spacewalks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacewalkers" title="List of spacewalkers">Spacewalkers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> <a href="/wiki/Discovery_and_exploration_of_the_Solar_System" title="Discovery and exploration of the Solar System">exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration" title="Timeline of Solar System exploration">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_interplanetary_voyages" title="List of interplanetary voyages">Interplanetary voyages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landings_on_extraterrestrial_bodies" title="List of landings on extraterrestrial bodies">Landings on other planets</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rovers_on_extraterrestrial_bodies" title="List of rovers on extraterrestrial bodies">rovers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_on_extra-terrestrial_surfaces" title="List of artificial objects on extra-terrestrial surfaces">artificial objects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_objects_at_Lagrangian_points" title="List of objects at Lagrangian points">Objects at Lagrangian points</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_probes" title="List of Solar System probes">Probes</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_Solar_System_probes" title="List of active Solar System probes">active</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_orbiters" title="List of extraterrestrial orbiters">orbiters</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System" title="List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System">leaving the Solar System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lunar_probes" title="List of lunar probes">lunar probes</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_the_Moon" title="List of missions to the Moon">Missions to the Moon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes" title="Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes">Timeline of satellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sample-return_mission" title="Sample-return mission">Sample-return mission</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_sample-return_mission" title="Mars sample-return mission">Mars</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Earth-orbiting</a> <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_research_satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate research satellites">Climate research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communications_satellite_firsts" title="List of communications satellite firsts">Communications satellite firsts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CubeSat" title="CubeSat">CubeSats</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PocketQube" title="PocketQube">PocketQube</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Earth_observation_satellites" title="List of Earth observation satellites">Earth observation satellites</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_early_Earth_science_satellites" title="Timeline of early Earth science satellites">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_satellites_in_geosynchronous_orbit" title="List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit">Geosynchronous orbit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_GOES_satellites" title="List of GOES satellites">GOES</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kosmos_satellites" title="List of Kosmos satellites">Kosmos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_satellites_which_have_provided_data_on_Earth%27s_magnetosphere" title="List of satellites which have provided data on Earth's magnetosphere">Magnetospheric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NRO_launches" title="List of NRO launches">NRO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_TDRS_satellites" title="List of TDRS satellites">TDRS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_USA_satellites" title="List of USA satellites">USA</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orbital_launch_systems" title="List of orbital launch systems">Orbital launch systems</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_orbital_launch_systems" title="Comparison of orbital launch systems">Comparison</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sounding_rockets" title="List of sounding rockets">Sounding rocket list</a></li>
<li>Spacecraft
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_uncrewed_spacecraft_by_program" title="List of uncrewed spacecraft by program">uncrewed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">crewed</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_upper_stages" title="List of upper stages">Upper stages</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sounding_rocket" title="Sounding rocket">Sounding rocket</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Small-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Small-lift launch vehicle">Small-lift launch vehicle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medium-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Medium-lift launch vehicle">Medium-lift launch vehicle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heavy-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Heavy-lift launch vehicle">Heavy-lift launch vehicle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Super_heavy-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Super heavy-lift launch vehicle">Super heavy-lift launch vehicle</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launches by rocket type</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ariane_launches" title="List of Ariane launches">Ariane</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Atlas_launches" title="List of Atlas launches">Atlas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Black_Brant_launches" title="List of Black Brant launches">Black Brant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Electron_rocket_launches" title="List of Electron rocket launches">Electron</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Falcon_9_and_Falcon_Heavy_launches" title="List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches">Falcon 9 and Heavy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_H-II_series_and_H3_launches" title="List of H-II series and H3 launches">H-II and H3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Long_March_launches" title="List of Long March launches">Long March</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Proton_launches" title="List of Proton launches">Proton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_PSLV_launches" title="List of PSLV launches">PSLV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_R-7_launches" title="List of R-7 launches">R-7 (including Semyorka, Molniya, Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scout_launches" title="List of Scout launches">Scout</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Space_Launch_System_launches" title="List of Space Launch System launches">SLS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thor_and_Delta_launches" title="List of Thor and Delta launches">Thor and Delta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Titan_launches" title="List of Titan launches">Titan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tsyklon_launches" title="List of Tsyklon launches">Tsyklon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_V-2_test_launches" title="List of V-2 test launches">V-2 tests</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Zenit_launches" title="List of Zenit launches">Zenit</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.15em;">Launches by spaceport</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Satish_Dhawan_Space_Centre_launches" title="List of Satish Dhawan Space Centre launches">Satish Dhawan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agencies, companies<br />and facilities</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communication_satellite_companies" title="List of communication satellite companies">Communications satellite companies</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_communication_satellite_operators" title="Comparison of communication satellite operators">comparison</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_private_spaceflight_companies" title="List of private spaceflight companies">Private spaceflight companies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocket_launch_sites" title="List of rocket launch sites">Rocket launch sites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">Space agencies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spacecraft_manufacturers" title="List of spacecraft manufacturers">Spacecraft manufacturers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.15em;">Other mission lists<br />and timelines</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country" title="Timeline of first orbital launches by country">First orbital launches by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_NASA_missions" title="List of NASA missions">NASA missions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Constellation_missions" title="List of Constellation missions">Constellation missions</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_private_spaceflight" title="Timeline of private spaceflight">Timeline of private spaceflight</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_longest_spaceflights" title="Timeline of longest spaceflights">Timeline of longest spaceflights</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Solar_System" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_System" title="Template:Solar System"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Solar_System" title="Template talk:Solar System"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Solar_System&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Solar_System" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="*_Sun_*_Mercury_*_Venus_*_Earth_*_Mars_*_Ceres_*_Jupiter_*_Saturn_*_Uranus_*_Neptune_*_Pluto_*_Haumea_*_Makemake_*_Eris"><div class="noresize"><map name="ImageMap_95c11910eb0c3136"><area href="/wiki/Sun" shape="rect" coords="0,0,90,35" alt="The Sun" title="The Sun" /><area href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" shape="circle" coords="112,18,6" alt="Mercury" title="Mercury" /><area href="/wiki/Venus" shape="circle" coords="153,18,8" alt="Venus" title="Venus" /><area href="/wiki/Moon" shape="circle" coords="204,10,4" alt="The Moon" title="The Moon" /><area href="/wiki/Earth" shape="circle" coords="195,18,8" alt="Earth" title="Earth" /><area href="/wiki/Mars" shape="circle" coords="233,18,8" alt="Mars" title="Mars" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" shape="circle" coords="241,13,3" alt="Phobos and Deimos" title="Phobos and Deimos" /><area href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" shape="circle" coords="271,18,5" alt="Ceres" title="Ceres" /><area href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" shape="rect" coords="256,0,288,35" alt="The main asteroid belt" title="The main asteroid belt" /><area href="/wiki/Jupiter" shape="circle" coords="316,19,15" alt="Jupiter" title="Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter" shape="circle" coords="329,6,6" alt="Moons of Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter" shape="rect" coords="298,18,335,20" alt="Rings of Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Saturn" shape="circle" coords="372,18,12" alt="Saturn" title="Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" shape="circle" coords="381,7,6" alt="Moons of Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" shape="rect" coords="353,5,389,31" alt="Rings of Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Uranus" shape="circle" coords="418,18,12" alt="Uranus" title="Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus" shape="circle" coords="427,10,6" alt="Moons of Uranus" title="Moons of Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Uranus" shape="rect" coords="408,4,429,34" alt="Rings of Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Neptune" shape="circle" coords="462,18,12" alt="Neptune" title="Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune" shape="circle" coords="471,10,5" alt="Moons of Neptune" title="Moons of Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Neptune" shape="rect" coords="441,9,485,28" alt="Rings of Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Pluto" shape="circle" coords="504,18,12" alt="Pluto" title="Pluto" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Pluto" shape="circle" coords="510,13,8" alt="Moons of Pluto" title="Moons of Pluto" /><area href="/wiki/Haumea" shape="circle" coords="534,18,12" alt="Haumea" title="Haumea" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Haumea" shape="circle" coords="540,13,8" alt="Moons of Haumea" title="Moons of Haumea" /><area href="/wiki/Makemake" shape="circle" coords="567,18,12" alt="Makemake" title="Makemake" /><area href="/wiki/S/2015_(136472)_1" shape="circle" coords="571,13,8" alt="S/2015 (136472) 1" title="S/2015 (136472) 1" /><area href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" shape="rect" coords="490,0,580,35" alt="The Kuiper Belt" title="The Kuiper Belt" /><area href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" shape="circle" coords="596,18,12" alt="Eris" title="Eris" /><area href="/wiki/Dysnomia_(moon)" shape="circle" coords="602,13,8" alt="Dysnomia" title="Dysnomia" /><area href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" shape="rect" coords="581,0,610,35" alt="The Scattered Disc" title="The Scattered Disc" /><area href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" shape="rect" coords="623,0,640,35" alt="The Hills Cloud" title="The Hills Cloud" /><area href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" shape="rect" coords="641,0,666,35" alt="The Oort Cloud" title="The Oort Cloud" /></map><img alt="The Sun, the planets, their moons, and several trans-Neptunian objects" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Solar_System_Template_Final.png" decoding="async" width="666" height="36" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="36" usemap="#ImageMap_95c11910eb0c3136" /></div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Haumea" title="Haumea">Haumea</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Makemake" title="Makemake">Makemake</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a></i></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px;"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top;"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;;;;width:50%;"><div>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planets</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">Terrestrials</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giant_planet" title="Giant planet">Giants</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">Dwarfs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Haumea" title="Haumea">Haumea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Makemake" title="Makemake">Makemake</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Rings</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter">Jovian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Saturnian</a> <span style="font-size:90%;">(<a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Rhea" title="Rings of Rhea">Rhean</a>)</span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Chariklo" title="Rings of Chariklo">Charikloan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2060_Chiron#Rings" title="2060 Chiron">Chironean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus">Uranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune">Neptunian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Haumea#Ring" title="Haumea">Haumean</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">Moons</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li>Earth
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claimed_moons_of_Earth" title="Claimed moons of Earth">other near-Earth objects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" title="Moons of Mars">Mars</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter">Jupiter</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymede</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Callisto_(moon)" title="Callisto (moon)">Callisto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)" title="Io (moon)">Io</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter#List" title="Moons of Jupiter">all 79</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn">Saturn</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhea_(moon)" title="Rhea (moon)">Rhea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iapetus_(moon)" title="Iapetus (moon)">Iapetus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dione_(moon)" title="Dione (moon)">Dione</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tethys_(moon)" title="Tethys (moon)">Tethys</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mimas_(moon)" title="Mimas (moon)">Mimas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hyperion_(moon)" title="Hyperion (moon)">Hyperion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phoebe_(moon)" title="Phoebe (moon)">Phoebe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn#List" title="Moons of Saturn">all 82</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus" title="Moons of Uranus">Uranus</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titania_(moon)" title="Titania (moon)">Titania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oberon_(moon)" title="Oberon (moon)">Oberon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Umbriel_(moon)" title="Umbriel (moon)">Umbriel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_(moon)" title="Ariel (moon)">Ariel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miranda_(moon)" title="Miranda (moon)">Miranda</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus#List" title="Moons of Uranus">all 27</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune" title="Moons of Neptune">Neptune</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proteus_(moon)" title="Proteus (moon)">Proteus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nereid_(moon)" title="Nereid (moon)">Nereid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune#List" title="Moons of Neptune">all 14</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Pluto" title="Moons of Pluto">Pluto</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charon_(moon)" title="Charon (moon)">Charon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nix_(moon)" title="Nix (moon)">Nix</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(moon)" title="Hydra (moon)">Hydra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kerberos_(moon)" title="Kerberos (moon)">Kerberos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Styx_(moon)" title="Styx (moon)">Styx</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Eris
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysnomia_(moon)" title="Dysnomia (moon)">Dysnomia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Haumea" title="Moons of Haumea">Haumean</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hi%CA%BBiaka_(moon)" title="Hiʻiaka (moon)">Hiʻiaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Namaka_(moon)" title="Namaka (moon)">Namaka</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Makemake
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/S/2015_(136472)_1" title="S/2015 (136472) 1">S/2015 (136472) 1</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Exploration</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration" title="Outline of space exploration">outline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Colonization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_and_exploration_of_the_Solar_System" title="Discovery and exploration of the Solar System">Discovery</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historical_models_of_the_Solar_System" title="Historical models of the Solar System">historical models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons" title="Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human spaceflight</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space stations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">list</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" title="Space probe">Space probes</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration" title="Timeline of Solar System exploration">timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_probes" title="List of Solar System probes">list</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mercury" title="Exploration of Mercury">Mercury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Observations_and_explorations_of_Venus" title="Observations and explorations of Venus">Venus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Moon" title="Exploration of the Moon">Moon</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_resources" title="Lunar resources">mining</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Mars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)#Exploration" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid#Exploration" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">mining</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_comets" title="List of missions to comets">Comets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Jupiter" title="Exploration of Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Saturn" title="Exploration of Saturn">Saturn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Uranus" title="Exploration of Uranus">Uranus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Neptune" title="Exploration of Neptune">Neptune</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Pluto" title="Exploration of Pluto">Pluto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deep_space_exploration" title="Deep space exploration">Deep space</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_Solar_System_objects" title="List of hypothetical Solar System objects">Hypothetical <br />objects</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five-planet_Nice_model" title="Five-planet Nice model">Fifth giant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phaeton_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Phaeton (hypothetical planet)">Phaeton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planet_Nine" title="Planet Nine">Planet Nine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planet_V" title="Planet V">Planet V</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planets_beyond_Neptune#Planet_X" title="Planets beyond Neptune">Planet X</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Subsatellite" title="Subsatellite">Subsatellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theia_(planet)" title="Theia (planet)">Theia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tyche_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Tyche (hypothetical planet)">Tyche</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Vulcan (hypothetical planet)">Vulcan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanoid" title="Vulcanoid">Vulcanoids</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_comets" title="Lists of comets">Comets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_possible_dwarf_planets" title="List of possible dwarf planets">Dwarf planets (possible)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gravitationally_rounded_objects_of_the_Solar_System" title="List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System">Gravitationally rounded objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minor_planets" title="List of minor planets">Minor planets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_satellites" title="List of natural satellites">Natural satellites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System_model" title="Solar System model">Solar System models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_objects" title="List of Solar System objects">Solar System objects</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_objects_by_size" title="List of Solar System objects by size">by size</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons" title="Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons">by discovery date</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;;;;width:50%;"><div>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Small_Solar_System_body" title="Small Solar System body">Small <br />Solar <br />System <br />bodies</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">Comets</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Damocloid" title="Damocloid">Damocloids</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">Meteoroids</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minor_planet" title="Minor planet">Minor planets</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meanings_of_minor_planet_names" title="Meanings of minor planet names">Names and meanings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minor-planet_moon" title="Minor-planet moon">moons</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mercury-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mercury-crossing minor planets">Mercury-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Venus-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Venus-crossing minor planets">Venus-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2013_ND15" title="2013 ND15">Venus trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Earth-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Earth-crossing minor planets">Earth-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_trojan" title="Earth trojan">Earth trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mars-crossing minor planets">Mars-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mars_trojan" title="Mars trojan">Mars trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">Asteroid belt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2_Pallas" title="2 Pallas">Pallas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/3_Juno" title="3 Juno">Juno</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/4_Vesta" title="4 Vesta">Vesta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Active_asteroid" title="Active asteroid">active</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minor_planets:_1%E2%80%931000" title="List of minor planets: 1–1000">first 1000</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_family" title="Asteroid family">families</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids" title="List of exceptional asteroids">exceptional</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kirkwood_gap" title="Kirkwood gap">Kirkwood gap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jupiter-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Jupiter-crossing minor planets">Jupiter-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_trojan" title="Jupiter trojan">Jupiter trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Centaur_(minor_planet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Centaur (minor planet)">Centaurs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Saturn-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Saturn-crossing minor planets">Saturn-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saturn_trojan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saturn trojan (page does not exist)">Saturn trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Uranus-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Uranus-crossing minor planets">Uranus-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2011_QF99" title="2011 QF99">Uranus trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neptune-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Neptune-crossing minor planets">Neptune-crossers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_trojan" title="Neptune trojan">Neptune trojans</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cis-Neptunian_object" title="Cis-Neptunian object">Cis-Neptunian objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object" title="Trans-Neptunian object">Trans-Neptunian objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Kuiper_belt_object" title="Classical Kuiper belt object">Cubewanos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plutino" title="Plutino">Plutinos</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Detached_object" title="Detached object">Detached objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" title="Hills cloud">Hills cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">Scattered disc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sednoid" title="Sednoid">Sednoids</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Formation <br />and <br />evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">Accretion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk#Excretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Excretion disk</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Asteroid_Cloud&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asteroid Cloud (page does not exist)">Asteroid Cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Circumplanetary_disk" title="Circumplanetary disk">Circumplanetary disk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_disc" title="Circumstellar disc">Circumstellar disc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coatlicue_(star)" title="Coatlicue (star)">Coatlicue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Debris_disk" title="Debris disk">Debris disk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Detached_Objects" class="mw-redirect" title="Detached Objects">Detached Objects</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Disrupted_planet" title="Disrupted planet">Disrupted planet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanetary_Circumstellar_Environments_and_Disk_Explorer" title="Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer">EXCEDE</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exozodiacal_dust" title="Exozodiacal dust">Exozodiacal dust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_materials" title="Extraterrestrial materials">Extraterrestrial materials</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_sample_curation" title="Extraterrestrial sample curation">Extraterrestrial sample curation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Giant-impact_hypothesis" title="Giant-impact hypothesis">Giant-impact hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">Gravitational collapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hills_Cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Hills Cloud">Hills Cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_dust_cloud" title="Interplanetary dust cloud">Interplanetary dust cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary space">Interplanetary space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_cloud" title="Interstellar cloud">Interstellar cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar dust">Interstellar dust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space#Interstellar_space" title="Outer space">Interstellar space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision#Formation_of_planets" title="Stellar collision">Merging stars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">Outer space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_migration" title="Planetary migration">Planetary migration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Formation_of_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">Planet formation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_pile" title="Rubble pile">Rubble pile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sample-return_mission" title="Sample-return mission">Sample-return mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">Scattered disc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Star formation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;padding:0.4em;line-height:1.25em;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Solar_System" title="Outline of the Solar System">Outline of the Solar System</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/File:Solar_system.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Solar system.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/22px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="28" class="noviewer" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/File:Crab_Nebula.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Crab Nebula.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/28px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" class="image"><img alt="The Earth seen from Apollo 17 with transparent background.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="noviewer" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Earth Sciences">Earth Sciences portal</a></li></ul>
<p><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Interstellar_Cloud" title="Local Interstellar Cloud">Local Interstellar Cloud</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Bubble" title="Local Bubble">Local Bubble</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Gould_Belt" title="Gould Belt">Gould Belt</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Orion_Arm" title="Orion Arm">Orion Arm</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Satellite_galaxies_of_the_Milky_Way" title="Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way">Milky Way subgroup</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Sheet" title="Local Sheet">Local Sheet</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Virgo_Supercluster" title="Virgo Supercluster">Virgo Supercluster</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Laniakea_Supercluster" title="Laniakea Supercluster">Laniakea Supercluster</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">Observable universe</a> <span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a><br /><span style="font-size:90%;">Each arrow (<span style="font-size: 120%;">→</span>) may be read as "within" or "part of".</span>
</p>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752783&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752783&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752783" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/GND_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="GND (identifier)">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4144455-3">4144455-3</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85080584">sh85080584</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">NARA</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10639262">10639262</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
'
|
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) |
false
|
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) |
1591929772
|
