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'{{short description|Space travel by humans}} {{copyedit|date=September 2020}} {{Redirect|Space traveler}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}} {{Use American English|date=October 2020}} {{multiple image | direction = vertical | align = right | width = 250 | image1 = Aldrin Apollo 11 original.jpg | image2 = FirstSpaceWalk.png | image3 = Ed White First American Spacewalker - GPN-2000-001180.jpg | image4 = ISS-32 American EVA b3 Aki Hoshide.jpg | image5 = Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg | caption1 = [[Apollo 11]] astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon, 1969 | caption2 = [[Voskhod 2]] astronaut [[Alexei Leonov]], first in open space, 1965 | caption3 = [[Gemini 4]] astronaut [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]] in open space, 1965 | caption4 = [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] astronaut [[Akihiko Hoshide]] taking a [[space selfie]] in 2012 | caption5 = [[International Space Station]] crewmember [[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] views the Earth, 2010 | total_width = | alt1 = }} '''Human spaceflight''' (also referred to as '''manned spaceflight''' or '''crewed spaceflight''') is [[spaceflight]] with a [[Astronaut|crew]] or passengers aboard a [[spacecraft]]. A crewed spacecraft may be operated directly by human crew, [[telerobotic|remotely operated]] from ground stations on Earth, or [[autonomously operated by a robot|autonomous]] and able to operate with no human involvement. The first human in space was [[Yuri Gagarin]], who flew the [[Vostok 1]] spacecraft, launched by the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]] as part of the [[Vostok program]]. Humans traveled to the [[Moon]] nine times between 1968 and 1972 under the United States [[Apollo program]], and have had a continuous presence in space for {{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}} on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS).<ref>{{cite web |title=Counting the Many Ways the International Space Station Benefits Humanity |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/counting-the-many-ways-the-international-space-station-benefits-humanity |accessdate=4 May 2019}}</ref> The primary nations with human spaceflight capabilities are the [[United States]], [[Russia]] and [[China]], with the latter members maintaining [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] and [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou]] programs, respectively. Government-directed human spaceflight programs in the United States halted following the retirement of the [[Space Shuttle]] in 2011. From 2011 to 2020, only commercial missions were based there, including the [[Virgin Galactic]] [[SpaceShipTwo]] mission in 2018. In lieu of domestic vehicles, [[NASA]] deployed Soyuz vehicles as additional, emergency escape vehicles for expeditions to the ISS. Companies within the United States have developed numerous human space programs. [[List of private spaceflight companies|Non-governmental companies]] have been working to develop a [[space tourism]] industry. [[Lockheed Martin]] manufactured the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] vehicle in collaboration with the [[European Space Agency]] and [[SpaceX]] created reusable launch system [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]]. The first private human spaceflight launch was a suborbital flight on [[SpaceShipOne]] on June 21, 2004. NASA has also played a role in stimulating [[private spaceflight]] in the United States, through programs such as [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] (COTS) and [[Commercial Crew Program]] (CCP). In 2010, the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama administration]] released a NASA budget request for the following year<ref>{{cite web|title=FY 2011 Budget|url=http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221004158/http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html|archivedate=21 December 2010|work=NASA}}</ref> directing [[NASA]] [[low Earth orbit]] transportation services, for both people and cargo, toward commercial companies. The vehicles used for these services could then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. Commercial resupply of ISS began two years after the retirement of the Space Shuttle<ref>{{cite web|title=NASA Hails Success of Commercial Space Program|url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-hails-success-of-commercial-space-program/index.html#.U9DmePldV8G|accessdate=24 July 2014|website=nasa.gov}}</ref>, with commercial crew launches operating since May 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=SpaceX Astronauts Reach Space Station After Milestone Voyage|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-30/spacex-set-to-retry-historic-rocket-launch-after-weather-delay|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-06-16|website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> The first successful crewed launch from the United States since 2018 was in May 2020, when a [[SpaceX Dragon 2|SpaceX Dragon]] spacecraft, with NASA astronauts [[Bob Behnken|Robert Behnken]] and [[Doug Hurley|Douglas Hurley]] aboard, launched from [[Kennedy Space Center|Florida]] and successfully transported them to the International Space Station.<ref>{{cite web |title=Crew Dragon Docks to Space Station |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2020/05/31/crew-dragon-docks-to-space-station |accessdate=6 Jun 2020}}</ref> == History == {{Main|History of spaceflight}} === Cold War era === {{Main|Space Race}} [[File:Vostok spacecraft replica.jpg|thumb|180px|Replica of the [[Vostok programme|Vostok]] space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit]] [[File:Sigma7-1.jpg|thumb|[[Project Mercury|Mercury]] space capsule, which carried the first Americans into orbit]] [[File:X-15 in flight.jpg|thumb|[[North American X-15]], hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft, which reached the edge of space]] [[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|[[Neil Armstrong]], the first human to land and walk on the Moon, July 1969.]] Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR); though these nations developed [[intercontinental ballistic missile|intercontinental ballistic missiles]], for the delivery of [[nuclear weapon]]s, the rockets utilized were large enough to be adapted to carry the first [[artificial satellite]]s into [[low Earth orbit]]. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on [[Project Mercury]], with the aim of launching men into orbit; the USSR secretly pursued the [[Vostok programme|Vostok program]] to accomplish the same thing. Among these powers, however, the USSR launched the first human into space; the cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]] completed a single orbit in [[Vostok 1]], on a [[Vostok 3KA]] rocket, on 12 April 1961. The US launched its first [[astronaut]], [[Alan Shepard]], on a suborbital flight aboard ''[[Freedom 7]]'' on a [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Mercury-Redstone rocket]], on 5 May 1961. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually [[attitude control|controlled his spacecraft's attitude]], and landed in it. The first American in orbit was [[John Glenn]] aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'', launched 20 February 1962, on a [[Atlas LV-3B|Mercury-Atlas rocket]]. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok [[space capsule|capsule]]s, including the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] aboard [[Vostok 6]] on 16 June 1963. The US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four into orbit through 1963. The US also made two flights in the [[North American X-15]] (90 and 91) piloted by [[Joseph A. Walker]] that exceeded the Kármán line, the internationally recognized 100&nbsp;km altitude used by the FAI to denote the edge of space. US President [[John F. Kennedy]] raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Kennedy, John F. |date=25 May 1961 |title=Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |medium=Motion picture (excerpt) |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |accessdate=1 August 2013 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |location=Boston, MA |id=Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref> The US started the three-man [[Apollo program]] launched by the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family of launch vehicles]] in 1961 to accomplish this, and in the interim, two-man [[Project Gemini]] in 1962, which flew 10 missions launched by [[Titan II GLV|Titan II rockets]] in 1965 and 1966. Gemini's objective was to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used in the Moon mission.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Loff |first1=Sarah |title=Gemini: Stepping Stone to the Moon |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/#.VKi1GsaWt78 |website=Gemini: Bridge to the Moon |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |accessdate=4 January 2015 |ref=harv |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221151510/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/ |archivedate=21 December 2014 |location=Washington, DC |date=21 October 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon, and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule into a two or three-person [[Voskhod programme|Voskhod]] capsule to compete with Gemini. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first [[spacewalk]], made by [[Alexei Leonov]] on [[Voskhod 2]] on 8 March 1965. However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. The US Gemini flights did not accomplish the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks and solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by overcoming the lack of gravity, demonstrating up to two weeks endurance in a human spaceflight, as well as the first [[space rendezvous]] and [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]]s of spacecraft. The US succeeded in developing the [[Saturn V]] rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] into 10 orbits around the Moon in [[Apollo 8]] in December 1968. In July 1969, [[Apollo 11]] accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]. A total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon through 1972, half of which drove [[Lunar Roving Vehicle|electric powered vehicles]] on the surface. The crew of [[Apollo 13]], [[Jim Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]], survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure and returned to Earth safely without landing on the Moon. [[File:Soyuz TMA-7 spacecraft2edit1.jpg|thumb|[[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]], most serial spacecraft]] [[File:Salyut 1 and Soyuz drawing.png|thumb|[[Salyut 1]], first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraft]] Meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued [[Soviet crewed lunar programs|crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs]]. They successfully developed the three-person [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] necessary for a human landing, and discontinued the lunar programs in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|title = Challenge To Apollo The Soviet Union and The Space Race, 1945–1974|last = Siddiqi|first = Asif|page = 832|publisher = NASA|url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?Ntk=all&Ntx=mode%20matchall&Ntt=SP-2000-4408}}</ref> Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of [[space station]]s, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations. They started with a series of [[Salyut program|Salyut]] sortie stations from 1971 to 1986. ==== Post-Apollo era ==== [[File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|Artist's rendering of an [[Apollo CSM]] is about to dock with a [[Soyuz spacecraft]].]] After the Apollo program, the US launched the [[Skylab]] sortie space station in 1973, inhabiting it for 171 days with three crews aboard Apollo spacecraft. President [[Richard Nixon]] and Soviet Premier [[Leonid Brezhnev]] negotiated an easing of relations known as [[détente]], an easing of Cold War tensions. As part of this, they negotiated the [[Apollo-Soyuz]] program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module rendezvoused and docked with [[Soyuz 19]] in 1975. The American and Russian crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely diplomatic and symbolic. Nixon appointed his Vice President [[Spiro Agnew]] to head a Space Task Group in 1969 to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious [[Space Transportation System]] based on a [[Space Shuttle design process|reusable Space Shuttle]], which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger [[RP-1|kerosene]]-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent modular space station, reusable [[space tug]] and [[NERVA|nuclear]] interplanetary ferry, leading to a [[human mission to Mars|human expedition to Mars]] as early as 1986, or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support Congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. [[Space Shuttle|Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back]] to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly back booster with two reusable [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]]s, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable [[Space Shuttle external tank|external propellant tank]] to feed its hydrogen-fueled [[Space Shuttle main engine|main engine]]s. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings. [[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis landing at KSC following STS-122 (crop).jpg|thumb|[[Space Shuttle orbiter]], first crewed orbital spaceplane]] The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, dubbed ''[[Space Station Freedom|Freedom]]''. The USSR launched three [[Almaz]] military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of ''[[Mir]]'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. ''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of {{convert|354|km|nmi|abbr=off|sp=us}}, at a 51.6° inclination. It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001. The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Freedom'' a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]''. A fifth shuttle, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|an accident during launch]] that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. Twenty-two Shuttle flights carried a [[European Space Agency]] sortie space station called [[Spacelab]] in the payload bay from 1983 to 1998.<ref name=StoryShuttle>{{cite book |title=The Story of the Space Shuttle |author=David Michael Harland |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] Praxis |date=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 444] |isbn=978-1-85233-793-3 |authorlink=David M. Harland |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspaceshut0000harl/page/444 }}</ref> [[File:Buran on An-225 (Le Bourget 1989) (cropped).JPEG|thumb|''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiter, copy of the Space Shuttle orbiter]] The USSR copied the reusable [[Space Shuttle orbiter]], which they called ''[[Buran programme|Buran]]''-class orbiter or simply ''Buran''. It was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable [[Energia]] rocket, and capable of robotic orbital flight and landing. Unlike the Space Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter it used engines to perform its final orbital insertion. A single uncrewed orbital test flight was successfully made in November 1988. A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed an uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002. === US / Russian cooperation === [[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|right|International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and Russia]] The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the [[Roscosmos State Corporation]]. The [[Shuttle-Mir Program]] included American Space Shuttles visiting the ''Mir'' space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard ''Mir''. In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station ''Freedom'' into the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). Construction of the station began in 1998. The station orbits at an altitude of {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us}} and an inclination of 51.65°. The Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 after 135 orbital flights, several of which helped assemble, supply, and crew the ISS. ''Columbia'' was destroyed in [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|another accident during reentry]], which killed 7 astronauts on 1 February 2003. Russia has continued cooperation though half of the International Space Station is its sole singular half. === China === [[File:Shenzhou left.jpg|thumb|right|[[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou]], first non-USSR and non-USA spacecraft]] After Russia's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Chairman [[Mao Zedong]] intended to place a Chinese satellite in orbit by 1959 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|founding of the People's Republic of China]] (PRC),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Dir/2007/10/16/15/33/09.htm|script-title=zh:九章与中国卫星 |publisher= [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]]|date=16 October 2007|accessdate=3 July 2008 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080314030932/http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Dir/2007/10/16/15/33/09.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 14 March 2008}}</ref> However, China did not successfully launch its first satellite until 24 April 1970. Mao and Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] decided on 14 July 1967, that the PRC should not be left behind, and started China's own human spaceflight program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250955.html |script-title=zh:首批航天员19人胜出 为后来积累了宝贵的经验 |publisher=雷霆万钧 |date=16 September 2005 |accessdate=24 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051222024152/http://tech.tom.com/1121/1122/2005916-250955.html |archivedate=22 December 2005 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The first attempt, the [[Shuguang spacecraft]] copied from the US Gemini, was canceled on 13 May 1972. China later designed the [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]] resembling the Russian Soyuz, and became the third nation to achieve independent human spaceflight capability by launching [[Yang Liwei]] on a 21-hour flight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]] on 15 October 2003. China launched the [[Tiangong-1]] space station on 29 September 2011, and two sortie missions to it: [[Shenzhou 9]] 16–29 June 2012, with China's first female astronaut [[Liu Yang (astronaut)|Liu Yang]]; and [[Shenzhou 10]], 13–26 June 2013. The station was retired on 21 March 2016 and reentered on 2 April 2018, burning up with smaller fragments impacting the ocean. Tiangong-1's successor [[Tiangong-2]] was launched in September 2016 to then be deorbited in July 2019. Tiangong-2 hosted a crew of two ([[Jing Haipeng]] and [[Chen Dong (astronaut)|Chen Dong]]) for 30 days. The [[Tianzhou 1]] cargo spacecraft docked to the station on 22 April 2017. === Abandoned programs of other nations === The [[European Space Agency]] began development of the [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]] shuttle [[spaceplane]] in 1987, to be launched on the [[Ariane 5]] expendable launch vehicle. It was intended to dock with the European [[Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer|Columbus space station]]. The projects were canceled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built. The Columbus space station was reconfigured as the [[Columbus (ISS module)|European module of the same name]] on the International Space Station.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} [[Japan]] ([[NASDA]]) began development of the [[HOPE-X]] experimental shuttle spaceplane in the 1980s, to be launched on its [[H-IIA]] expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reductions, and the project's cancellation in 2003 in favor of participation in the International Space Station program through the [[Kibo (ISS module)|''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module]] and [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] cargo spacecraft. As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the [[Fuji (spacecraft)|Fuji crew capsule]] for independent or ISS flights, but the project did not proceed to the contracting stage.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} From 1993 to 1997, the {{Interlanguage link multi|Japanese Rocket Society|ja|3=日本ロケット協会|vertical-align=sup}}, [[Kawasaki Heavy Industries]] and [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]] worked on the proposed [[Kankoh-maru]] [[vertical takeoff and landing]] [[single stage to orbit]] reusable launch system. In 2005, this system was proposed for space tourism.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} According to a press release from the [[Iraqi News Agency]] dated 5 December 1989, about the only test of the [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz]] space launcher, [[Iraq]] intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hardships that followed.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} === United States "Shuttle gap" === [[File:STS-135 begins takeoff (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[STS-135]] (July 2011), the final human spaceflight of the United States until 2018]] [[File:Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo "Unity" rollout 19Feb2016, FAITH hangar, Mojave, California.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[VSS Unity]] [[VSS Unity VP-03|Flight VP-03]] December 2018, the first human spaceflight from the United States since [[STS-135]]]] Under the Bush administration, the [[Constellation program]] included plans for retiring the Space Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the [[2011 United States federal budget]], the Obama administration canceled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.<ref>[http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html Congressional watchdog finds NASA's new rocket is in trouble] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129102151/http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/11/congressional-w.html |date=29 November 2011 }}. Orlando Sentinel blog summary of official reports. 3 November 2008</ref> As part of the [[Artemis program]], NASA is developing the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to be launched by the [[Space Launch System]]. Under the [[Commercial Crew Development]] plan, NASA will rely on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low Earth orbit, such as [[SpaceX Dragon 2]], [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]]'s [[Dream Chaser]], or [[Boeing Starliner]]. The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch to space of [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Unity VP-03|Flight VP-03]] on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of [[Apollo program|Apollo]] in 1975 and the [[STS-1|first Space Shuttle flight]] in 1981, is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap. === Commercial private spaceflight === [[File:SpaceShipOne Flight 15P photo D Ramey Logan.jpg|thumb|[[SpaceShipOne]], first private sub-orbital spaceplane]] [[File:Crew Dragon at the ISS for Demo Mission 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Crew Dragon]], first private orbital spacecraft]] Since the early 2000s, a variety of [[private spaceflight]] ventures have been undertaken. Several of the companies, including [[Blue Origin]], [[SpaceX]], [[Virgin Galactic]], and [[Sierra Nevada Corporation|Sierra Nevada]] have explicit plans to advance human spaceflight. {{asof|2016}}, all four of those companies have development programs underway to fly commercial passengers. A commercial [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] spacecraft aimed at the [[space tourism]] market is being developed by [[Virgin Galactic]] called [[SpaceshipTwo]] which reached space in December 2018.<ref>https://www.space.com/42725-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-unity-4th-powered-flight-twitter-updates.html</ref><ref>David, Leonard. (11 January 2014) [http://www.space.com/24249-commercial-space-travel-blasts-off-2014.html Will Commercial Space Travel Blast Off in 2014?]. Space.com. Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref> [[Blue Origin]] has begun a multi-year [[flight test|test]] program of their [[New Shepard]] vehicle and carried out 11 successful uncrewed test flights in 2015–2019. Blue Origin planned to fly with humans in 2019. SpaceX and [[Boeing Defense, Space & Security|Boeing]] are both developing passenger-capable [[orbital spaceflight|orbital]] [[space capsule]]s as of 2020, with SpaceX carrying [[Commercial Crew Development|NASA astronauts to the International Space Station]] on board a [[Crew Dragon]] spacecraft launched on a [[Falcon 9 Block 5]] launch vehicle. Boeing will be doing it with their [[CST-100]] launched on a [[United Launch Alliance]] [[Atlas V]] launch vehicle.<ref name=nasaAnnounce20140906>{{cite web |title=American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil |last=Bolden |first=Charlie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/ |website=NASA.gov |accessdate=16 September 2014}}</ref> Development funding for these orbital-capable technologies has been provided by a mix of [[government funding|government]] and [[private capital|private]] funds, with SpaceX providing a greater portion of total development funding for this human-carrying capability from private investment.<ref name=sn20140921>{{cite news |last1=Foust|first1=Jeff |title=NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |accessdate=21 September 2014 |work=Space News |date=19 September 2014 |quote="We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given", Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. "Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that".}}</ref><ref name=NASApress20140916>{{cite web |title=RELEASE 14-256 NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international |website=www.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |accessdate=29 October 2014}}</ref> There have been no public announcements of commercial offerings for orbital flights from either company, although both companies are planning some flights with their own private, not NASA, astronauts on board. == Milestones == === By achievement === ; 12 April 1961 : [[Yuri Gagarin]] was the first human in space and the first in Earth orbit, on [[Vostok 1]] on 12 April 1961. ; 17 July 1962 or 19 July 1963 : Either [[Robert Michael White|Robert M. White]] or [[Joseph A. Walker]] (depending on the definition of the [[space border]]) were first to pilot a [[spaceplane]], the [[North American X-15]], on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker). ; 18 March 1965 : [[Alexei Leonov]] was first to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]], on 18 March 1965. ; 15 December 1965 : [[Walter M. Schirra]] and [[Thomas P. Stafford|Tom Stafford]] were first to perform a [[space rendezvous]], piloting their [[Gemini 6A]] spacecraft and station-keeping one foot (30 cm) from [[Gemini 7]] for over 5 hours. ; 16 March 1966 : [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]] were first to [[docking and berthing of spacecraft|rendezvous and dock]], piloting their [[Gemini 8]] spacecraft to dock with an uncrewed [[Agena Target Vehicle]]. ; December 1968 : [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]], and [[William Anders]] were first to travel beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and first to orbit the Moon, on the [[Apollo 8]] mission which orbited the Moon ten times before returning to Earth, from 21-27 Dec 1968. ; 20 July 1969 : Neil Armstrong and [[Buzz Aldrin]] were first to land on the Moon, on 20 July 1969 during [[Apollo 11]]. ; Longest time in space : [[Valeri Polyakov]] performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days, 17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds). [[Gennady Padalka]] has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days. ; Longest crewed space station :The [[International Space Station]] has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present ({{age in years and days|2 November 2000|sep=and}}). This record was previously held by [[Mir]], from [[Soyuz TM-8]] on 5 September 1989 to the [[Soyuz TM-29]] on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,634 days (almost 10 years). === By nationality or sex === ; 12 April 1961 : [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first Soviet as well as the first human to reach space on [[Vostok 1]] on 12 April 1961. ; 5 May 1961 : [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American to reach space on ''[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]]'' on 5 May 1961. ; 20 February 1962 : [[John Glenn]] became the first American to orbit the Earth on 20 February 1962. ; 16 June 1963 : [[Valentina Tereshkova]] became the first woman to go into space and to orbit the Earth on 16 June 1963. ; 2 March 1978 : [[Vladimír Remek]], a [[Czechoslovakia]]n, became the first non-American and non-Soviet in space on 2 March 1978. ; 2 April 1984 : [[Rakesh Sharma]], became the first Indian citizen to reach Earth's orbit on 2 April 1984. ; 25 July 1984 : [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the first woman to [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]] on 25 July 1984. ; 15 October 2003 : [[Yang Liwei]] became the first Chinese in space and the Earth's orbit on [[Shenzhou 5]] on 15 October 2003. ; 18 October 2019 : [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]] conduct the first woman-only [[Extravehicular activity|walk in space]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2019/10/18/nasa-astronauts-wrap-up-historic-all-woman-spacewalk/ | title=NASA Astronauts Wrap Up Historic All-Woman Spacewalk | date=18 October 2019 | first=Mark | last=Garcia | publisher=NASA | accessdate=23 January 2020}}</ref> [[Sally Ride]] became the first American woman in space in 1983. [[Eileen Collins]] was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission [[STS-93]] in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft. For many years, only the USSR (later [[Russia]]) and the United States had their own astronauts. Citizens of other nations flew in space, beginning with the flight of [[Vladimir Remek]], a [[Czech Republic|Czech]], on a Soviet spacecraft on 2 March 1978, in the [[Interkosmos]] program. {{As of|2010}}, citizens from 38 nations (including [[space tourism|space tourists]]) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft. == Space programs == {{Redirect|Astronaut corps|subdivision of NASA|NASA Astronaut Corps}} Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the former Soviet Union and currently Russia, the United States, [[Mainland China]], and by the American [[private spaceflight]] companies. {{human spaceflight capability}} ===Current programs=== [[Space vehicle]]s are [[spacecraft]] used for transportation between the Earth's surface and outer space, or between locations in outer space. The following space vehicles and [[spaceport]]s are currently used for launching human spaceflights: * [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz program]] ([[Soviet Union|USSR]]/Russia): spacecraft on [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz launch vehicle]], from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]]; 140 crewed orbital flights since 1967, including two in-flight aborts which failed to reach orbit, {{As of|alt=as of March 2019|2019|March}} * [[Shenzhou program]] (China): spacecraft on [[Long March (rocket family)|Long March launch vehicle]], from [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]]; 5 flights since 2003, {{As of|alt=as of July 2016|2016|July}} *[[SpaceShipTwo]] (US): Air launched from [[Scaled Composites White Knight Two|White Knight Two]] carrier aircraft. 2 suborbital spaceflights since 2018, as of February 2019 *[[Crew Dragon]] (US): Part of the [[Commercial Crew Program]], launched from [[Kennedy Space Center]] on a [[Falcon 9 Block 5|Falcon 9]] rocket. One successful launch with more in the planning stages.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Test of SpaceX Crew Dragon|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-america-in-historic-test-flight-of-spacex-crew-dragon|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=2020-05-30|website=NASA|access-date=2020-05-31}}</ref> The following [[space stations]] are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation: * [[International Space Station]] (US and Russia) assembled in orbit: altitude {{convert|409|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}, 51.65° inclination; crews transported by Soyuz spacecraft Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million [[Ansari X Prize]]. The first private human spaceflight took place on 21 June 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. SpaceShipOne captured the prize on 4 October 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week. Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, whose crew of six spends up to six months at a time in [[low Earth orbit]]. [[NASA]] and [[ESA]] use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. These endeavors have also been referred to as "manned space missions," though because of gender specificity this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/styleguide.html |title=Style Guide |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=6 January 2016}}</ref> ===Planned future programs=== Under the [[Indian Human Spaceflight Programme|Indian Human Spaceflight Program]], India is planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle [[Gaganyaan]] before August 2022. The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Scientists Discuss Indian Manned Space Mission|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/update/07-nov-2006/scientists-discuss-indian-manned-space-mission|publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation|date=2006-11-07}}</ref><ref name="Kadursrinivas 2017">{{cite web |last1=Rao |first1=Mukund Kadursrinivas |last2=Murthi |first2=Sridhara, K. R. |last3=Prasad M. Y. S. |title=THE DECISION FOR INDIAN HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT PROGRAMME - POLITICAL PERSPECTIVES, NATIONAL RELEVANCE AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES |url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1359/1/2017-MK-Rao-IAC-17-B3-1-9-IndianHumanSpaceFlightFullPaper.pdf |publisher= International Astronautical Federation}}</ref> The initial objective is to carry a crew of two or three to [[low Earth orbit]] (LEO) for a 3 to 7 day flight in a [[ISRO Orbital Vehicle|spacecraft]] on a [[GSLV Mk III]] rocket and return them safely for a water landing at a predefined landing zone. On 15 August 2018, [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]], from the rampart of the [[Red Fort]] in [[New Delhi]], formally declared that India will independently send humans into space before the 75th [[Independence Day (India)|anniversary of independence]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/independence-day-2018-live-updates-we-will-put-an-indian-on-space-before-2022-says-narendra-modi-at-red-fort-4967431.html|title=Independence Day 2018 Live Updates: 'We will put an Indian on space before 2022,' says Narendra Modi at Red Fort|website=Firstpost.com|access-date=2020-06-21}}</ref> In 2019, ISRO further revealed plans for a [[Indian Space Station|space station]] by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission. Activities are currently progressing with a focus on the development of critical technologies, infrastructure and subsystems such as the crew module (CM), environmental control and life support system (ECLSS), crew escape system, etc. The department has initiated activities to study technical and managerial issues related to crewed missions. The program envisages the development of a fully autonomous orbital vehicle capable of carrying 2 or 3 crew members to an about {{cvt|300|km}} low Earth orbit and bringing them safely back home. Development of [[space food]] and astronaut training is underway as of 2020, although the impact of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] could delay the first mission by many months.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=11 June 2020|title=ISRO Stalls Launch of Uncrewed Gaganyaan Mission and Chandrayaan-3 Due to COVID-19|url=https://weather.com/en-IN/india/news/news/2020-06-11-isro-stalls-launch-uncrewed-gaganyaan-mission-chandrayaan-3-due-covid-19|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-06-13|website=The Weather Channel|language=en-US}}</ref> [[NASA]] is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s. The first step will begin with [[Artemis 1]] in 2021, sending an uncrewed [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft to a [[distant retrograde orbit]] around the Moon and return it to Earth after a 25-day mission. Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs using natively developed equipment and technology, including [[Japan]] ([[JAXA]]), [[Iran]] ([[Iranian Space Agency|ISA]]) and [[North Korea]] ([[National Aerospace Development Administration|NADA]]). Since 2008 [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] has developed the [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] cargo-spacecraft-based crewed spacecraft and [[Kibo (ISS module)|''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module]] based small space laboratory. [[Iranian crewed spacecraft]] suggests small spacecraft and space laboratory. [[North Korea]]'s [[National Aerospace Development Administration|space program]] has crewed spacecraft and small shuttle system even as final aims. {{Human Spaceflight Timeline}} {{Space station crew timeline}} == Passenger travel via spacecraft == A number of spacecraft have been proposed over the decades that might facilitate spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by [[airliner]] after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to [[space transport|transport]] a large number of passengers to destinations in space, or to destinations on Earth which travel through space. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the [[test flight|flight testing]] phase of their development process. One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the [[SpaceX Starship]] which, in addition to replacing the [[Falcon 9]] and [[Falcon Heavy]] [[launch vehicle]]s in the legacy Earth-orbit [[Space launch market competition|market]] after 2020, has been proposed by SpaceX for long-distance commercial travel on Earth. This is to transport people on point-to-point [[suborbital spaceflight|suborbital]] flights between two points on Earth in under one hour, also known as "Earth-to-Earth," and carrying 100+ passengers.<ref name=rollingstone20171115> {{cite news|last1=Strauss|first1=Neil|title=Elon Musk: The Architect of Tomorrow|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747|accessdate=15 November 2017|work=Rolling Stone|date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name=sxEarthToEarth201709> [https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=40&v=zqE-ultsWt0 Starship Earth to Earth], SpaceX, 28 September 2017, accessed 23 December 2017.</ref><ref name=sn20171015c> {{cite news |last=Foust|first=Jeff |url=http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |title=Musk offers more technical details on BFR system |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=15 October 2017 |accessdate=15 October 2017 |quote=[the] spaceship portion of the BFR, which would transport people on point-to-point suborbital flights or on missions to the moon or Mars, will be tested on Earth first in a series of short hops. ... a full-scale Ship doing short hops of a few hundred kilometers altitude and lateral distance ... fairly easy on the vehicle, as no heat shield is needed, we can have a large amount of reserve propellant and don't need the high area ratio, deep space Raptor engines. }}</ref> Small [[spaceplane]] or small [[space capsule|capsule]] suborbital spacecraft have been under development for the past decade or so and, {{asof|2017|lc=y}}, at least one of each type are under development. Both [[Virgin Galactic]] and [[Blue Origin]] are in active [[new product development|development]], with the [[SpaceShipTwo]] spaceplane and the [[New Shepard]] capsule, respectively. Both would carry approximately a half-dozen passengers up to space for a brief time of zero gravity before returning to the same location from where the trip began. [[XCOR Aerospace]] had been developing the [[Lynx (spacecraft)|Lynx single-passenger spaceplane]] since the 2000s<ref>(2012) [http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ SXC - Buying your tickets into space!] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306043002/http://www.spacexc.com/en/bookings/ |date=6 March 2013 }} SXC web page, Retrieved 5 April 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Staff writers | title = Space Expedition Corporation Announces Wet Lease of XCOR Lynx Suborbital | work = Space Media Network Promotions | publisher = Space-Travel.com | date = 6 October 2010 | url = http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Space_Experience_Curacao_Announces_Wet_Lease_of_XCOR_Lynx_Suborbital_999.html | accessdate = 6 October 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Space Experience Curacao | work = Home | publisher = Space Experience Curacao | date = 2009–2010 | url = http://spaceexperiencecuracao.com/ | accessdate = 6 October 2010 }}</ref> but development was halted in 2017.<ref name=sn20171109>[http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/ http://spacenews.com/xcor-aerospace-files-for-bankruptcy/]</ref> == National spacefaring attempts == : ''This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs. This should not to be confused with [[List of space travelers by nationality|nations with citizens who have traveled into space]] including space tourists, flown or intended to fly by foreign country's or non-domestic private space systems – these are not counted as national spacefaring attempts in this list.'' <!-- : Successfully executed programs are in '''bold'''. : [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|Suborbital]] spaceflights are in ''italics''. --> {| class="wikitable"| border=2 cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;" |- style="background:#f9f9b0;" ! Nation/Organization ! Space agency ! Term(s) for space traveler ! First launched astronaut ! Date ! Spacecraft ! Launcher ! Type |- | {{Flag|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics}}<br />(1922–1991) | [[Soviet space program]]<br />([[OKB-1|OKB-1 Design Bureau]]) | космонавт&nbsp;(same word in:) {{in lang|ru|uk}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut<br />Ғарышкер{{in lang|kk}} | [[Yuri Gagarin]] | 12 April 1961 | [[Vostok spacecraft]] | [[Vostok rocket|Vostok]] | Orbital |- | {{US}} | [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]] | astronaut<br />spaceflight participant | [[Alan Shepard]] (suborbital) | 5 May 1961 | [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]] | [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone]] | Suborbital |- | {{US}} | [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]] | astronaut<br />spaceflight participant | [[John Glenn]] (orbital) | 20 February 1962 | [[Mercury spacecraft#Spacecraft|Mercury spacecraft]] | [[Atlas LV-3B]] | Orbital |- | {{PRC}} | [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]] | {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}} | ... | 1973 (abandoned) | [[Shuguang spacecraft|Shuguang]] | [[Long March 2A]] | Orbital |- | {{PRC}} | [[Chinese space program|Space program of the People's Republic of China]] | {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}} | ... | 1981 (abandoned) | [[Fanhui Shi Weixing|Piloted FSW]] | [[Long March 2]] | Orbital |- | [[File:ESA logo simple.svg|20px]] [[European Space Agency]] | [[CNES]] / [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]] | ''spationaute'' {{in lang|fr}}<br />astronaut | ... | 1992 (abandoned) | [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]] | [[Ariane V]] | Orbital |- | {{Flag|Russia}}<br /> | [[Roscosmos]] <br /> | космонавт&nbsp;{{in lang|ru}}<br />''kosmonavt''<br />cosmonaut | [[Alexander Viktorenko]], [[Alexander Kaleri]] | 17 March 1992 | [[Soyuz TM-14]] to MIR | [[Soyuz-U2]] | Orbital |- | {{Flagicon|Iraq|1991}} [[Ba'athist Iraq]]<br />(1968–2003){{NoteTag|According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of 5 December 1989 about the first (and last) test of the [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz]] space launcher, [[Iraq]] intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed.}} | ... | {{nativename|ar|رجل فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rajul faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|رائد فضاء }}<br />{{transl|ar|rāʼid faḍāʼ}}<br />{{nativename|ar|ملاح فضائي }}<br />''mallāḥ faḍāʼiy'' | ... | 2001 (abandoned) | ... | [[Tammouz rocket|Tammouz 2 or 3]] | {{n/a}} |- | {{flag|Japan}} | [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA)]] | {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}} | ... | 2003 (abandoned) | [[HOPE-X|HOPE]] | [[H-II]] | Orbital |- | {{PRC}} | [[China National Space Administration|China National Space Administration (CNSA)]] | {{nativename|zh-Hans|宇航员}}<br />{{transl|zh|yǔhángyuán}}<br />{{nativename|zh-Hans|航天员}}<br />{{transl|zh|hángtiānyuán}}<br />taikonaut ({{zh|labels=no|c=太空人 |p=tàikōng rén}}) | [[Yang Liwei]] | 15 October 2003 | [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft]] | [[Long March 2F]] | Orbital |- | {{flag|Japan}} | {{Interlanguage link multi|Japanese Rocket Society|ja|3=日本ロケット協会|vertical-align=sup}}, [[Kawasaki Heavy Industries]] and [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]] | {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}} | ... | 2000s (abandoned) | [[Kankoh-maru]] | [[Kankoh-maru]] | Orbital |- | {{flag|Japan}} | [[JAXA|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]] | {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}} | ... | 2003 (abandoned) | [[Fuji (spacecraft)|Fuji]] | [[H-II]] | Orbital |- | {{flag|India}} | [[Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)]] | Vyomanaut <br />&nbsp;{{in lang|sa}} | ... | 2022<ref name="launch 2022">[https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/gaganyaan-mission-to-take-indian-astronaut-to-space-by-2022-pm-modi/article24695817.ece Gaganyaan mission to take Indian astronaut to space by 2022: PM Modi]. ''The Hindu''. 15 August 2018.</ref> | [[Gaganyaan]] | [[Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III|GSLV Mk III]] | Orbital <ref>{{cite web |url = https://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/technology/four-years-is-tight-but-can-achieve-the-human-spaceflight-isros-k-sivan/65411891 |title = Four years is tight, but can achieve the human spaceflight: ISRO's K Sivan - ETtech |author = ETtech.com |website = ETtech.com |language = en |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-will-put-man-in-space-for-seven-days-isro-chairman-118081500485_1.html |title= India will put man in space for seven days: ISRO Chairman |author = IANS |date = 15 August 2018 |work = Business Standard India |access-date = 2018-08-15 }}</ref> |- | [[File:ESA logo simple.svg|20px]] [[European Space Agency]] | [[European Space Agency|European Space Agency (ESA)]] | astronaut | ... | 2020 (concept approved in 2009; but full development not begun)<ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8139347.stm |work=BBC News |title=Europe targets manned spaceship |date=7 July 2009 |accessdate=27 March 2010 |first=Jonathan |last=Amos }}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/05/22/223941/apollo-like-capsule-chosen-for-crew-space-transportation.html Apollo-like capsule chosen for Crew Space Transportation System], 22 May 2008</ref><ref>[http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ATV/infokit/english/Complete_Infokit_ATVreentry.pdf "Jules Verne" Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Re-entry]. Information Kit (PDF). Updated September 2008. European Space Agency. Retrieved on 7 August 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7749761.stm |work = BBC News |title = Europe's 10bn-euro space vision |date=26 November 2008 |accessdate = 27 March 2010 |first = Jonathan |last = Amos }}</ref> | [[CSTS]], [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ARV phase-2]] | [[Ariane V]] | Orbital |- | {{flag|Japan}} | [[JAXA|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)]] | {{nativename|ja|宇宙飛行士}}<br />{{transl|ja|uchūhikōshi}} or<br /> {{Nihongo2|アストロノート}}<br /> {{transl|ja|asutoronoto}} | ... | TBD | [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV-based spacecraft]] | [[H3 (rocket)|H3]] | Orbital |- | {{flag|Iran}} | [[Iranian Space Agency|Iranian Space Agency (ISA)]] | ... | ... | 2019 (on hold) | [[Iranian crewed spacecraft|ISA spacecraft]] | TBD | Orbital |- | {{flag|North Korea}} | [[National Aerospace Development Administration|National Aerospace Development Administration (NADA)]] | ... | ... | 2020s | [[National Aerospace Development Administration#Future projects|NADA spacecraft]] | [[Unha|Unha 9]] | Orbital |- | {{flag|Denmark}} | [[Copenhagen Suborbitals]] | astronaut | ... | 2020s | [[HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe|Tycho Brahe]] | [[HEAT 1X Tycho Brahe|SPICA]] | Suborbital |- | {{flag|Romania}} | [[ARCAspace]] | astronaut | ... | 2020s | [[IAR 111]] | - | Suborbital |} <!-- Please, DO NOT INCLUDE Equador. Its human spaceflight program http://exa.ec/ESAA-PECE_files/frame.htm with first suborbital mission ESAA-01 is not based on indigenous technology. It will be one of the first paid client's missions aboard on foreign airplane-launched spacecraft [[Space Adventures Explorer|M55X+Explorer system]] that now is under development by Russian NPOM-Almaz company (former Myasishchev Bureau) according to order of British-US commercial space touristic company [[Space Adventures]]. --> == Safety concerns == {{See also|Dead astronauts}} There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the environment of space which make it hostile to the human body, and the potential for mechanical malfunctions of the equipment required to accomplish space flight. === Environmental hazards === {{See also|Bioastronautics|Space habitat|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Locomotion in Space}} Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns. ==== Life support ==== {{Main| Life support system}} The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the [[life support system]] of the spacecraft. {{See also|Astronautical hygiene}} ==== Medical issues ==== {{See also|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Sleep in space|Space medicine}} Medical consequences such as possible [[blindness]] and [[Bone Loss|bone loss]] have been associated with human [[space flight]].<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Beings Not Made for Space |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |date=27 January 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=27 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Wired-20120723">{{cite magazine |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities |url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/medicine-psychology-space/ |date=23 July 2012 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=23 July 2012 }}</ref> On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the [[brain]] of [[astronauts]] and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name="PLOS-20121231">{{cite journal |last1=Cherry |first1=Jonathan D. |last2=Frost |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lemere |first3=Cynthia A. |last4=Williams |first4=Jacqueline P. |last5=Olschowka |first5=John A. |last6=O'Banion |first6=M. Kerry |title=Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 |volume=7 |issue=12 |page=e53275 |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |pmid=23300905 |date=2012 |pmc=3534034|bibcode=2012PLoSO...753275C }}</ref><ref name="SpaceRef-20130101">{{cite web |title=Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's |url=http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=39650 |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=SpaceRef |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="NasaWatch-20130103">{{cite web |last=Cowing |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Cowing |title=Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update) |url=http://nasawatch.com/archives/2013/01/important-resea.html |date=3 January 2013 |publisher=NASA Watch |accessdate=7 January 2013 }}</ref> In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[space exploration]], including a [[human mission to Mars]].<ref name="AP-20151029">{{cite news |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |title=Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151029/us-sci-space-travel-health-6dfd5b2c76.html |date=29 October 2015 |agency=Associated Press |accessdate=30 October 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20151029oig">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003) |url=https://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY16/IG-16-003.pdf |date=29 October 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=29 October 2015 }}</ref> On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the [[brain]] have been found in [[astronaut]]s who have taken [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|trips in space]], based on [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI studies]]. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.<ref name="NEJM-20171102">{{cite journal |author=Roberts, Donna R. |display-authors=etal |title=Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI |date=2 November 2017 |journal=[[New England Journal of Medicine]] |volume=377 |issue=18 |pages=1746–1753 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 |pmid=29091569 |s2cid=205102116 }}</ref><ref name="QTZ-20171103">{{cite web |last=Foley |first=Katherine Ellen |title=Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls |url=https://qz.com/1119668/space-travel-changes-astronauts-brains/ |date=3 November 2017 |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |accessdate=3 November 2017 }}</ref> Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) of five ''[[Enterobacter|Enterobacter bugandensis]]'' bacterial strains, none [[pathogen]]ic to humans, that [[microorganism]]s on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for [[astronaut]]s.<ref name="EA-20181122">{{cite web |author=BioMed Central |title=ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/bc-ims112018.php |date=22 November 2018 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=25 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name="BMC-20181123">{{cite journal |author=Singh, Nitin K. |display-authors=etal |title=Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains |date=23 November 2018 |journal=[[BMC Microbiology]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=175 |doi=10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2 |pmid=30466389 |pmc=6251167 }}</ref> In March 2019, NASA reported that latent [[virus]]es in humans may be activated during space missions, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.<ref name="EA-20190315">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Dormant viruses activate during spaceflight -- NASA investigates - The stress of spaceflight gives viruses a holiday from immune surveillance, putting future deep-space missions in jeopardy |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/f-dva031519.php |date=15 March 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=16 March 2019 }}</ref> ===== Microgravity ===== {{See also|Weightlessness}} [[File:Space fluid shift.gif|thumb|The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).]] Medical data from astronauts in low Earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of [[bone]] density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these [[deconditioning]] effects can impair astronauts' performance or increase their risk of injury.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |title=Exploration Systems Human Research Program – Exercise Countermeasures |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011052437/http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/Exploration/Advanced/Human/Exercise/ |archivedate=11 October 2008 }}</ref> In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back [[muscle]]s or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes them to weaken and get smaller. Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days. The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/64249main_ffs_factsheets_hbp_atrophy.pdf|title = NASA Information: Muscle Atrophy|accessdate = 20 November 2015|website = NASA}}</ref> Upon return to Earth from [[long-duration spaceflight|long-duration]] flights, astronauts are considerably weakened, and are not allowed{{by whom|date=October 2020}}<!-- is this rule USSR, USA, India, China, ... or do we have a source that indicates this is a truth for all astronauts in all nations states? --> to drive a car for twenty-one days.<ref>{{cite web|title = Earth Living Is Tough for Astronaut Used to Space|url = http://www.space.com/21413-hadfield-astronaut-health-return-earth.html|website = Space.com|accessdate = 21 November 2015}}</ref> Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get [[motion sickness]], and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, or any other mass with gravity, they have to readjust to the gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. Importantly, those body motor disturbances after changing from different gravities only get worse the longer the exposure to little gravity.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=3830060&page=1 | last=Watson | first=Traci | date=11 November 2007 | title=Readjusting to gravity anti-fun for astronauts | publisher=ABC News | accessdate=14 February 2020}}</ref> These changes will affect operational activities including approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may happen while landing. This can be a major roadblock to mission success.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} In addition, after long [[space flight]] missions, male astronauts may experience severe [[visual system|eyesight]] problems.<ref name="Mader-2011">{{cite journal|author=Mader, T. H. |display-authors=etal |title=Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight|date=2011 |journal=[[Ophthalmology (journal)|Ophthalmology]] |volume=118 |issue=10|pages=2058–2069 |doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 |pmid=21849212|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=nasapub }}</ref><ref name="Puiu-20111109">{{cite web |last=Puiu |first=Tibi |title=Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions|url=http://www.zmescience.com/medicine/astronaut-eyesight-damage-weightlessness-3214143/|date=9 November 2011 |publisher=zmescience.com |accessdate=9 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CNN-20120109">[http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2012/02/09/pkg-zarrella-astronaut-vision.cnnCNN News (CNN-TV, 02/09/2012) – Video (02:14) – Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems]. Cnn.com (9 February 2012). Retrieved on 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="Space-20120313">{{cite web|title=Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests |url=http://www.space.com/14876-astronaut-spaceflight-vision-problems.html |date=13 March 2012 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=14 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Radiology-20120313">{{cite journal |author=Kramer, Larry A. |display-authors=etal |title=Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging |journal=[[Radiology (journal)|Radiology]] |volume=263 |issue=3 |pages=819–27 |doi=10.1148/radiol.12111986 |pmid=22416248 |date=13 March 2012 }}</ref> Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a [[crewed mission]] to the planet [[Mars]].<ref name="Mader-2011" /><ref name="Puiu-20111109" /><ref name="CNN-20120109" /><ref name="Space-20120313" /><ref name="WIRED-20140212">{{cite web |last=Fong, MD |first=Kevin |title=The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body |url=https://www.wired.com/opinion/2014/02/happens-body-mars/ |date=12 February 2014 |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |accessdate=12 February 2014 }}</ref> Long space flights can also alter a space traveler's eye movements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Robert |last2=Macknik |first2=Stephen |last3=Martinez-Conde |first3=Susana |title=Microsaccades in applied environments: Real-world applications of fixational eye movement measurements |journal=Journal of Eye Movement Research |date=2020 |volume=12 |issue=6 |doi=10.16910/jemr.12.6.15 |url=https://bop.unibe.ch/JEMR/article/view/JEMR.12.6.15}}</ref> ===== Radiation ===== {{See also|Health threat from cosmic rays}} [[File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png|thumb|right|Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the [[Radiation assessment detector|RAD]] on the [[Mars Science Laboratory|MSL]] (2011–2013).<ref name="SCI-20130531a">{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Richard |title=Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier |date=31 May 2013 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=340 |issue=6136 |page=1031 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6136.1031 |pmid=23723213 |bibcode=2013Sci...340.1031K}}</ref>]] Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by [[solar flare]]s and associated [[solar particle event]]s (SPEs). [[Lawrence Townsend]] of the University of Tennessee and others have studied the [[Solar storm of 1859|overall most powerful solar storm ever recorded]]. The flare was seen by the British astronomer [[Richard Christopher Carrington|Richard Carrington]] in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type storm could cause acute [[Acute radiation syndrome|radiation sickness]] and possibly even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7142 |title= Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts|work=New Scientist |date=21 March 2005 |first=Stephen |last=Battersby}}</ref> Another storm that could have incurred a lethal radiation dose if astronauts were outside the Earth's protective [[magnetosphere]] occurred during the [[Space Age]], in fact, shortly after [[Apollo 16]] landed and before [[Apollo 17]] launched.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Lockwood |first = Mike |author2 = M. Hapgood |title = The Rough Guide to the Moon and Mars |journal = Astron. Geophys. |volume = 48 |issue = 6 |pages = 11–17 |date = 2007 |doi = 10.1111/j.1468-4004.2007.48611.x |doi-access = free }}</ref> This [[solar storm of August 1972]] would likely at least have caused acute illness.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Parsons |first = Jennifer L. |author2 = L. W. Townsend |title = Interplanetary Crew Dose Rates for the August 1972 Solar Particle Event |journal = Radiat. Res. |volume = 153 |issue = 6 |pages = 729–733 |date = 2000 |doi = 10.1667/0033-7587(2000)153[0729:ICDRFT]2.0.CO;2 |pmid = 10825747 }}</ref> Another type of radiation, galactic [[cosmic ray]]s, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-309-10264-3|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11760 |title=Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration |publisher=NAP |date=2006}}</ref> There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1189/jlb.0309167 |title=Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit|date=2009|last1=Gueguinou|first1=N.|last2=Huin-Schohn|first2=C.|last3=Bascove|first3=M.|last4=Bueb|first4=J.-L.|last5=Tschirhart|first5=E.|last6=Legrand-Frossi|first6=C.|last7=Frippiat|first7=J.-P.|journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1027–1038|pmid=19690292}}</ref> Some of the problems are a weakened [[immune system]] and the activation of dormant [[virus]]es in the body. [[Radiation]] can cause both short and long term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} ===== Isolation ===== {{Further|Effect of spaceflight on the human body#Psychological effects|Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight}} During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined into small spaces. [[depression (mood)|Depression]], [[cabin fever]] and other psychological problems may impact the crew's safety and mission success.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flynn|first=Christopher F.|date=1 June 2005|title=An Operational Approach to Long-Duration Mission Behavioral Health and Performance Factors|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/asma/asem/2005/00000076/A00106s1/art00007|journal=Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine|volume=76|issue=6|pages=B42–B51|pmid=15943194}}</ref> Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment or personnel if a medical emergency occurs. The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on their limited existing resources and medical advice from the ground. During astronauts' stay in space, they may experience mental disorders (such as post-trauma, depression, anxiety, etc.), more than for an average person.&nbsp;NASA spends millions of dollars on psychological treatments for astronauts and former astronauts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Space psychology and psychiatry |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |last1=Kanas |first1=Nick |last2=Manzey |first2=Dietrich |isbn=9781402067709 |edition=2nd |location=Dordrecht |oclc=233972618}}</ref> To date, there is no way to prevent or reduce mental problems caused by extended periods of stay in space. Due to these mental disorders, the efficiency of their work is impaired and sometimes they are forced to send the astronauts back to Earth, which is very expensive.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/05/hallucinations-isolation-astronauts-mental-health-space-missions|title=Isolation and hallucinations: the mental health challenges faced by astronauts |last=Bell|first=Vaughan|date=5 October 2014|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-02-01|language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that caused a fear of fluid leakage, but after a thorough investigation it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction.&nbsp; It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinations of the smell, which brought many unnecessary wasted expenses. It is possible that the mental health of astronauts can be affected by the changes in the sensory systems while in prolonged space travel. ===== Sensory systems ===== During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in a very extreme state where there is no gravity. This given state and the fact that no change is taking place in the environment will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts in all seven senses. * [[Hearing]] - In the space station and spacecraft there are only mechanical noises. There can be no environmental noise; there is no medium that can transmit the sound waves. Although there are other team members who can talk to each other, their voices stop stimulating the sense of hearing, since they get used to it quickly. * [[Sight]] - Because of the zero gravity, the body's liquids equalize in pressure throughout the body, a situation which is different from that on the Earth, where the pressures are not equal. Because of this reason, the astronauts' face swells and presses on the eyes, and therefore their vision is impaired. In addition, the landscape surrounding the astronauts is constant, which damages the visual stimulations. In addition, due to cosmic rays, astronauts may see flashes. * [[Sense of smell|Smell]] - The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell. * [[Taste]] - The sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is damaged, the sense of taste is also damaged. The astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten. The food comes only once every few months when supplies arrive, and there is little to no variety. * [[Somatosensory system|Touch]] – There are almost no physical contact changes. There is almost no human physical contact during the journey. * The [[vestibular system]] (motion and equilibrium system) - Due to the lack of gravity, all the movement of the astronauts changes, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change. * The [[Proprioception|proprioception system]] (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) - As a result of the zero gravity, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles and there is no input to this system. === Mechanical hazards === Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, which in turn requires the use of high [[energy density]] propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere. ==== Launch ==== {{See also| Launch escape system}} [[File:Sts33-e204.jpg|thumb|There was no practical way for the {{OV|99}}'s crew to safely abort before the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|vehicle's violent disintegration]].]] Since rockets carry the potential for fire or explosive destruction, [[space capsule]]s generally employ some sort of [[launch escape system]], consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the [[launch vehicle]] (employed on [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]], and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]]), or else [[ejection seat]]s (employed on [[Vostok spacecraft|Vostok]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landing. The escape tower is discarded at some point before the launch is complete, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines. Such a system is not always practical for multiple crew member vehicles (particularly [[spaceplane]]s), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person [[Voskhod (spacecraft)|Voskhod]], the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps. The [[Space Shuttle]] carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights, but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued. There have only been two in-flight launch aborts of a crewed flight. The first occurred on [[Soyuz 7K-T No.39|Soyuz 18a]] on 5 April 1975. The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited. The vehicle strayed off course, and the crew separated the spacecraft and fired its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket. Both cosmonauts landed safely. The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of [[Soyuz MS-10]]. Again, both crew members survived. In the first use of a launch escape system on a crewed flight, the planned [[Soyuz 7K-ST No. 16L|Soyuz T-10a]] launch on 26 September 1983 was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff. Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely. The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket booster]] seal which caused separation of the booster and failure of the [[Space Shuttle external tank|external fuel tank]], resulting in explosion of the fuel. All seven crew members were killed. ==== Extravehicular activity ==== Despite the ever-present risks related to mechanical failures while working in open space, no [[extravehicular activity|spacewalking astronaut]] has ever been lost. There is a requirement for spacewalking astronauts to use tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors. If those fail, a spacewalking astronaut would most probably float away according to relevant forces that were acting on him when breaking loose. Astronaut would possibly be spinning as kicking and flailing is of no use. At the right angle and velocity, he might even re-enter the [[Earth's atmosphere]] and burn away completely. [[NASA]] has protocols for such situations: astronauts would be wearing an emergency jetpack, which would automatically counter any tumbling to stabilize them. Then NASA's plan states that astronauts should take manual control and fly back to safety.{{fact|date=October 2020}} However, if the pack's {{convert|3|lb}} of fuel runs out, and if there is no other astronaut in close proximity to help, or if the air lock is irreparably damaged, the [[space exposure|outcome would certainly be fatal]]. At the moment, there is no spacecraft to save an astronaut floating in space as the only one with a rescue-ready air-locked compartment — [[Space Shuttle retirement|the Space Shuttle]] — retired {{age|July 2011|{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}}} years ago. There's approximately a litre of water available via straw in astronaut's helmet. They<!-- use gender-neutral language, see [[MOS:GENDER]] --> would wait roughly for 7.5 hours for breathable air to run out before dying of suffocation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sofge |first1=Eric |title=What Happens If An Astronaut Floats Off In Space? |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-09/what-happens-if-astronaut-floats-space/ |website=Popular Science}}</ref> ==== Reentry and landing ==== {{See also| Atmospheric reentry}} The single pilot of [[Soyuz 1]], [[Vladimir Komarov]] was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash. The crew of seven aboard the {{OV|102}} were [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|killed on reentry]] after completing a [[STS-107|successful mission in space]] on 1 February 2003. A wing leading edge [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] foam insulation which broke off and struck the wing during launch. Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to the breakup of the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|orbiter vehicle]]. ==== Artificial atmosphere ==== There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for [[extravehicular activity]]. The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of [[decompression sickness]] (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment. There have also been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen. * In 1960, [[McDonnell Aircraft]] test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin/spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his spacesuit feed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Giblin |first=Kelly A. |date=Spring 1998 |title =Fire in the Cockpit! |journal=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |volume=13 |issue=4 |publisher=American Heritage Publishing |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120153024/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/1998/4/1998_4_46.shtml |archivedate=20 November 2008 |accessdate=23 March 2011}} </ref> This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft. * In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the {{OV|102}} at the [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010605212352/http://www-lib.ksc.nasa.gov/lib/chrono.html 1981 KSC Chronology Part 1 – pages 84, 85, 100; Part 2 – pages 181, 194, 195], NASA</ref> * In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the [[Ariane 5]] launch pad at [[Guiana Space Centre]].<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_17_1995_p_EN.html "Fatal accident at the Guiana Space Centre"], ''ESA Portal'', 5 May 1993</ref> A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of [[Apollo 1]] during a ground test at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34|Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34]] on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure (increased even higher by the fire) prevented removal of the [[plug door]] hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three, [[Gus Grissom]], [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]], and [[Roger Chaffee]], were killed.<ref name="SP4029">{{cite book |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |accessdate=12 July 2013 |series=NASA History Series |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |work=NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-050631-4 |lccn=00061677 |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |chapter=Apollo 1 – The Fire: 27 January 1967 |chapterurl=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm}}</ref> This led NASA to use a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space. ==== Reliability ==== {{See also| Reliability engineering}} The March 1966 [[Gemini 8]] mission was aborted in orbit when an [[attitude control system]] thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin which threatened the lives of [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[David Scott]]. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a [[static electricity]] discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit. The third lunar landing expedition [[Apollo 13]] in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew, [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]] and [[Fred Haise]], were threatened by failure of a [[cryogenic]] [[liquid oxygen]] tank en route to the Moon. The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the loss of its remaining oxygen in a span of 130 minutes. This in turn caused loss of electrical power provided by [[fuel cell]]s to the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]]. The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar landing craft]] as a "life boat". The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes. The tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing. This necessitated use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test, which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication. The crew of [[Soyuz 11]] were killed on 30 June 1971 by a combination of mechanical malfunctions: they were [[asphyxia]]ted due to cabin decompression following separation of their descent capsule from the service module. A cabin ventilation valve had been jolted open at an altitude of {{convert|168|km|ft}} by the stronger than expected shock of explosive separation bolts which were designed to fire sequentially, but in fact, had fired simultaneously. The loss of pressure became fatal within about 30 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|title=The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project|accessdate=20 October 2007|publisher=NASA|year=1974|author=NASA|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823124845/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4209/ch8-2.htm|archivedate=23 August 2007}}</ref> === Fatality risk === {{Further|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents#Non-astronaut fatalities}} {{As of|2015|December}}, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing. {| class="wikitable" |- !Date !Mission !Accident cause !Deaths !Cause of death |- | 27 January 1967 |[[Apollo 1]] |Electrical fire in cabin, spread quickly by {{convert|16.7|psi|bar|abbr=on}} pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove [[plug door]] hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot | style="text-align: center;" | 3 |[[Cardiac arrest]] from [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning |- |15 November 1967 |[[X-15 Flight 3-65-97]] |The accident board found that the cockpit instrumentation had been functioning properly, and concluded that Adams had lost control of the X-15 as a result of a combination of distraction, misinterpretation of his instrumentation display, and possible [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]]. The electrical disturbance early in the flight degraded the overall effectiveness of the aircraft's control system and further added to pilot workload. |style="text-align: center;"| 1 |Vehicle breakup |- | 24 April 1967 | [[Soyuz 1]] |Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and entanglement of reserve parachute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitated emergency abort |style="text-align: center;"| 1 | [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash landing |- | 30 June 1971 | [[Soyuz 11]] |Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry |style="text-align: center;"| 3 | [[Asphyxia]] |- | 28 January 1986 | [[STS-51L]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] |Failure of [[o-ring]] inter-segment seal in one [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Booster]] in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]]; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces |style="text-align: center;"| 7 |Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |title=Report from Joseph P. Kerwin, biomedical specialist from the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, relating to the deaths of the astronauts in the Challenger accident |work=NASA |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103015825/https://history.nasa.gov/kerwin.html |archivedate=3 January 2013 }}</ref> |- | 1 February 2003 | [[STS-107]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']] |Damaged [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by piece of [[Space Shuttle external tank|External Tank]] foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of wing, loss of control and disintegration of orbiter |style="text-align: center;"| 7 |Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up<ref>{{cite web|title=COLUMBIA CREW SURVIVAL INVESTIGATION REPORT|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/298870main_SP-2008-565.pdf|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA}}</ref> |- | 31 October 2014 | [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Enterprise crash|VSS ''Enterprise'' powered drop-test]] |Copilot error: premature deployment of "[[Feathering (reentry)|feathering]]" descent air-braking system caused disintegration of vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died |style="text-align: center;"| 1 | [[Physical trauma|Trauma]] from crash |} == Human representation and participation == {{See also|Space law|Space colonization|Human outpost}} Participation and representation of humanity in space is an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration.<ref name="Durrani"/> Some rights of non-spacefaring countries have been secured through international [[space law]], declaring space the "[[Common heritage of mankind|province of all mankind]]". Though sharing of space for all humanity is still critizized as [[imperialism|imperialist]] and lacking.<ref name="Durrani">{{cite web |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/ |title=Is Spaceflight Colonialism? |author=Haris Durrani |accessdate=2 October 2020 |date=19 July 2019}}</ref> On an individual level the inclusion of women and [[people of color]] have been slow. To reach a more inclusive spaceflight some organizations like the ''Justspace Alliance''<ref name="Durrani"/> and ''Inclusive Astronomy'' have been formed in recent years. ===Women=== {{Main|Women in space}} The first woman to ever enter space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]]. She flew in 1963 but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again. All astronauts were required to be military test pilots at the time and women were not able to enter this career, this is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} After the rule changed, [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the second woman to enter space, she was also from the [[Soviet Union]]. [[Sally Ride]] became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program. Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. Due to some slow changes in the space programs to allow women. The first all female space walk occurred in 2018, including [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]]. These two women have both participated in separate space walks with NASA. The first woman to go to the moon is planned for 2024. Despite these developments women are still underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs and limit the space missions they are able to go on, are for example: * agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, argueing with unresearched potential risks for cancer.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.space.com/22252-women-astronauts-radiation-risk.html | title = Female Astronauts Face Discrimination from Space Radiation Concerns, Astronauts Say | first = Miriam | last = Kramer | date = 27 August 2013 | access-date = 7 January 2017 | work = Space.com | publisher = Purch}}</ref> * a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts.<ref name="clothing">{{cite magazine |last=Sokolowski |first=Susan L.|title= Female astronauts: How performance products like space suits and bras are designed to pave the way for women's accomplishments|url=https://theconversation.com/female-astronauts-how-performance-products-like-space-suits-and-bras-are-designed-to-pave-the-way-for-womens-accomplishments-114346 |date=5 April 2019 | magazine =The Conversation |accessdate=10 May 2020 }}</ref> Additionally women have been treated in discriminatory ways, for example as with Sally Ride by being scrutinized more than her male counterparts and asked sexist questions by the press. == See also == {{Portal|Spaceflight}} * [[List of human spaceflight programs]] * [[List of human spaceflights]] * [[List of spaceflight records]] * [[List of crewed spacecraft]] * [[Animals in space]] * [[Monkeys and apes in space]] * [[Crewed Mars rover]] * [[Commercial astronaut]] * [[Mars to Stay]] * [[NewSpace]] * [[Space medicine]] * [[Tourism on the Moon]] * [[Women in space]] == Notes == {{NoteFoot}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Bibliography == * David Darling: ''The complete book of spaceflight. From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity''. Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, {{ISBN|0-471-05649-9}}. * Wiley J. Larson (Hrsg.): ''Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design''. McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, {{ISBN|0-07-236811-X}}. * Donald Rapp: ''Human missions to Mars – enabling technologies for exploring the red planet''. Springer u. a., Berlin u. a. 2008, {{ISBN|978-3-540-72938-9}}. * Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-7091-0666-2}}. == External links == {{Commons category}} * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/ NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070802015842/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Human_Spaceflight Human Spaceflight Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration] * [http://www.nasaconstellation.com Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190404044029/http://spaceflighthistory.com/ U.S. Spaceflight History] {{Future spaceflights}} {{Crewed spacecraft}} {{Public sector space agencies}} {{Spaceflight}} {{NASA space program}} {{Russian space program}} {{Inspace}} {{Space exploration lists and timelines}} {{Solar System}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Human Spaceflight}} [[Category:Human spaceflight| ]] [[Category:Spaceflight]] [[Category:Space policy]] [[Category:Life in space]] [[Category:1961 introductions]]'