Contents

Sanskrit compound

However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound-usage in the literature, a development which is unique within Indo-European to Sanskrit and closely related languages.^{[citation needed]}

Further, this development in the later language^[a] is an entirely artificial, literary construct and does not reflect the spoken language.^[2][3]

Background[edit]

In Sanskrit, as in Proto-Indo-European, a compound is formed by the following process:

• Take the stem-form of the first element, i.e., remove its inflexion;^[b]
• Combine the two elements with a single accented syllable.

In the later language, this process can be repeated recursively—in theory, ad infinitum, with the freshly made compound becoming the first element of a new one.^[3][4][5]

The process of 'resolving' the compound, i.e., expounding the meaning using the component words declined as in sentence form is termed vigraha·vākya.^[6]

Broadly, compounds can be divided into two classes: endocentric and exocentric.^[7]

Endocentric compounds[edit]

An endocentric compound, usually called determinative, is where the compound is essentially the sum of its parts, the meaning being an extension of one of the parts:

• blackbird → a type of black bird^[c]
• White House → the official residence of the US president^[d][8]
• siṃha·purás → lion-city (Singapore)

Exocentric compounds[edit]

An exocentric compound refers to something outside the components:

• redhead → someone with red hair^[e]
• pickpocket → someone who picks someone else's pockets^[f][7]
• 'bahu·vrīhi' → lit. 'much-rice', i.e., possessing much rice: an indication of wealth

Indeed, this term 'bahuvrihi' is used both in Sanskrit and standard Indo-European linguistics to denote this type of compound.^[9]

Sanskrit expands on these to provide several further distinctions as below:

Classification[edit]

In traditional Sanskrit grammar, compounds^[g] are divided into the following main classes:^[10]

• Tatpuruṣa
  • Tatpuruṣa proper
  • Karmadhāraya
    • Dvigu
  • Nañ-tatpuruṣa
  • Prādi and gati
  • Upapada
• Bahuvrīhi
  • Dvigu
• Dvandva
• Avyayībhāva

The first two of these, tatpuruṣa and bahuvrīhi, are Indo-European inheritances, the latter two are Indic innovations.^{[citation needed]} Alongside the term bahuvrīhi, tatpuruṣa has also been adopted in mainstream Indo-European linguistics as the technical term denoting this type of compounding.^[3]

The following sections give an outline of the main types of compounds with examples. The examples demonstrate the composition of the compound's elements, and the meanings in English generally correspond to them, in most cases being a similar compound as well. Where this is not the case or the meaning is not clear, a further resolution is provided.

Tatpuruṣa (determinative)[edit]

Atatpuruṣa is an endocentric compound composed of two elements, wherein the first one, named the attributive, determines the second one.^[11][12]

Based on the grammatical nature of the attributive member, six varieties of tatpuruṣa compounds are identified as seen in the classification above. A further distinction is also made based on whether the attributive is in the nominative or an oblique^[h] case.^[10][11][i]

Tatpuruṣa proper[edit]

The first member here is an attributive in an oblique relationship with the second, and are therefore termed dependent determinatives.^[11][13]

Relationship

victory-seeking

Accusative

god-given: given by the gods

Instrumental

Viṣṇu-offering: offering to Viṣṇu

Dative

heaven-fallen: fallen from heaven

Ablative

tiger-thought: the thought of it being a tiger

Genitive

sacrifice-knowledge: the knowledge of sacrifice

Genitive

house-born: born in the house

Locative

Karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa (descriptive)[edit]

In a karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element qualifies the second one adjectively when the latter is a noun. When the second member is an adjective, the qualification is adverbial. Other parts of speech besides adjectives and adverbs may be used to obtain the adjective or adverbial qualification.^[14][15]

blue lotus

all good quality

dear friend

great-sage

silver cup

Dvigu-tatpuruṣa (numerative)[edit]

In essence dvigu can refer to several compound types where the first element is a numeral.^[j] Dvigu-tatpuruṣa compounds are a special subcategory of karmadhārayas.^[16][17]

(the battle of) two kings

three-world: the universe

three ages

the triple heaven

ten fingers' breadth

six day's time

thousand days' journey

dvigu compounds of bahuvrīhi type are noted below.

Nañ-tatpuruṣa (negative)[edit]

In a nañ-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element is a privative, a negator: a-, an-orna-, just like the English un-, Latin-derived in-, non- or Greek-derived a-, an-.^[18][19]

non-Brahmin

non-horse: not a horse

non-master: not a master

non-knowledge: ignorance

unyoung: old

unbelief, non-creed

Upapada-tatpuruṣa[edit]

These are composed of a second member that occurs only in a compound and cannot stand on its own.^[k] These are either roots or verbal derivatives from them.^[20][21]

joining together

well-doing, a good deed

pot-maker

self-ruling: sovereign

Manu-born, born of Manu, man

self-existent

only-born

water-giving: a cloud

all-knowing: an omniscient person

Aluk-tatpuruṣa[edit]

In an aluk-tatpuruṣa compound, in contrast to the standard pattern of being in stem form, the first element takes a case form as if in a sentence:^[22]

Case

done with might ^[23]

Instrumental

'word for self': the reflexive voice

Dative

'lord of the sky': a name of Indra^[24][25]

Genitive

'firm in battle': a name^[26]

Locative

Dvandva (co-ordinative)[edit]

These consist of two or more noun stems connected with "and" (copulative or co-ordinative). There are mainly three kinds of dvandva pair constructions in Sanskrit:^[27]

Itaretara-dvandva[edit]

The result of itaretara-dvandva^[l] is an enumerative word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. Examples:^[28][29]

Mitra and Varuṇa

heaven and earth

rice and barley

moon and sun

the gods and the demons

elephants and horses

disease, pain, grief, bondage and adversity

Samāhāra-dvandva[edit]

Words may be organised in a compound to form a metonym, and sometimes the words may comprise all the constituent parts of the whole. The resultant bears a collective sense and is always singular and neutral.^[30]

'hands and feet' ⇒ limbs, appendages

'food, sleep and fear' ⇒ vicissitudes, features of life

Ekaśeṣa-dvandva[edit]

Some Sanskrit grammarians identify a third kind of dvandva which they call ekaśeṣa-dvandva,^[m] where only one stem remains in what is viewed as the compound of multiple words.^[31]

Meaning

mātā + pitā

'mother and father' ⇒ parents^[n]

mṛgaḥ + mṛgā

'does and bucks' ⇒ deer

putrāḥ + duhitaraḥ

'sons and daughters' ⇒ children

Āmreḍita (iterative)[edit]

While not strictly copulative, this is a compound consisting of the same word repeated with the first occurrence accented.

Āmreḍita compounds are used to express repetitiveness; for example, from dív- (day) we obtain divé-dive ('day after day', daily) and from devá- (god) we obtain deváṃ-devamordevó-devas ('deity after deity').^[32]

Bahuvrīhi (possessive)[edit]

Bahuvrīhi^[o] is an exocentric compound consisting of a noun preceded by a grammatical modifier which, taken together, functions as a single nominalised adjective.

Abahuvrīhi compound can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice" or "much-riced". In English, examples of bahuvrīhi would be "lowlife" and "blockhead" (they respectively denote 'one whose life is low' and 'one whose head resembles a block'), or the English surname Longbottom ('one who lives in a long "botham" [valley]').

The second element could essentially have been a noun, which within such a compound, can take on adjective declensions with the compound used adjectivally. Endocentric compounds can thus be transformed into possessives, normally accompanied, and explicitly recognized in the older language, by a change in accentuation:^[33][34]

• indra·śatrú-, 'Indra's killer' ⇒ índra·śatru-, 'having Indra as killer'^[p]
• bṛhad·ratha-, 'a great chariot' ⇒ bṛhád·ratha-, 'having great chariots'
• sūrya·tejás-, 'sun's brightness' ⇒ sū́rya·tejas-, 'possessing the brightness of the sun'

A few typical examples of such compounds:^[36]

peacock-plumed

strong-shouldered

alive-childed: having living children^[q]

honeytongue, honey-tongued: talking nicely

vessel-handed: holding a vessel in the hand

donkey-faced

Dvigu-bahuvrīhi[edit]

When the first element of a bahuvrīhi is a numeral, the compound is called dvigu.^[r] An English example would be a halfwit ('one who has half of their mind').

A few typical examples of such compounds:^[38]

one-wheeled

one-footed

four-limbed

seven-tongued

eight-sonned: having eight sons

nine-doored

hundred-toothed

thousandname: having a thousand names

Avyayībhāva (adverbial)[edit]

Avyayībhāvas ('indeclinable') are adverbial compounds composed of an indeclinable element (an adverb, etc.) and a noun, together expressing an adverb or another indeclinable (avyaya) element.^[39][40]

concerning the self

behind the chariots

near the king; kingside

towards the fire

every night

per-strength: according to one's ability

simultaneously with the wheel

inter-water: within the water

See also[edit]

• Sanskrit nominals
• Sanskrit verbs
• Sanskrit grammar
• Vedic Sanskrit grammar
• Proto-Indo-European verbs
• Proto-Indo-Aryan
• Proto-Indo-Iranian
• Proto-Indo-European
• Kenning

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

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• Fortson, Benjamin W (2010). Indo-European Language and Culture (2010 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8895-1.
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• Adams, Valerie (1987). An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation. Longman Group. ISBN 0-582-55042-4.
• Meyer, Charles (2009). Introducing English Linguistics (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83350-9.
• Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew (2002). An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-1326-9.
• Tubb, Gary; Boose, Emery (2007). Scholastic Sanskrit. NY: American Inst of Buddhist Studies. ISBN 978-0-9753734-7-7.
• Deshpande, Madhav M (1993). Sanskrit and Prakrit (1993 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1136-4.