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Title: The Economist
Author: Xenophon
Translator: H. G. Dakyns
Release Date: August 20, 2008 [EBook #1173]
Last Updated: January 15, 2013
Language: English
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*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ECONOMIST ***
Produced by John Bickers, and David Widger
THE ECONOMIST
By Xenophon
Translation by H. G. Dakyns
Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a
pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,
and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land
and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
years before having to move once more, to settle
in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.
The Economist records Socrates and Critobulus in
a talk about profitable estate management, and a
lengthy recollection by Socrates of Ischomachus'
discussion of the same topic.
PREPARER'S NOTE
This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a
four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though
there is doubt about some of these) is:
Work Number of books
The Anabasis 7
The Hellenica 7
The Cyropaedia 8
The Memorabilia 4
The Symposium 1
The Economist 1
On Horsemanship 1
The Sportsman 1
The Cavalry General 1
The Apology 1
On Revenues 1
The Hiero 1
The Agesilaus 1
The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2
Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into
English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The
diacritical marks have been lost.
THE ECONOMIST (1)
A Treatise on the Science of the Household in the form of a Dialogue
INTERLOCUTORS
Socrates and Critobulus
At Chapter VII. a prior discussion held between Socrates and Ischomachus
is introduced: On the life of a "beautiful and good" man.
In these chapters (vii.-xxi.) Socrates is represented by the author as
repeating for the benefit of Critobulus and the rest certain conversations
which he had once held with the beautiful and good Ischomachus on the
essentials of economy. It was a tete-a-tete discussion, and in the
original Greek the remarks of the two speakers are denoted by such phrases
as {ephe o 'Iskhomakhos—ephen egio}—"said (he) Ischomachus,"
"said I." (Socrates) To save the repetition of expressions tedious in
English, I have, whenever it seemed help to do so, ventured to throw parts
of the reported conversations into dramatic form, inserting "Isch." "Soc."
in the customary way to designate the speakers; but these, it must be
borne in mind, are merely "asides" to the reader, who will not forget that
Socrates is the narrator throughout—speaking of himself as "I," and
of Ischomachus as "he," or by his name.—Translator's note, addressed
to the English reader.
I
I once heard him (2) discuss the topic of economy (3) after the following
manner. Addressing Critobulus, (4) he said: Tell me, Critobulus, is
"economy," like the words "medicine," "carpentry," "building,"
"smithying," "metal-working," and so forth, the name of a particular kind
of knowledge or science?
(1) By "economist" we now generally understand "political economist,"
but the use of the word as referring to domestic economy, the
subject matter of the treatise, would seem to be legitimate.
(2) "The master."
(3) Lit. "the management of a household and estate." See Plat. "Rep."
407 B; Aristot. "Eth. N." v. 6; "Pol." i. 3.
(4) See "Mem." I. iii. 8; "Symp." p. 292.
Crit. Yes, I think so.
Soc. And as, in the case of the arts just named, we can state the proper
work or function of each, can we (similarly) state the proper work and
function of economy?
Crit. It must, I should think, be the business of the good economist (5)
at any rate to manage his own house or estate well.
(5) Or, "manager of a house or estate."
Soc. And supposing another man's house to be entrusted to him, he would be
able, if he chose, to manage it as skilfully as his own, would he not?
since a man who is skilled in carpentry can work as well for another as
for himself: and this ought to be equally true of the good economist?
Crit. Yes, I think so, Socrates.
Soc. Then there is no reason why a proficient in this art, even if he does
not happen to possess wealth of his own, should not be paid a salary for
managing a house, just as he might be paid for building one?
Crit. None at all: and a large salary he would be entitled to earn if,
after paying the necessary expenses of the estate entrusted to him, he can
create a surplus and improve the property.
Soc. Well! and this word "house," what are we to understand by it? the
domicile merely? or are we to include all a man's possessions outside the
actual dwelling-place? (6)
(6) Lit. "is it synonymous with dwelling-place, or is all that a man
possesses outside his dwelling-place part of his house or estate?"
Crit. Certainly, in my opinion at any rate, everything which a man has
got, even though some portion of it may lie in another part of the world
from that in which he lives, (7) forms part of his estate.
(7) Lit. "not even in the same state or city."
Soc. "Has got"? but he may have got enemies?
Crit. Yes, I am afraid some people have got a great many.
Soc. Then shall we say that a man's enemies form part of his possessions?
Crit. A comic notion indeed! that some one should be good enough to add to
my stock of enemies, and that in addition he should be paid for his kind
services.
Soc. Because, you know, we agreed that a man's estate was identical with
his possessions?
Crit. Yes, certainly! the good part of his possessions; but the evil
portion! no, I thank you, that I do not call part of a man's possessions.
Soc. As I understand, you would limit the term to what we may call a man's
useful or advantageous possessions?
Crit. Precisely; if he has things that injure him, I should regard these
rather as a loss than as wealth.
Soc. It follows apparently that if a man purchases a horse and does not
know how to handle him, but each time he mounts he is thrown and sustains
injuries, the horse is not part of his wealth?
Crit. Not, if wealth implies weal, certainly.
Soc. And by the same token land itself is no wealth to a man who so works
it that his tillage only brings him loss?
Crit. True; mother earth herself is not a source of wealth to us if,
instead of helping us to live, she helps us to starve.
Soc. And by a parity of reasoning, sheep and cattle may fail of being
wealth if, through want of knowledge how to treat them, their owner loses
by them; to him at any rate the sheep and the cattle are not wealth?
Crit. That is the conclusion I draw.
Soc. It appears, you hold to the position that wealth consists of things
which benefit, while things which injure are not wealth?
Crit. Just so.
Soc. The same things, in fact, are wealth or not wealth, according as a
man knows or does not know the use to make of them? To take an instance, a
flute may be wealth to him who is sufficiently skilled to play upon it,
but the same instrument is no better than the stones we tread under our
feet to him who is not so skilled... unless indeed he chose to sell it?
Crit. That is precisely the conclusion we should come to. (8) To persons
ignorant of their use (9) flutes are wealth as saleable, but as
possessions not for sale they are no wealth at all; and see, Socrates, how
smoothly and consistently the argument proceeds, (10) since it is admitted
that things which benefit are wealth. The flutes in question unsold are
not wealth, being good for nothing: to become wealth they must be sold.
(8) Reading {tout auto}, or if {tout au} with Sauppe, transl. "Yes,
that is another position we may fairly subscribe to."
(9) i.e. "without knowledge of how to use them."
(10) Or, "our discussion marches on all-fours, as it were."
Yes! (rejoined Socrates), presuming the owner knows how to sell them;
since, supposing again he were to sell them for something which he does
not know how to use, (11) the mere selling will not transform them into
wealth, according to your argument.
(11) Reading {pros touto o}, or if {pros touton, os}, transl. "to a
man who did not know how to use them."
Crit. You seem to say, Socrates, that money itself in the pockets of a man
who does not know how to use it is not wealth?
Soc. And I understand you to concur in the truth of our proposition so
far: wealth is that, and that only, whereby a man may be benefited.
Obviously, if a man used his money to buy himself a mistress, to the grave
detriment of his body and soul and whole estate, how is that particular
money going to benefit him now? What good will he extract from it?
Crit. None whatever, unless we are prepared to admit that hyoscyamus, (12)
as they call it, is wealth, a poison the property of which is to drive
those who take it mad.
(12) "A dose of henbane, 'hogs'-bean,' so called." Diosc. 4. 69; 6.
15; Plut. "Demetr." xx. (Clough, v. 114).
Soc. Let money then, Critobulus, if a man does not know how to use it
aright—let money, I say, be banished to the remote corners of the
earth rather than be reckoned as wealth. (13) But now, what shall we say
of friends? If a man knows how to use his friends so as to be benefited by
them, what of these?
(13) Or, "then let it be relegated... and there let it lie in the
category of non-wealth."
Crit. They are wealth indisputably, and in a deeper sense than cattle are,
if, as may be supposed, they are likely to prove of more benefit to a man
than wealth of cattle.
Soc. It would seem, according to your argument, that the foes of a man's
own household after all may be wealth to him, if he knows how to turn them
to good account? (14)
(14) Vide supra.
Crit. That is my opinion, at any rate.
Soc. It would seem, it is the part of a good economist (15) to know how to
deal with his own or his employer's foes so as to get profit out of them?
(15) "A good administrator of an estate."
Crit. Most emphatically so.
Soc. In fact, you need but use your eyes to see how many private persons,
not to say crowned heads, do owe the increase of their estates to war.
Crit. Well, Socrates, I do not think, so far, the argument could be
improved on; (16) but now comes a puzzle. What of people who have got the
knowledge and the capital (17) required to enhance their fortunes, if only
they will put their shoulders to the wheel; and yet, if we are to believe
our senses, that is just the one thing they will not do, and so their
knowledge and accomplishments are of no profit to them? Surely in their
case also there is but one conclusion to be drawn, which is, that neither
their knowledge nor their possessions are wealth.
(16) Or, "Thanks, Socrates. Thus far the statement of the case would
seem to be conclusive—but what are we to make of this? Some
people..."
(17) Lit. "the right kinds of knowledge and the right starting-points."
Soc. Ah! I see, Critobulus, you wish to direct the discussion to the topic
of slaves?
Crit. No indeed, I have no such intention—quite the reverse. I want
to talk about persons of high degree, of right noble family (18) some of
them, to do them justice. These are the people I have in my mind's eye,
gifted with, it may be, martial or, it may be, civil accomplishments,
which, however, they refuse to exercise, for the very reason, as I take
it, that they have no masters over them.
(18) "Eupatrids."
Soc. No masters over them! but how can that be if, in spite of their
prayers for prosperity and their desire to do what will bring them good,
they are still so sorely hindered in the exercise of their wills by those
that lord it over them?
Crit. And who, pray, are these lords that rule them and yet remain unseen?
Soc. Nay, not unseen; on the contrary, they are very visible. And what is
more, they are the basest of the base, as you can hardly fail to note, if
at least you believe idleness and effeminacy and reckless negligence to be
baseness. Then, too, there are other treacherous beldames giving
themselves out to be innocent pleasures, to wit, dicings and profitless
associations among men. (19) These in the fulness of time appear in all
their nakedness even to them that are deceived, showing themselves that
they are after all but pains tricked out and decked with pleasures. These
are they who have the dominion over those you speak of and quite hinder
them from every good and useful work.
(19) Or, "frivolous society."
Crit. But there are others, Socrates, who are not hindered by these
indolences—on the contrary, they have the most ardent disposition to
exert themselves, and by every means to increase their revenues; but in
spite of all, they wear out their substance and are involved in endless
difficulties. (20)
(20) Or, "become involved for want of means."
Soc. Yes, for they too are slaves, and harsh enough are their taskmasters;
slaves are they to luxury and lechery, intemperance and the wine-cup along
with many a fond and ruinous ambition. These passions so cruelly belord it
over the poor soul whom they have got under their thrall, that so long as
he is in the heyday of health and strong to labour, they compel him to
fetch and carry and lay at their feet the fruit of his toils, and to spend
it on their own heart's lusts; but as soon as he is seen to be incapable
of further labour through old age, they leave him to his gray hairs and
misery, and turn to seize on other victims. (21) Ah! Critobulus, against
these must we wage ceaseless war, for very freedom's sake, no less than if
they were armed warriors endeavouring to make us their slaves. Nay, foemen
in war, it must be granted, especially when of fair and noble type, have
many times ere now proved benefactors to those they have enslaved. By dint
of chastening, they have forced the vanquished to become better men and to
lead more tranquil lives in future. (22) But these despotic queens never
cease to plague and torment their victims in body and soul and substance
until their sway is ended.
(21) "To use others as their slaves."
(22) Lit. "Enemies for the matter of that, when, being beautiful and
good, they chance to have enslaved some other, have ere now in
many an instance chastened and compelled the vanquished to be
better and to live more easily for the rest of time."
II
The conversation was resumed by Critobulus, and on this wise. He said: I
think I take your meaning fully, Socrates, about these matters; and for
myself, examining my heart, I am further satisfied, I have sufficient
continence and self-command in those respects. So that if you will only
advise me on what I am to do to improve my estate, I flatter myself I
shall not be hindered by those despotic dames, as you call them. Come, do
not hesitate; only tender me what good advice you can, and trust me I will
follow it. But perhaps, Socrates, you have already passed sentence on us—we
are rich enough already, and not in need of any further wealth?
Soc. It is to myself rather, if I may be included in your plural "we,"
that I should apply the remark. I am not in need of any further wealth, if
you like. I am rich enough already, to be sure. But you, Critobulus, I
look upon as singularly poor, and at times, upon my soul, I feel a
downright compassion for you.
At this view of the case, Critobulus fell to laughing outright, retorting:
And pray, Socrates, what in the name of fortune do you suppose our
respective properties would fetch in the market, yours and mine?
If I could find a good purchaser (he answered), I suppose the whole of my
effects, including the house in which I live, might very fairly realise
five minae (1) (say twenty guineas). Yours, I am positively certain, would
fetch at the lowest more than a hundred times that sum.
(1) 5 x L4:1:3. See Boeckh, "P. E. A." (Bk. i. ch. xx.), p. 109 f.
(Eng. ed.)
Crit. And with this estimate of our respective fortunes, can you still
maintain that you have no need of further wealth, but it is I who am to be
pitied for my poverty?
Soc. Yes, for my property is amply sufficient to meet my wants, whereas
you, considering the parade you are fenced about with, and the reputation
you must needs live up to, would be barely well off, I take it, if what
you have already were multiplied by three.
Pray, how may that be? Critobulus asked.
Why, first and foremost (Socrates explained), I see you are called upon to
offer many costly sacrifices, failing which, I take it, neither gods nor
men would tolerate you; and, in the next place, you are bound to welcome
numerous foreigners as guests, and to entertain them handsomely; thirdly,
you must feast your fellow-citizens and ply them with all sorts of
kindness, or else be cut adrift from your supporters. (2) Furthermore, I
perceive that even at present the state enjoins upon you various large
contributions, such as the rearing of studs, (3) the training of choruses,
the superintendence of gymnastic schools, or consular duties, (4) as
patron of resident aliens, and so forth; while in the event of war you
will, I am aware, have further obligations laid upon you in the shape of
pay (5) to carry on the triearchy, ship money, and war taxes (6) so
onerous, you will find difficulty in supporting them. Remissness in
respect of any of these charges will be visited upon you by the good
citizens of Athens no less strictly than if they caught you stealing their
own property. But worse than all, I see you fondling the notion that you
are rich. Without a thought or care how to increase your revenue, your
fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love, (7) as if you had some special
license to amuse yourself.... That is why I pity and compassionate you,
fearing lest some irremediable mischief overtake you, and you find
yourself in desperate straits. As for me, if I ever stood in need of
anything, I am sure you know I have friends who would assist me. They
would make some trifling contribution—trifling to themselves, I mean—and
deluge my humble living with a flood of plenty. But your friends, albeit
far better off than yourself, considering your respective styles of
living, persist in looking to you for assistance.
(2) See Dr. Holden ad loc., Boeckh (Bk. iii. ch. xxiii.), p. 465 f.
(3) Cf. Lycurg. "c. Leocr." 139.
(4) Al. "presidential duties."
(5) {trierarkhias (misthous)}. The commentators in general "suspect"
{misthous}. See Boeckh, "P. E. A." p. 579.
(6) See Boeckh, p. 470 f.; "Revenues," iii. 9, iv. 40.
(7) Or, "to childish matters," "frivolous affairs"; but for the full
import of the phrase {paidikois pragmasi} see "Ages." viii. 2.
Then Critobulus: I cannot gainsay what you have spoken, Socrates, it is
indeed high time that you were constituted my patronus, or I shall become
in very truth a pitiable object.
To which appeal Socrates made answer: Why, you yourself must surely be
astonished at the part you are now playing. Just now, when I said that I
was rich, you laughed at me as if I had no idea what riches were, and you
were not happy till you had cross-examined me and forced me to confess
that I do not possess the hundredth part of what you have; and now you are
imploring me to be your patron, and to stint no pains to save you from
becoming absolutely and in very truth a pauper. (8)
(8) Or, "literally beggared."
Crit. Yes, Socrates, for I see that you are skilled in one lucrative
operation at all events—the art of creating a surplus. I hope,
therefore, that a man who can make so much out of so little will not have
the slightest difficulty in creating an ample surplus out of an abundance.
Soc. But do not you recollect how just now in the discussion you would
hardly let me utter a syllable (9) while you laid down the law: if a man
did not know how to handle horses, horses were not wealth to him at any
rate; nor land, nor sheep, nor money, nor anything else, if he did not
know how to use them? And yet these are the very sources of revenue from
which incomes are derived; and how do you expect me to know the use of any
of them who never possessed a single one of them since I was born?
(9) Cf. Aristoph. "Clouds," 945; "Plut." 17; Dem. 353; and Holden ad
loc.
Crit. Yes, but we agreed that, however little a man may be blest with
wealth himself, a science of economy exists; and that being so, what
hinders you from being its professor?
Soc. Nothing, to be sure, (10) except what would hinder a man from knowing
how to play the flute, supposing he had never had a flute of his own and
no one had supplied the defect by lending him one to practise on: which is
just my case with regard to economy, (11) seeing I never myself possessed
the instrument of the science which is wealth, so as to go through the
pupil stage, nor hitherto has any one proposed to hand me over his to
manage. You, in fact, are the first person to make so generous an offer.
You will bear in mind, I hope, that a learner of the harp is apt to break
and spoil the instrument; it is therefore probable, if I take in hand to
learn the art of economy on your estate, I shall ruin it outright.
(10) Lit. "The very thing, God help me! which would hinder..."
(11) Lit. "the art of administering an estate."
Critobulus retorted: I see, Socrates, you are doing your very best to
escape an irksome task: you would rather not, if you can help it, stretch
out so much as your little finger to help me to bear my necessary burthens
more easily.
Soc. No, upon my word, I am not trying to escape: on the contrary, I shall
be ready, as far as I can, to expound the matter to you. (12) ... Still it
strikes me, if you had come to me for fire, and I had none in my house,
you would not blame me for sending you where you might get it; or if you
had asked me for water, and I, having none to give, had led you elsewhere
to the object of your search, you would not, I am sure, have disapproved;
or did you desire to be taught music by me, and I were to point out to you
a far more skilful teacher than myself, who would perhaps be grateful to
you moreover for becoming his pupil, what kind of exception could you take
to my behaviour?
(12) Or, "to play the part of {exegetes}, 'legal adviser,' or
'spiritual director,' to be in fact your 'guide, philosopher, and
friend.'"
Crit. None, with any show of justice, Socrates.
Soc. Well, then, my business now is, Critobulus, to point out (13) to you
some others cleverer than myself about those matters which you are so
anxious to be taught by me. I do confess to you, I have made it long my
study to discover who among our fellow-citizens in this city are the
greatest adepts in the various branches of knowledge. (14) I had been
struck with amazement, I remember, to observe on some occasion that where
a set of people are engaged in identical operations, half of them are in
absolute indigence and the other half roll in wealth. I bethought me, the
history of the matter was worth investigation. Accordingly I set to work
investigating, and I found that it all happened very naturally. Those who
carried on their affairs in a haphazard manner I saw were punished by
their losses; whilst those who kept their wits upon the stretch and paid
attention I soon perceived to be rewarded by the greater ease and profit
of their undertakings. (15) It is to these I would recommend you to betake
yourself. What say you? Learn of them: and unless the will of God oppose,
(16) I venture to say you will become as clever a man of business as one
might hope to see.
(13) Al. "to show you that there are others."
(14) Or,『who are gifted with the highest knowledge in their
respective concerns.』Cf. "Mem." IV. vii. 1.
(15) Lit. "got on quicker, easier, and more profitably."
(16) Or, "short of some divine interposition."
III
Critobulus, on hearing that, exclaimed: Be sure, Socrates, I will not let
you go now until you give the proofs which, in the presence of our
friends, you undertook just now to give me.
Well then, (1) Critobulus (Socrates replied), what if I begin by showing
(2) you two sorts of people, the one expending large sums on money in
building useless houses, the other at far less cost erecting dwellings
replete with all they need; will you admit that I have laid my finger here
on one of the essentials of economy?
(1) Lincke (brackets as an editorial interpolation iii. 1, {ti oun,
ephe}—vi. 11, {poiomen}). See his edition "Xenophons Dialog.
{peri oikonomias} in seiner ursprunglichen Gestalt"; and for a
criticism of his views, an article by Charles D. Morris,
"Xenophon's Oeconomicus," in the "American Journal of Philology,"
vol. i. p. 169 foll.
(2) As a demonstrator.
Crit. An essential point most certainly.
Soc. And suppose in connection with the same, I next point out to you (3)
two other sets of persons:—The first possessors of furniture of
various kinds, which they cannot, however, lay their hands on when the
need arises; indeed they hardly know if they have got all safe and sound
or not: whereby they put themselves and their domestics to much mental
torture. The others are perhaps less amply, or at any rate not more amply
supplied, but they have everything ready at the instant for immediate use.
(3) "As in a mirror, or a picture."
Crit. Yes, Socrates, and is not the reason simply that in the first case
everything is thrown down where it chanced, whereas those others have
everything arranged, each in its appointed place?
Quite right (he answered), and the phrase implies that everything is
orderly arranged, not in the first chance place, but in that to which it
naturally belongs.
Crit. Yes, the case is to the point, I think, and does involve another
economic principle.
Soc. What, then, if I exhibit to you a third contrast, which bears on the
condition of domestic slaves? On the one side you shall see them fettered
hard and fast, as I may say, and yet for ever breaking their chains and
running away. On the other side the slaves are loosed, and free to move,
but for all that, they choose to work, it seems; they are constant to
their masters. I think you will admit that I here point out another
function of economy (4) worth noting.
(4) Or, "economical result."
Crit. I do indeed—a feature most noteworthy.
Soc. Or take, again, the instance of two farmers engaged in cultivating
farms (5) as like as possible. The one had never done asserting that
agriculture has been his ruin, and is in the depth of despair; the other
has all he needs in abundance and of the best, and how acquired?—by
this same agriculture.
(5) {georgias}. See Hartman, "An. Xen." p. 193. Hold. cf. Plat.
"Laws," 806 E. Isocr. "Areop." 32.
Yes (Critobulus answered), to be sure; perhaps (6) the former spends both
toil and money not simply on what he needs, but on things which cause an
injury to house alike and owner.
(6) Or, "like enough in the one case the money and pains are spent,"
etc.
Soc. That is a possible case, no doubt, but it is not the one that I refer
to; I mean people pretending they are farmers, and yet they have not a
penny to expend on the real needs of their business.
Crit. And pray, what may be the reason of that, Socrates?
Soc. You shall come with me, and see these people also; and as you
contemplate the scene, I presume you will lay to heart the lesson.
Crit. I will, if possibly I can, I promise you.
Soc. Yes, and while you contemplate, you must make trial of yourself and
see if you have wit to understand. At present, I will bear you witness
that if it is to go and see a party of players performing in a comedy, you
will get up at cock-crow, and come trudging a long way, and ply me volubly
with reasons why I should accompany you to see the play. But you have
never once invited me to come and witness such an incident as those we
were speaking of just now.
Crit. And so I seem to you ridiculous? (7)
(7) Or, "a comic character in the performance." Soc. "Not so comic as
you must appear to yourself (i.e. with your keen sense of the
ludicrous)."
Soc. Far more ridiculous to yourself, I warrant. But now let me point out
to you another contrast: between certain people whose dealing with horses
has brought them to the brink of poverty, and certain others who have
found in the same pursuit the road to affluence, (8) and have a right
besides to plume themselves upon their gains. (9)
(8) Or, "who have not only attained to affluence by the same pursuit,
but can hold their heads high, and may well pride themselves on
their thrift."
(9) Cf. Hom. "Il." xii. 114, {ippoisin kai okhesphin agallomenos}, et
passim; "Hiero," viii. 5; "Anab." II. vi. 26.
Crit. Well, then, I may tell you, I see and know both characters as well
as you do; but I do not find myself a whit the more included among those
who gain.
Soc. Because you look at them just as you might at the actors in a tragedy
or comedy, and with the same intent—your object being to delight the
ear and charm the eye, but not, I take it, to become yourself a poet. And
there you are right enough, no doubt, since you have no desire to become a
playright. But, when circumstances compel you to concern yourself with
horsemanship, does it not seem to you a little foolish not to consider how
you are to escape being a mere amateur in the matter, especially as the
same creatures which are good for use are profitable for sale?
Crit. So you wish me to set up as a breeder of young horses, (10) do you,
Socrates?
(10) See "Horsemanship," ii. 1.
Soc. Not so, no more than I would recommend you to purchase lads and train
them up from boyhood as farm-labourers. But in my opinion there is a
certain happy moment of growth which must be seized, alike in man and
horse, rich in present service and in future promise. In further
illustration, I can show you how some men treat their wedded wives in such
a way that they find in them true helpmates to the joint increase of their
estate, while others treat them in a way to bring upon themselves
wholesale disaster. (11)
(11) Reading {e os pleista}, al. {e oi pleistoi} = "to bring about
disaster in most cases."
Crit. Ought the husband or the wife to bear the blame of that?
Soc. If it goes ill with the sheep we blame the shepherd, as a rule, or if
a horse shows vice we throw the blame in general upon the rider. But in
the case of women, supposing the wife to have received instruction from
her husband and yet she delights in wrong-doing, (12) it may be that the
wife is justly held to blame; but supposing he has never tried to teach
her the first principles of "fair and noble" conduct, (13) and finds her
quite an ignoramus (14) in these matters, surely the husband will be
justly held to blame. But come now (he added), we are all friends here;
make a clean breast of it, and tell us, Critobulus, the plain unvarnished
truth: Is there an one to whom you are more in the habit of entrusting
matters of importance than to your wife?
(12) Cf. "Horsemanship," vi. 5, of a horse "to show vice."
(13) Or, "things beautiful and of good report."
(14) Al. "has treated her as a dunce, devoid of this high knowledge."
Crit. There is no one.
Soc. And is there any one with whom you are less in the habit of
conversing than with your wife?
Crit. Not many, I am forced to admit.
Soc. And when you married her she was quite young, a mere girl—at an
age when, as far as seeing and hearing go, she had the smallest
acquaintance with the outer world?
Crit. Certainly.
Soc. Then would it not be more astonishing that she should have real
knowledge how to speak and act than that she should go altogether astray?
Crit. But let me ask you a question, Socrates: have those happy husbands,
you tell us of, who are blessed with good wives educated them themselves?
Soc. There is nothing like investigation. I will introduce you to Aspasia,
(15) who will explain these matters to you in a far more scientific way
than I can. My belief is that a good wife, being as she is the partner in
a common estate, must needs be her husband's counterpoise and counterpart
for good; since, if it is through the transactions of the husband, as a
rule, that goods of all sorts find their way into the house, yet it is by
means of the wife's economy and thrift that the greater part of the
expenditure is checked, and on the successful issue or the mishandling of
the same depends the increase or impoverishment of a whole estate. And so
with regard to the remaining arts and sciences, I think I can point out to
you the ablest performers in each case, if you feel you have any further
need of help. (16)
(15) Aspasia. See "Mem." II. vi. 36.
(16) Al.『there are successful performers in each who will be happy to
illustrate any point in which you think you need,』etc.
IV
But why need you illustrate all the sciences, Socrates? (Critobulus
asked): it would not be very easy to discover efficient craftsmen of all
the arts, and quite impossible to become skilled in all one's self. So,
please, confine yourself to the nobler branches of knowledge as men regard
them, such as it will best befit me to pursue with devotion; be so good as
to point me out these and their performers, and, above all, contribute as
far as in you lies the aid of your own personal instruction.
Soc. A good suggestion, Critobulus, for the base mechanic arts, so called,
have got a bad name; and what is more, are held in ill repute by civilised
communities, and not unreasonably; seeing they are the ruin of the bodies
of all concerned in them, workers and overseers alike, who are forced to
remain in sitting postures and to hug the loom, or else to crouch whole
days confronting a furnace. Hand in hand with physical enervation follows
apace enfeeblement of soul: while the demand which these base mechanic
arts makes on the time of those employed in them leaves them no leisure to
devote to the claims of friendship and the state. How can such folk be
other than sorry friends and ill defenders of the fatherland? So much so
that in some states, especially those reputed to be warlike, no citizen
(1) is allowed to exercise any mechanical craft at all.
(1) "In the strict sense," e.g. the Spartiates in Sparta. See『Pol.
Lac.』vii.; Newman, op. cit. i. 99, 103 foll.
Crit. Then which are the arts you would counsel us to engage in?
Soc. Well, we shall not be ashamed, I hope, to imitate the kings of
Persia? (2) That monarch, it is said, regards amongst the noblest and most
necessary pursuits two in particular, which are the arts of husbandry and
war, and in these two he takes the strongest interest.
(2)『It won't make us blush actually to take a leaf out of the great
king's book.』As to the Greek text at this point see the
commentators, and also a note by Mr. H. Richers in the『Classical
Review,』x. 102.
What! (Critobulus exclaimed); do you, Socrates, really believe that the
king of Persia pays a personal regard to husbandry, along with all his
other cares?
Soc. We have only to investigate the matter, Critobulus, and I daresay we
shall discover whether this is so or not. We are agreed that he takes
strong interest in military matters; since, however numerous the tributary
nations, there is a governor to each, and every governor has orders from
the king what number of cavalry, archers, slingers and targeteers (3) it
is his business to support, as adequate to control the subject population,
or in case of hostile attack to defend the country. Apart from these the
king keeps garrisons in all the citadels. The actual support of these
devolves upon the governor, to whom the duty is assigned. The king himself
meanwhile conducts the annual inspection and review of troops, both
mercenary and other, that have orders to be under arms. These all are
simultaneously assembled (with the exception of the garrisons of citadels)
at the mustering ground, (4) so named. That portion of the army within
access of the royal residence the king reviews in person; the remainder,
living in remoter districts of the empire, he inspects by proxy, sending
certain trusty representatives. (5) Wherever the commandants of garrisons,
the captains of thousands, and the satraps (6) are seen to have their
appointed members complete, and at the same time shall present their
troops equipped with horse and arms in thorough efficiency, these officers
the king delights to honour, and showers gifts upon them largely. But as
to those officers whom he finds either to have neglected their garrisons,
or to have made private gain of their position, these he heavily
chastises, deposing them from office, and appointing other superintendents
(7) in their stead. Such conduct, I think we may say, indisputably proves
the interest which he takes in matters military.
(3) Or, Gerrophoroi, "wicker-shield bearers."
(4) Or, "rendezvous"; "the 'Champ de Mars' for the nonce." Cf.
"Cyrop." VI. ii. 11.
(5) Lit. "he sends some of the faithful to inspect." Cf. our "trusty
and well-beloved."
(6) See, for the system, Herod. iii. 89 foll.; "Cyrop." VIII. vi. 11.
(7) Or, as we say, "inspecting officers." Cf. "Cyrop." VIII. i. 9.
Further than this, by means of a royal progress through the country, he
has an opportunity of inspecting personally some portion of his territory,
and again of visiting the remainder in proxy as above by trusty
representatives; and wheresoever he perceives that any of his governors
can present to him a district thickly populated, and the soil in a state
of active cultivation, full of trees and fruits, its natural products, to
such officers he adds other territory, adorning them with gifts and
distinguishing them by seats of honour. But those officers whose land he
sees lying idle and with but few inhabitants, owing either to the
harshness of their government, their insolence, or their neglect, he
punishes, and making them to cease from their office he appoints other
rulers in their place.... Does not this conduct indicate at least as great
an anxiety to promote the active cultivation of the land by its
inhabitants as to provide for its defence by military occupation? (8)
(8) Lit. "by those who guard and garrison it."
Moreover, the governors appointed to preside over these two departments of
state are not one and the same. But one class governs the inhabitants
proper including the workers of the soil, and collects the tribute from
them, another is in command of the armed garrisons. If the commandant (9)
protects the country insufficiently, the civil governor of the population,
who is in charge also of the productive works, lodges accusation against
the commandant to the effect that the inhabitants are prevented working
through deficiency of protection. Or if again, in spite of peace being
secured to the works of the land by the military governor, the civil
authority still presents a territory sparse in population and untilled, it
is the commandant's turn to accuse the civil ruler. For you may take it as
a rule, a population tilling their territory badly will fail to support
their garrisons and be quite unequal to paying their tribute. Where a
satrap is appointed he has charge of both departments. (10)
(9) Or, "garrison commandant." Lit. "Phrourarch."
(10) The passage reads like a gloss. See about the Satrap, "Hell."
III. i. 10; "Cyrop." VIII. vi. 1; "Anab." I. ix. 29 foll.
Thereupon Critobulus: Well, Socrates (said he), if such is his conduct, I
admit that the great king does pay attention to agriculture no less than
to military affairs.
And besides all this (proceeded Socrates), nowhere among the various
countries which he inhabits or visits does he fail to make it his first
care that there shall be orchards and gardens, parks and "paradises," as
they are called, full of all fair and noble products which the earth
brings forth; and within these chiefly he spends his days, when the season
of the year permits.
Crit. To be sure, Socrates, it is a natural and necessary conclusion that
when the king himself spends so large a portion of his time there, his
paradises should be furnished to perfection with trees and all else
beautiful that earth brings forth.
Soc. And some say, Critobulus, that when the king gives gifts, he summons
in the first place those who have shown themselves brave warriors, since
all the ploughing in the world were but small gain in the absence of those
who should protect the fields; and next to these he summons those who have
stocked their countries best and rendered them productive, on the
principle that but for the tillers of the soil the warriors themselves
could scarcely live. And there is a tale told of Cyrus, the most famous
prince, I need not tell you, who ever wore a crown, (11) how on one
occasion he said to those who had been called to receive the gifts,﹃it
were no injustice, if he himself received the gifts due to warriors and
tillers of the soil alike,﹄for "did he not carry off the palm in stocking
the country and also in protecting the goods with which it had been
stocked?"
(11) Lit. "the most glorious king that ever lived." The remark would
seem to apply better to Cyrus the Great. Nitsche and others regard
these SS. 18, 19 as interpolated. See Schenkl ad loc.
Crit. Which clearly shows, Socrates, if the tale be true, that this same
Cyrus took as great a pride in fostering the productive energies of his
country and stocking it with good things, as in his reputation as a
warrior.
Soc. Why, yes indeed, had Cyrus lived, I have no doubt he would have
proved the best of rulers, and in support of this belief, apart from other
testimony amply furnished by his life, witness what happened when he
marched to do battle for the sovereignty of Persia with his brother. Not
one man, it is said, (12) deserted from Cyrus to the king, but from the
king to Cyrus tens of thousands. And this also I deem a great testimony to
a ruler's worth, that his followers follow him of their own free will, and
when the moment of danger comes refuse to part from him. (13) Now this was
the case with Cyrus. His friends not only fought their battles side by
side with him while he lived, but when he died they too died battling
around his dead body, one and all, excepting only Ariaeus, who was absent
at his post on the left wing of the army. (14) But there is another tale
of this same Cyrus in connection with Lysander, who himself narrated it on
one occasion to a friend of his in Megara. (15)
(12) Cf. "Anab." I. ix. 29 foll.
(13) Cf. "Hiero," xi. 12, and our author passim.
(14) See "Anab." ib. 31.
(15) Possibly to Xenophon himself {who may have met Lysander on his
way back after the events of the "Anabasis," and implying this
dialogue is concocted, since Socrates died before Xenophon
returned to Athens, if he did return at that period.}
Lysander, it seems, had gone with presents sent by the Allies to Cyrus,
who entertained him, and amongst other marks of courtesy showed him his
"paradise" at Sardis. (16) Lysander was astonished at the beauty of the
trees within, all planted (17) at equal intervals, the long straight rows
of waving branches, the perfect regularity, the rectangular (18) symmetry
of the whole, and the many sweet scents which hung about them as they
paced the park. In admiration he exclaimed to Cyrus:﹃All this beauty is
marvellous enough, but what astonishes me still more is the talent of the
artificer who mapped out and arranged for you the several parts of this
fair scene.﹄(19) Cyrus was pleased by the remark, and said:﹃Know then,
Lysander, it is I who measured and arranged it all. Some of the trees,﹄he
added, "I planted with my own hands." Then Lysander, regarding earnestly
the speaker, when he saw the beauty of his apparel and perceived its
fragrance, the splendour (20) also of the necklaces and armlets, and other
ornaments which he wore, exclaimed:﹃What say you, Cyrus? did you with
your own hands plant some of these trees?﹄whereat the other: "Does that
surprise you, Lysander? I swear to you by Mithres, (21) when in ordinary
health I never dream of sitting down to supper without first practising
some exercise of war or husbandry in the sweat of my brow, or venturing
some strife of honour, as suits my mood." "On hearing this," said Lysander
to his friend, "I could not help seizing him by the hand and exclaiming,
'Cyrus, you have indeed good right to be a happy man, (22) since you are
happy in being a good man.'" (23)
(16) See "Hell." I. v. 1.
(17) Reading {oi' isou pephuteumena}, or if {ta pephuteumena}, transl.
"the various plants ranged."
(18) Cf. Dion. Hal. "de Comp." p. 170; Cic. "de Senect." S. 59.
(19) Lit. "of these" {deiktikos}, i.e. pointing to the various
beauties of the scenery.
(20) Reading {to kallos}.
(21) The Persian "Sun-God." See "Cyrop." VII. v. 53; Strab. xv. 3. 13.
(22) Or, "fortunate."
(23) Or, "you are a good man, and thereby fortunate."
V
All this I relate to you (continued Socrates) to show you that quite high
and mighty (1) people find it hard to hold aloof from agriculture,
devotion to which art would seem to be thrice blest, combining as it does
a certain sense of luxury with the satisfaction of an improved estate, and
such a training of physical energies as shall fit a man to play a free
man's part. (2) Earth, in the first place, freely offers to those that
labour all things necessary to the life of man; and, as if that were not
enough, makes further contribution of a thousand luxuries. (3) It is she
who supplies with sweetest scent and fairest show all things wherewith to
adorn the altars and statues of the gods, or deck man's person. It is to
her we owe our many delicacies of flesh or fowl or vegetable growth; (4)
since with the tillage of the soil is closely linked the art of breeding
sheep and cattle, whereby we mortals may offer sacrifices well pleasing to
the gods, and satisfy our personal needs withal.
(1) Lit. "Not even the most blessed of mankind can abstain from." See
Plat. "Rep." 344 B, "The superlatively best and well-to-do."
(2) Lit. "Devotion to it would seem to be at once a kind of luxury, an
increase of estate, a training of the bodily parts, so that a man
is able to perform all that a free man should."
(3) Al. "and further, to the maintenance of life she adds the sources
of pleasure in life."
(4) Lit. "she bears these and rears those."
And albeit she, good cateress, pours out her blessings upon us in
abundance, yet she suffers not her gifts to be received effeminately, but
inures her pensioners to suffer glady summer's heat and winter's cold.
Those that labour with their hands, the actual delvers of the soil, she
trains in a wrestling school of her own, adding strength to strength;
whilst those others whose devotion is confined to the overseeing eye and
to studious thought, she makes more manly, rousing them with cock-crow,
and compelling them to be up and doing in many a long day's march. (5)
Since, whether in city or afield, with the shifting seasons each necessary
labour has its hour of performance. (6)
(5) See "Hellenica Essays," p. 341.
(6) Lit. "each most necessary operation must ever be in season."
Or to turn to another side. Suppose it to be a man's ambition to aid his
city as a trooper mounted on a charger of his own: why not combine the
rearing of horses with other stock? it is the farmer's chance. (7) Or
would your citizen serve on foot? It is husbandry that shall give him
robustness of body. Or if we turn to the toil-loving fascination of the
chase, (8) here once more earth adds incitement, as well as furnishing
facility of sustenance for the dogs as by nurturing a foster brood of wild
animals. And if horses and dogs derive benefit from this art of husbandry,
they in turn requite the boon through service rendered to the farm. The
horse carries his best of friends, the careful master, betimes to the
scene of labour and devotion, and enables him to leave it late. The dog
keeps off the depredations of wild animals from fruits and flocks, and
creates security in the solitary place.
(7) Lit. "farming is best adapted to rearing horses along with other
produce."
(8) Lit. "to labour willingly and earnestly at hunting earth helps to
incite us somewhat."
Earth, too, adds stimulus in war-time to earth's tillers; she pricks them
on to aid the country under arms, and this she does by fostering her
fruits in open field, the prize of valour for the mightiest. (9) For this
also is the art athletic, this of husbandry; as thereby men are fitted to
run, and hurl the spear, and leap with the best. (10)
(9) Cf. "Hipparch," viii. 8.
(10) Cf. "Hunting," xii. 1 foll.
This, too, is that kindliest of arts which makes requital tenfold in kind
for every work of the labourer. (11) She is the sweet mistress who, with
smile of welcome and outstretched hand, greets the approach of her devoted
one, seeming to say, Take from me all thy heart's desire. She is the
generous hostess; she keeps open house for the stranger. (12) For where
else, save in some happy rural seat of her devising, shall a man more
cheerily cherish content in winter, with bubbling bath and blazing fire?
or where, save afield, in summer rest more sweetly, lulled by babbling
streams, soft airs, and tender shades? (13)
(11) Lit. "What art makes an ampler return for their labour to those
who work for her? What art more sweetly welcomes him that is
devoted to her?"
(12) Lit. "What art welcomes the stranger with greater prodigality?"
(13) See "Hellenica Essays," p. 380; and as still more to the point,
Cowley's Essays: "Of Agriculture," passim.
Her high prerogative it is to offer fitting first-fruits to high heaven,
hers to furnish forth the overflowing festal board. (14) Hers is a kindly
presence in the household. She is the good wife's favourite, the children
long for her, she waves her hand winningly to the master's friends.
(14) Or, "to appoint the festal board most bounteously."
For myself, I marvel greatly if it has ever fallen to the lot of freeborn
man to own a choicer possession, or to discover an occupation more
seductive, or of wider usefulness in life than this.
But, furthermore, earth of her own will (15) gives lessons in justice and
uprightness to all who can understand her meaning, since the nobler the
service of devotion rendered, the ampler the riches of her recompense.
(16) One day, perchance, these pupils of hers, whose conversation in past
times was in husbandry, (17) shall, by reason of the multitude of invading
armies, be ousted from their labours. The work of their hands may indeed
be snatched from them, but they were brought up in stout and manly
fashion. They stand, each one of them, in body and soul equipped; and,
save God himself shall hinder them, they will march into the territory of
those their human hinderers, and take from them the wherewithal to support
their lives. Since often enough in war it is surer and safer to quest for
food with sword and buckler than with all the instruments of husbandry.
(15) Reading {thelousa}, vulg., or if after Cobet, {theos ousa},
transl. "by sanction of her divinity." With {thelousa} Holden
aptly compares Virgil's "volentia rura," "Georg." ii. 500.
(16) "That is, her 'lex talionis.'"
(17) "Engaged long time in husbandry."
But there is yet another lesson to be learnt in the public shool of
husbandry (18)—the lesson of mutual assistance.﹃Shoulder to
shoulder﹄must we march to meet the invader; (19) "shoulder to shoulder"
stand to compass the tillage of the soil. Therefore it is that the
husbandman, who means to win in his avocation, must see that he creates
enthusiasm in his workpeople and a spirit of ready obedience; which is
just what a general attacking an enemy will scheme to bring about, when he
deals out gifts to the brave and castigation (20) to those who are
disorderly.
(18) Lit. "But again, husbandry trains up her scholars side by side in
lessons of..."
(19) {sun anthropois}, "man with his fellow-man," is the "mot d'order"
(cf. the author's favourite {sun theois}); "united human effort."
(20) "Lashes," "punishment." Cf. "Anab." II. vi. 10, of Clearchus.
Nor will there be lacking seasons of exhortation, the general haranguing
his troops and the husbandman his labourers; nor because they are slaves
do they less than free men need the lure of hope and happy expectation,
(21) that they may willingly stand to their posts.
(21) "The lure of happy prospects." See "Horsemanship," iii. 1.
It was an excellent saying of his who named husbandry﹃the mother and
nurse of all the arts,﹄for while agriculture prospers all other arts like
are vigorous and strong, but where the land is forced to remain desert,
(22) the spring that feeds the other arts is dried up; they dwindle, I had
almost said, one and all, by land and sea.
(22) Or, "lie waste and barren as the blown sea-sand."
These utterances drew from Critobulus a comment:
Socrates (he said), for my part I agree with all you say; only, one must
face the fact that in agriculture nine matters out of ten are beyond man's
calculation. Since at one time hailstones and another frost, at another
drought or a deluge of rain, or mildew, or other pest, will obliterate all
the fair creations and designs of men; or behold, his fleecy flocks most
fairly nurtured, then comes murrain, and the end most foul destruction.
(23)
(23) See Virg. "Georg." iii. 441 foll.: "Turpis oves tentat scabies,
ubi frigidus imber."
To which Socrates: Nay, I thought, Critobulus, you full surely were aware
that the operations of husbandry, no less than those of war, lie in the
hands of the gods. I am sure you will have noted the behaviour of men
engaged in war; how on the verge of military operations they strive to win
the acceptance of the divine powers; (24) how eagerly they assail the ears
of heaven, and by dint of sacrifices and omens seek to discover what they
should and what they should not do. So likewise as regards the processes
of husbandry, think you the propitiation of heaven is less needed here? Be
well assured (he added) the wise and prudent will pay service to the gods
on behalf of moist fruits and dry, (25) on behalf of cattle and horses,
sheep and goats; nay, on behalf of all their possessions, great and small,
without exception.
(24) See "Hell." III. i. 16 foll., of Dercylidas.
(25) "Every kind of produce, succulent (like the grape and olive) or
dry (like wheat and barley, etc.)"
VI
Your words (Critobulus answered) command my entire sympathy, when you bid
us endeavour to begin each work with heaven's help, (1) seeing that the
gods hold in their hands the issues alike of peace and war. So at any rate
will we endeavour to act at all times; but will you now endeavour on your
side to continue the discussion of economy from the point at which you
broke off, and bring it point by point to its conclusion? What you have
said so far has not been thrown away on me. I seem to discern already more
clearly, what sort of behaviour is necessary to anything like real living.
(2)
(1) Lit. "with the gods," and for the sentiment see below, x. 10;
"Cyrop." III. i. 15; "Hipparch," ix. 3.
(2) For {bioteuein} cf. Pind. "Nem." iv. 11, and see Holden ad loc.
Socrates replied: What say you then? Shall we first survey the ground
already traversed, and retrace the steps on which we were agreed, so that,
if possible we may conduct the remaining portion of the argument to its
issue with like unanimity? (3)
(3) Lit. "try whether we can go through the remaining steps with
like..."
Crit. Why, yes! If it is agreeable for two partners in a business to run
through their accounts without dispute, so now as partners in an argument
it will be no less agreeable to sum up the points under discussion, as you
say, with unanimity.
Soc. Well, then, we agreed that economy was the proper title of a branch
of knowledge, and this branch of knowledge appeared to be that whereby men
are enabled to enhance the value of their houses or estates; and by this
word "house or estate" we understood the whole of a man's possessions; and
"possessions" again we defined to include those things which the possessor
should find advantageous for the purposes of his life; and things
advantageous finally were discovered to mean all that a man knows how to
use and turn to good account. Further, for a man to learn all branches of
knowledge not only seemed to us an impossibility, but we thought we might
well follow the example of civil communities in rejecting the base
mechanic arts so called, on the ground that they destroy the bodies of the
artisans, as far as we can see, and crush their spirits.
The clearest proof of this, we said, (4) could be discovered if, on the
occasion of a hostile inroad, one were to seat the husbandmen and the
artisans apart in two divisions, and then proceed to put this question to
each group in turn: "Do you think it better to defend our country
districts or to retire from the fields (5) and guard the walls?" And we
anticipated that those concerned with the soil would vote to defend the
soil; while the artisans would vote not to fight, but, in docile obedience
to their training, to sit with folded hands, neither expending toil nor
venturing their lives.
(4) This S. 6 has no parallel supra. See Breit. and Schenkl ad loc.
for attempts to cure the text.
(5) See Cobet, "N. L." 580, reading {uphemenous}, or if {aphemenous}
transl. "to abandon."
Next we held it as proved that there was no better employment for a
gentleman—we described him as a man beautiful and good—than
this of husbandry, by which human beings procure to themselves the
necessaries of life. This same employment, moreover, was, as we agreed, at
once the easiest to learn (6) and the pleasantest to follow, since it
gives to the limbs beauty and hardihood, whilst permitting (7) to the soul
leisure to satisfy the claims of friendship and of civic duty.
(6) {raste mathein}. Vide infra, not supra.
(7) Lit. "least allowing the soul no leisure to care for friends and
state withal."
Again it seemed to us that husbandry acts as a spur to bravery in the
hearts of those that till the fields, (8) inasmuch as the necessaries of
life, vegetable and animal, under her auspices spring up and are reared
outside the fortified defences of the city. For which reason also this way
of life stood in the highest repute in the eyes of statesmen and
commonwealths, as furnishing the best citizens and those best disposed to
the common weal. (9)
(8) Cf. Aristot. "Oec." I. ii. 1343 B, {pros toutois k.t.l.}
(9) Cf. Aristoph. "Archarnians."
Crit. I think I am fully persuaded as to the propriety of making
agriculture the basis of life. I see it is altogether noblest, best, and
pleasantest to do so. But I should like to revert to your remark that you
understood the reason why the tillage of one man brings him in an
abundance of all he needs, while the operations of another fail to make
husbandry a profitable employment. I would gladly hear from you an
explanation of both these points, so that I may adopt the right and avoid
the harmful course. (10)
(10) Lincke conceives the editor's interpolation as ending here.
Soc. Well, Critobulus, suppose I narrate to you from the beginning how I
cam in contact with a man who of all men I ever met seemed to me to
deserve the appellation of a gentleman. He was indeed a﹃beautiful and
good﹄man. (11)
(11) Or, "a man 'beautiful and good,' as the phrase goes."
Crit. There is nothing I should better like to hear, since of all titles
this is the one I covet most the right to bear.
Soc. Well, then, I will tell you how I came to subject him to my inquiry.
It did not take me long to go the round of various good carpenters, good
bronze-workers, painters, sculptors, and so forth. A brief period was
sufficient for the contemplation of themselves and of their most admired
works of art. But when it came to examining those who bore the
high-sounding title "beautiful and good," in order to find out what
conduct on their part justified their adoption of this title, I found my
soul eager with desire for intercourse with one of them; and first of all,
seeing that the epithet "beautiful" was conjoined with that of "good,"
every beautiful person I saw, I must needs approach in my endeavour to
discover, (12) if haply I might somewhere see the quality of good adhering
to the quality of beauty. But, after all, it was otherwise ordained. I
soon enough seemed to discover (13) that some of those who in their
outward form were beautiful were in their inmost selves the veriest
knaves. Accordingly I made up my mind to let go beauty which appeals to
the eye, and address myself to one of those "beautiful and good" people so
entitled. And since I heard of Ischomachus (14) as one who was so called
by all the world, both men and women, strangers and citizens alike, I set
myself to make acquaintance with him.
(12) Or, "and try to understand."
(13) Or, "understand."
(14) See Cobet, "Pros. Xen." s.n.
VII
It chanced, one day I saw him seated in the portico of Zeus Eleutherios,
(1) and as he appeared to be at leisure, I went up to him and, sitting
down by his side, accosted him: How is this, Ischomachus? you seated here,
you who are so little wont to be at leisure? As a rule, when I see you,
you are doing something, or at any rate not sitting idle in the
market-place.
(1) "The god of freedom, or of freed men." See Plat. "Theag." 259 A.
The scholiast on Aristoph. "Plutus" 1176 identifies the god with
Zeus Soter. See Plut. "Dem." 859 (Clough, v. 30).
Nor would you see me now so sitting, Socrates (he answered), but that I
promised to meet some strangers, friends of mine, (2) at this place.
(2) "Foreign friends."
And when you have no such business on hand (I said) where in heaven's name
do you spend your time and how do you employ yourself? I will not conceal
from you how anxious I am to learn from your lips by what conduct you have
earned for yourself the title "beautiful and good." (3) It is not by
spending your days indoors at home, I am sure; the whole habit of your
body bears witness to a different sort of life.
(3) "The sobriquet of 'honest gentleman.'"
Then Ischomachus, smiling at my question, but also, as it seemed to me, a
little pleased to be asked what he had done to earn the title﹃beautiful
and good,﹄made answer: Whether that is the title by which folk call me
when they talk to you about me, I cannot say; all I know is, when they
challenge me to exchange properties, (4) or else to perform some service
to the state instead of them, the fitting out of a trireme, or the
training of a chorus, nobody thinks of asking for the beautiful and good
gentleman, but it is plain Ischomachus, the son of So-and-so, (5) on whom
the summons is served. But to answer your question, Socrates (he
proceeded), I certainly do not spend my days indoors, if for no other
reason, because my wife is quite capable of managing our domestic affairs
without my aid.
(4) On the antidosis or compulsory exchange of property, see Boeckh,
p. 580, Engl. ed.:『In case any man, upon whom a {leitourgia} was
imposed, considered that another was richer than himself, and
therefore most justly chargeable with the burden, he might
challenge the other to assume the burden, or to make with him an
{antidosis} or exchange of property. Such a challenge, if
declined, was converted into a lawsuit, or came before a heliastic
court for trial.』Gow, "Companion," xviii. "Athenian Finance." See
Dem. "Against Midias," 565, Kennedy, p. 117, and Appendix II. For
the various liturgies, Trierarchy, Choregy, etc., see "Pol. Ath."
i. 13 foll.
(5) Or, "the son of his father," it being customary at Athens to add
the patronymic, e.g. Xenophon son of Gryllus, Thucydides son of
Olorus, etc. See Herod. vi. 14, viii. 90. In official acts the
name of the deme was added, eg. Demosthenes son of Demosthenes of
Paiane; or of the tribe, at times. Cf. Thuc. viii. 69; Plat.
"Laws," vi. p. 753 B.
Ah! (said I), Ischomachus, that is just what I should like particularly to
learn from you. Did you yourself educate your wife to be all that a wife
should be, or when you received her from her father and mother was she
already a proficient well skilled to discharge the duties appropriate to a
wife?
Well skilled! (he replied). What proficiency was she likely to bring with
her, when she was not quite fifteen (6) at the time she wedded me, and
during the whole prior period of her life had been most carefully brought
up (7) to see and hear as little as possible, and to ask (8) the fewest
questions? or do you not think one should be satisfied, if at marriage her
whole experience consisted in knowing how to take the wool and make a
dress, and seeing how her mother's handmaidens had their daily
spinning-tasks assigned them? For (he added), as regards control of
appetite and self-indulgence, (9) she had received the soundest education,
and that I take to be the most important matter in the bringing-up of man
or woman.
(6) See Aristot. "Pol." vii. 16. 1335(a). See Newman, op. cit. i. 170
foll.
(7) Or, "surveillance." See "Pol. Lac." i. 3.
(8) Reading {eroito}; or if with Sauppe after Cobet, {eroin}, transl.
"talk as little as possible."
(9) Al. "in reference to culinary matters." See Mahaffy,『Social Life
in Greece,』p. 276.
Then all else (said I) you taught your wife yourself, Ischomachus, until
you had made her capable of attending carefully to her appointed duties?
That did I not (replied he) until I had offered sacrifice, and prayed that
I might teach and she might learn all that could conduce to the happiness
of us twain.
Soc. And did your wife join in sacrifice and prayer to that effect?
Isch. Most certainly, with many a vow registered to heaven to become all
she ought to be; and her whole manner showed that she would not be
neglectful of what was taught her. (10)
(10) Or,『giving plain proof that, if the teaching failed, it should
not be from want of due attention on her part.』See『Hellenica
Essays,』"Xenophon," p. 356 foll.
Soc. Pray narrate to me, Ischomachus, I beg of you, what you first essayed
to teach her. To hear that story would please me more than any description
of the most splendid gymnastic contest or horse-race you could give me.
Why, Socrates (he answered), when after a time she had become accustomed
to my hand, that is, was tamed (11) sufficiently to play her part in a
discussion, I put to her this question: "Did it ever strike you to
consider, dear wife, (12) what led me to choose you as my wife among all
women, and your parents to entrust you to me of all men? It was certainly
not from any difficulty that might beset either of us to find another
bedfellow. That I am sure is evident to you. No! it was with deliberate
intent to discover, I for myself and your parents in behalf of you, the
best partner of house and children we could find, that I sought you out,
and your parents, acting to the best of their ability, made choice of me.
If at some future time God grant us to have children born to us, we will
take counsel together how best to bring them up, for that too will be a
common interest, (13) and a common blessing if haply they shall live to
fight our battles and we find in them hereafter support and succour when
ourselves are old. (14) But at present there is our house here, which
belongs like to both. It is common property, for all that I possess goes
by my will into the common fund, and in the same way all that you
deposited (15) was placed by you to the common fund. (16) We need not stop
to calculate in figures which of us contributed most, but rather let us
lay to heart this fact that whichever of us proves the better partner, he
or she at once contributes what is most worth having."
(11) (The timid, fawn-like creature.) See Lecky,『Hist. of Eur.
Morals,』ii. 305. For the metaphor cf. Dem. "Olynth." iii. 37. 9.
(12) Lit. "woman." Cf. N. T. {gunai}, St. John ii. 4; xix. 26.
(13) Or, "our interests will centre in them; it will be a blessing we
share in common to train them that they shall fight our battles,
and..."
(14) Cf. "Mem." II. ii. 13. Holden cf. Soph. "Ajax." 567; Eur.
"Suppl." 918.
(15) Or reading {epenegke} with Cobet, "brought with you in the way of
dowry."
(16) Or, "to the joint estate."
Thus I addressed her, Socrates, and thus my wife made answer:﹃But how can
I assist you? what is my ability? Nay, everything depends on you. My
business, my mother told me, was to be sober-minded!﹄(17)
(17) "Modest and temperate," and (below) "temperance."
"Most true, my wife," I replied, "and that is what my father said to me.
But what is the proof of sober-mindedness in man or woman? Is it not so to
behave that what they have of good may ever be at its best, and that new
treasures from the same source of beauty and righteousness may be most
amply added?"
"But what is there that I can do," my wife inquired, "which will help to
increase our joint estate?"
"Assuredly," I answered, "you may strive to do as well as possible what
Heaven has given you a natural gift for and which the law approves."
"And what may these things be?" she asked.
"To my mind they are not the things of least importance," I replied,
﹃unless the things which the queen bee in her hive presides over are of
slight importance to the bee community; for the gods﹄(so Ischomachus
assured me, he continued), "the gods, my wife, would seem to have
exercised much care and judgment in compacting that twin system which goes
by the name of male and female, so as to secure the greatest possible
advantage (18) to the pair. Since no doubt the underlying principle of the
bond is first and foremost to perpetuate through procreation the races of
living creatures; (19) and next, as the outcome of this bond, for human
beings at any rate, a provision is made by which they may have sons and
daughters to support them in old age.
(18) Reading {oti}, or if with Br. {eti... auto}, "with the further
intent it should prove of maximum advantage to itself."
(19) Cf. (Aristot.) "Oecon." i. 3.
"And again, the way of life of human beings, not being maintained like
that of cattle (20) in the open air, obviously demands roofed homesteads.
But if these same human beings are to have anything to bring in under
cover, some one to carry out these labours of the field under high heaven
(21) must be found them, since such operations as the breaking up of
fallow with the plough, the sowing of seed, the planting of trees, the
pasturing and herding of flocks, are one and all open-air employments on
which the supply of products necessary to life depends.
(20) "And the beast of the field."
(21) "Sub dis," "in the open air."
"As soon as these products of the field are safely housed and under cover,
new needs arise. There must be some one to guard the store and some one to
perform such necessary operations as imply the need of shelter. (22)
Shelter, for instance, is needed for the rearing of infant children;
shelter is needed for the various processes of converting the fruits of
earth into food, and in like manner for the fabrication of clothing out of
wool.
(22) Or, "works which call for shelter."
﹃But whereas both of these, the indoor and the outdoor occupations alike,
demand new toil and new attention, to meet the case,﹄I added, "God made
provision (23) from the first by shaping, as it seems to me, the woman's
nature for indoor and the man's for outdoor occupations. Man's body and
soul He furnished with a greater capacity for enduring heat and cold,
wayfaring and military marches; or, to repeat, He laid upon his shoulders
the outdoor works.
(23) "Straightway from the moment of birth provided." Cf. (Aristot.)
"Oecon." i. 3, a work based upon or at any rate following the
lines of Xenophon's treatise.
"While in creating the body of woman with less capacity for these things,"
I continued, "God would seem to have imposed on her the indoor works; and
knowing that He had implanted in the woman and imposed upon her the
nurture of new-born babies, He endowed her with a larger share of
affection for the new-born child than He bestowed upon man. (24) And since
He imposed on woman the guardianship of the things imported from without,
God, in His wisdom, perceiving that a fearful spirit was no detriment to
guardianship, (25) endowed the woman with a larger measure of timidity
than He bestowed on man. Knowing further that he to whom the outdoor works
belonged would need to defend them against malign attack, He endowed the
man in turn with a larger share of courage.
(24) {edasato}, "Cyrop." IV. ii. 43.
(25) Cf. "Hipparch," vii. 7; Aristot. "Pol." iii. 2; "Oecon." iii.
"And seeing that both alike feel the need of giving and receiving, He set
down memory and carefulness between them for their common use, (26) so
that you would find it hard to determine which of the two, the male or the
female, has the larger share of these. So, too, God set down between them
for their common use the gift of self-control, where needed, adding only
to that one of the twain, whether man or woman, which should prove the
better, the power to be rewarded with a larger share of this perfection.
And for the very reason that their natures are not alike adapted to like
ends, they stand in greater need of one another; and the married couple is
made more useful to itself, the one fulfilling what the other lacks. (27)
(26) Or, "He bestowed memory and carefulness as the common heritage of
both."
(27) Or, "the pair discovers the advantage of duality; the one being
strong wherein the other is defective."
"Now, being well aware of this, my wife," I added, "and knowing well what
things are laid upon us twain by God Himself, must we not strive to
perform, each in the best way possible, our respective duties? Law, too,
gives her consent—law and the usage of mankind, by sanctioning the
wedlock of man and wife; and just as God ordained them to be partners in
their children, so the law establishes their common ownership of house and
estate. Custom, moreover, proclaims as beautiful those excellences of man
and woman with which God gifted them at birth. (28) Thus for a woman to
bide tranquilly at home rather than roam aborad is no dishonour; but for a
man to remain indoors, instead of devoting himself to outdoor pursuits, is
a thing discreditable. But if a man does things contrary to the nature
given him by God, the chances are, (29) such insubordination escapes not
the eye of Heaven: he pays the penalty, whether of neglecting his own
works, or of performing those appropriate to woman." (30)
(28) Or,『with approving fingers stamps as noble those diverse
faculties, those superiorities in either sex which God created in
them. Thus for the woman to remain indoors is nobler than to gad
about abroad.』{ta kala...; kallion... aiskhion...}—
These words, which their significant Hellenic connotation, suffer
cruelly in translation.
(29) Or,『maybe in some respect this violation of the order of things,
this lack of discipline on his part.』Cf. "Cyrop." VII. ii. 6.
(30) Or, "the works of his wife." For the sentiment cf. Soph.『Oed.
Col.』337 foll.; Herod. ii. 35.
I added: "Just such works, if I mistake not, that same queen-bee we spoke
of labours hard to perform, like yours, my wife, enjoined upon her by God
Himself."
"And what sort of works are these?" she asked; "what has the queen-bee to
do that she seems so like myself, or I like her in what I have to do?"
"Why," I answered, "she too stays in the hive and suffers not the other
bees to idle. Those whose duty it is to work outside she sends forth to
their labours; and all that each of them brings in, she notes and receives
and stores against the day of need; but when the season for use has come,
she distributes a just share to each. Again, it is she who presides over
the fabric of choicely-woven cells within. She looks to it that warp and
woof are wrought with speed and beauty. Under her guardian eye the brood
of young (31) is nursed and reared; but when the days of rearing are past
and the young bees are ripe for work, she sends them out as colonists with
one of the seed royal (32) to be their leader."
(31) Or, "the growing progeny is reared to maturity."
(32) Or, "royal lineage," reading {ton epigonon} (emend. H. Estienne);
or if the vulg. {ton epomenon}, "with some leader of the host"
(lit. of his followers). So Breitenbach.
"Shall I then have to do these things?" asked my wife.
"Yes," I answered, "you will need in the same way to stay indoors,
despatching to their toils without those of your domestics whose work lies
there. Over those whose appointed tasks are wrought indoors, it will be
your duty to preside; yours to receive the stuffs brought in; yours to
apportion part for daily use, and yours to make provision for the rest, to
guard and garner it so that the outgoings destined for a year may not be
expended in a month. It will be your duty, when the wools are introduced,
to see that clothing is made for those who need; your duty also to see
that the dried corn is rendered fit and serviceable for food.
"There is just one of all these occupations which devolve upon you," I
added, "you may not find so altogether pleasing. Should any one of our
household fall sick, it will be your care to see and tend them to the
recovery of their health."
"Nay," she answered, "that will be my pleasantest of tasks, if careful
nursing may touch the springs of gratitude and leave them friendlier than
before."
And I (continued Ischomachus) was struck with admiration at her answer,
and replied: "Think you, my wife, it is through some such traits of
forethought seen in their mistress-leader that the hearts of bees are won,
and they are so loyally affectioned towards her that, if ever she abandon
her hive, not one of them will dream of being left behind; (33) but one
and all must follow her."
(33) Al. "will suffer her to be forsaken."
And my wife made answer to me: "It would much astonish me (said she) did
not these leader's works, you speak of, point to you rather than myself.
Methinks mine would be a pretty (34) guardianship and distribution of
things indoors without your provident care to see that the importations
from without were duly made."
(34) Or, "ridiculous."
"Just so," I answered, "and mine would be a pretty (35) importation if
there were no one to guard what I imported. Do you not see," I added, "how
pitiful is the case of those unfortunates who pour water in their sieves
for ever, as the story goes, (36) and labour but in vain?"
(35) "As laughable an importation."
(36) Or,『how pitiful their case, condemned, as the saying goes, to
pour water into a sieve.』Lit.『filling a bucket bored with
holes.』Cf. Aristot. "Oec." i. 6; and for the Danaids, see Ovid.
"Met." iv. 462; Hor. "Carm." iii. 11. 25; Lucr. iii. 937; Plaut.
"Pseud." 369. Cp. Coleridge:
Work without hope draws nectar in a sieve,
And hope without an object cannot live.
"Pitiful enough, poor souls," she answered, "if that is what they do."
"But there are other cares, you know, and occupations," I answered,﹃which
are yours by right, and these you will find agreeable. This, for instance,
to take some maiden who knows naught of carding wool and to make her
proficient in the art, doubling her usefulness; or to receive another
quite ignorant of housekeeping or of service, and to render her skilful,
loyal, serviceable, till she is worth her weight in gold; or again, when
occasion serves, you have it in your power to requite by kindness the
well-behaved whose presence is a blessing to your house; or maybe to
chasten the bad character, should such an one appear. But the greatest joy
of all will be to prove yourself my better; to make me your faithful
follower; knowing no dread lest as the years advance you should decline in
honour in your household, but rather trusting that, though your hair turn
gray, yet, in proportion as you come to be a better helpmate to myself and
to the children, a better guardian of our home, so will your honour
increase throughout the household as mistress, wife, and mother, daily
more dearly prized. Since,﹄I added, "it is not through excellence of
outward form, (37) but by reason of the lustre of virtues shed forth upon
the life of man, that increase is given to things beautiful and good."
(38)
(37) "By reason of the flower on the damask cheek."
(38) Al.『For growth is added to things 'beautiful and good,' not
through the bloom of youth but virtuous perfections, an increase
coextensive with the life of man.』See Breit. ad loc.
That, Socrates, or something like that, as far as I may trust my memory,
records the earliest conversation which I held with her.
VIII
And did you happen to observe, Ischomachus (I asked), whether, as the
result of what was said, your wife was stirred at all to greater
carefulness?
Yes, certainly (Ischomachus answered), and I remember how piqued she was
at one time and how deeply she blushed, when I chanced to ask her for
something which had been brought into the house, and she could not give it
me. So I, when I saw her annoyance, fell to consoling her. "Do not be at
all disheartened, my wife, that you cannot give me what I ask for. It is
plain poverty, (1) no doubt, to need a thing and not to have the use of
it. But as wants go, to look for something which I cannot lay my hands
upon is a less painful form of indigence than never to dream of looking
because I know full well that the thing exists not. Anyhow, you are not to
blame for this," I added; "mine the fault was who handed over to your care
the things without assigning them their places. Had I done so, you would
have known not only where to put but where to find them. (2) After all, my
wife, there is nothing in human life so serviceable, nought so beautiful
as order. (3)
(1) "Vetus proverbium," Cic. ap. Columellam, xii. 2, 3; Nobbe, 236,
fr. 6.
(2) Lit. "so that you might know not only where to put," etc.
(3) Or, "order and arrangement." So Cic. ap. Col. xii. 2, 4,
"dispositione atque ordine."
"For instance, what is a chorus?—a band composed of human beings,
who dance and sing; but suppose the company proceed to act as each may
chance—confusion follows; the spectacle has lost its charm. How
different when each and all together act and recite (4) with orderly
precision, the limbs and voices keeping time and tune. Then, indeed, these
same performers are worth seeing and worth hearing.
(4) Or, "declaim," {phtheggontai}, properly of the "recitative" of the
chorus. Cf. Plat. "Phaedr." 238 D.
"So, too, an army," I said, "my wife, an army destitute of order is
confusion worse confounded: to enemies an easy prey, courting attack; to
friends a bitter spectacle of wasted power; (5) a mingled mob of asses,
heavy infantry, and baggage-bearers, light infantry, cavalry, and waggons.
Now, suppose they are on the march; how are they to get along? In this
condition everybody will be a hindrance to everybody: 'slow march' side by
side with 'double quick,' 'quick march' at cross purposes with 'stand at
ease'; waggons blocking cavalry and asses fouling waggons; baggage-bearers
and hoplites jostling together: the whole a hopeless jumble. And when it
comes to fighting, such an army is not precisely in condition to deliver
battle. The troops who are compelled to retreat before the enemy's advance
(6) are fully capable of trampling down the heavy infantry detachments in
reserve. (7)
(5) Reading {agleukestaton}, or, if with Breit, {akleestaton}, "a most
inglorious spectacle of extreme unprofitableness."
(6) Or, "whose duty (or necessity) it is to retire before an attack,"
i.e. the skirmishers. Al. "those who have to retreat," i.e. the
non-combatants.
(7) Al.『are quite capable of trampling down the troops behind in
their retreat.』{tous opla ekhontas} = "the troops proper," "heavy
infantry."
"How different is an army well organised in battle order: a splendid sight
for friendly eyes to gaze at, albeit an eyesore to the enemy. For who,
being of their party, but will feel a thrill of satisfaction as he watches
the serried masses of heavy infantry moving onwards in unbroken order? who
but will gaze with wonderment as the squadrons of the cavalry dash past
him at the gallop? And what of the foeman? will not his heart sink within
him to see the orderly arrangements of the different arms: (8) here heavy
infantry and cavalry, and there again light infantry, there archers and
there slingers, following each their leaders, with orderly precision. As
they tramp onwards thus in order, though they number many myriads, yet
even so they move on and on in quiet progress, stepping like one man, and
the place just vacated in front is filled up on the instant from the rear.
(8) "Different styles of troops drawn up in separate divisions:
hoplites, cavalry, and peltasts, archers, and slingers."
"Or picture a trireme, crammed choke-full of mariners; for what reason is
she so terror-striking an object to her enemies, and a sight so gladsome
to the eyes of friends? is it not that the gallant ship sails so swiftly?
And why is it that, for all their crowding, the ship's company (9) cause
each other no distress? Simply that there, as you may see them, they sit
in order; in order bend to the oar; in order recover the stroke; in order
step on board; in order disembark. But disorder is, it seems to me,
precisely as though a man who is a husbandman should stow away (10)
together in one place wheat and barley and pulse, and by and by when he
has need of barley meal, or wheaten flour, or some condiment of pulse,
(11) then he must pick and choose instead of laying his hand on each thing
separately sorted for use.
(9) See Thuc. iii. 77. 2.
(10) "Should shoot into one place."
(11) "Vegetable stock," "kitchen." See Holden ad loc., and Prof.
Mahaffy, "Old Greek Life," p. 31.
"And so with you too, my wife, if you would avoid this confusion, if you
would fain know how to administer our goods, so as to lay your finger
readily on this or that as you may need, or if I ask you for anything,
graciously to give it me: let us, I say, select and assign (12) the
appropriate place for each set of things. This shall be the place where we
will put the things; and we will instruct the housekeeper that she is to
take them out thence, and mind to put them back again there; and in this
way we shall know whether they are safe or not. If anything is gone, the
gaping space will cry out as if it asked for something back. (13) The mere
look and aspect of things will argue what wants mending; (14) and the fact
of knowing where each thing is will be like having it put into one's hand
at once to use without further trouble or debate."
(12) {dokimasometha}, "we will write over each in turn, as it were,
'examined and approved.'"
(13) Lit. "will miss the thing that is not."
(14) "Detect what needs attention."
I must tell you, Socrates, what strikes me as the finest and most accurate
arrangement of goods and furniture it was ever my fortune to set eyes on;
when I went as a sightseer on board the great Phoenician merchantman, (15)
and beheld an endless quantity of goods and gear of all sorts, all
separately packed and stowed away within the smallest compass. (16) I need
scarce remind you (he said, continuing his narrative) what a vast amount
of wooden spars and cables (17) a ship depends on in order to get to
moorings; or again, in putting out to sea; (18) you know the host of sails
and cordage, rigging (19) as they call it, she requires for sailing; the
quantity of engines and machinery of all sorts she is armed with in case
she should encounter any hostile craft; the infinitude of arms she
carries, with her crew of fighting men aboard. Then all the vessels and
utensils, such as people use at home on land, required for the different
messes, form a portion of the freight; and besides all this, the hold is
heavy laden with a mass of merchandise, the cargo proper, which the master
carries with him for the sake of traffic.
(15) See Lucian, lxvi. "The Ship," ad in. (translated by S. T. Irwin).
(16) Lit. "in the tiniest receptacle."
(17) See Holden ad loc. re {xelina, plekta, kremasta}.
(18) "In weighing anchor."
(19) "Suspended tackle" (as opposed to wooden spars and masts, etc.)
Well, all these different things that I have named lay packed there in a
space but little larger than a fair-sized dining-room. (20) The several
sorts, moreover, as I noticed, lay so well arranged, there could be no
entanglement of one with other, nor were searchers needed; (21) and if all
were snugly stowed, all were alike get-at-able, (22) much to the avoidance
of delay if anything were wanted on the instant.
(20) Lit. "a symmetrically-shaped dining-room, made to hold ten
couches."
(21) Lit. "a searcher"; "an inquisitor." Cf. Shakesp. "Rom. and Jul."
V. ii. 8.
(22) Lit. "not the reverse of easy to unpack, so as to cause a waste
of time and waiting."
Then the pilot's mate (23)—"the look-out man at the prow," to give
him his proper title—was, I found, so well acquainted with the place
for everything that, even off the ship, (24) he could tell you where each
set of things was laid and how many there were of each, just as well as
any one who knows his alphabet (25) could tell you how many letters there
are in Socrates and the order in which they stand.
(23) Cf. "Pol. Ath." i. 1; Aristoph. "Knights," 543 foll.
(24) Or, "with his eyes shut, at a distance he could say exactly."
(25) Or, "how to spell." See "Mem." IV. iv. 7; Plat. "Alc." i. 113 A.
I saw this same man (continued Ischomachus) examining at leisure (26)
everything which could possibly (27) be needful for the service of the
ship. His inspection caused me such surprise, I asked him what he was
doing, whereupon he answered, "I am inspecting, stranger," (28)﹃just
considering,﹄says he, "the way the things are lying aboard the ship; in
case of accidents, you know, to see if anything is missing, or not lying
snug and shipshape. (29) There is no time left, you know," he added, "when
God makes a tempest in the great deep, to set about searching for what you
want, or to be giving out anything which is not snug and shipshape in its
place. God threatens and chastises sluggards. (30) If only He destroy not
innocent with guilty, a man may be content; (31) or if He turn and save
all hands aboard that render right good service, (32) thanks be to
Heaven." (33)
(26) "Apparently when he had nothing better to do"; "by way of
amusement."
(27) {ara}, "as if he were asking himself, 'Would this or this
possibly be wanted for the ship's service?'"
(28) "Sir."
(29) Or, "things not lying handy in their places."
(30) Or, "them that are slack." Cf. "Anab." V. viii. 15; "Mem." IV.
ii. 40; Plat. "Gorg." 488 A: "The dolt and good-for-nothing."
(31) "One must not grumble."
(32) "The whole ship's crew right nobly serving." {uperetein} =『to
serve at the oar』(metaphorically = to do service to heaven).
(33) Lit. "great thanks be to the gods."
So spoke the pilot's mate; and I, with this carefulness of stowage still
before my eyes, proceeded to enforce my thesis:
"Stupid in all conscience would it be on our parts, my wife, if those who
sail the sea in ships, that are but small things, can discover space and
place for everything; can, moreover, in spite of violent tossings up and
down, keep order, and, even while their hearts are failing them for fear,
find everything they need to hand; whilst we, with all our ample
storerooms (34) diversely disposed for divers objects in our mansion, an
edifice firmly based (35) on solid ground, fail to discover fair and
fitting places, easy of access for our several goods! Would not that argue
great lack of understanding in our two selves? Well then! how good a thing
it is to have a fixed and orderly arrangement of all furniture and gear;
how easy also in a dwelling-house to find a place for every sort of goods,
in which to stow them as shall suit each best—needs no further
comment. Rather let me harp upon the string of beauty—image a fair
scene: the boots and shoes and sandals, and so forth, all laid in order
row upon row; the cloaks, the mantles, and the rest of the apparel stowed
in their own places; the coverlets and bedding; the copper cauldrons; and
all the articles for table use! Nay, though it well may raise a smile of
ridicule (not on the lips of a grave man perhaps, but of some facetious
witling) to hear me say it, a beauty like the cadence of sweet music (36)
dwells even in pots and pans set out in neat array: and so, in general,
fair things ever show more fair when orderly bestowed. The separate atoms
shape themselves to form a choir, and all the space between gains beauty
by their banishment. Even so some sacred chorus, (37) dancing a roundelay
in honour of Dionysus, not only is a thing of beauty in itself, but the
whole interspace swept clean of dancers owns a separate charm. (38)
(34) Or, "coffers," "cupboards," "safes."
(35) Cf. "Anab." III. ii. 19, "firmly planted on terra firma."
(36) Or, "like the rhythm of a song," {euruthmon}. See Mr. Ruskin's
most appropriate note ("Bib. Past." i. 59),『A remarkable word, as
significant of the complete rhythm ({ruthmos}) whether of sound or
motion, that was so great a characteristic of the Greek ideal (cf.
xi. 16, {metarruthmizo}),』and much more equally to the point.
(37) "Just as a chorus, the while its dancers weave a circling dance."
(38) Or, "contrasting with the movement and the mazes of the dance, a
void appears serene and beautiful."
"The truth of what I say, we easily can test, my wife," I added, "by
direct experiment, and that too without cost at all or even serious
trouble. (39) Nor need you now distress yourself, my wife, to think how
hard it will be to discover some one who has wit enough to learn the
places for the several things and memory to take and place them there. We
know, I fancy, that the goods of various sorts contained in the whole city
far outnumber ours many thousand times; and yet you have only to bid any
one of your domestics go buy this, or that, and bring it you from market,
and not one of them will hesitate. The whole world knows both where to go
and where to find each thing.
(39) Lit. "now whether these things I say are true (i.e. are facts),
we can make experiment of the things themselves (i.e. of actual
facts to prove to us)."
"And why is this?" I asked.﹃Merely because they lie in an appointed
place. But now, if you are seeking for a human being, and that too at
times when he is seeking you on his side also, often and often shall you
give up the search in sheer despair: and of this again the reason? Nothing
else save that no appointed place was fixed where one was to await the
other.﹄Such, so far as I can now recall it, was the conversation which we
held together touching the arrangement of our various chattels and their
uses.
IX
Well (I replied), and did your wife appear, Ischomachus, to lend a willing
ear to what you tried thus earnestly to teach her?
Isch. Most certainly she did, with promise to pay all attention. Her
delight was evident, like some one's who at length has found a pathway out
of difficulties; in proof of which she begged me to lose no time in making
the orderly arrangement I had spoken of.
And how did you introduce the order she demanded, Ischomachus? (I asked).
Isch. Well, first of all I thought I ought to show her the capacities of
our house. Since you must know, it is not decked with ornaments and
fretted ceilings, (1) Socrates; but the rooms were built expressly with a
view to forming the most apt receptacles for whatever was intended to be
put in them, so that the very look of them proclaimed what suited each
particular chamber best. Thus our own bedroom, (2) secure in its position
like a stronghold, claimed possession of our choicest carpets, coverlets,
and other furniture. Thus, too, the warm dry rooms would seem to ask for
our stock of bread-stuffs; the chill cellar for our wine; the bright and
well-lit chambers for whatever works or furniture required light, and so
forth.
(1) Or, "curious workmanship and paintings." See "Mem." III. viii. 10.
Cf. Plat. "Rep." vii. 529 B; "Hipp. maj." 298 A. See Becker,
"Charicles," Exc. i. 111.
(2) Or, "the bridal chamber." See Becker, op. cit. p. 266. Al.『our
store-chamber.』See Hom. "Od." xxi. 9:
{be d' imenai thalamonde sun amphipoloisi gunaixin eskhaton, k.t.l.}
"And she (Penelope) betook her, with her handmaidens, to the
treasure-chamber in the uttermost part of the house, where lay the
treasures of her lord, bronze and gold and iron well wrought."—Butcher
and Lang. Cf. "Od." ii. 337; "Il." vi. 288.
Next I proceeded to point out to her the several dwelling-rooms, all
beautifully fitted up for cool in summer and for warmth in winter. (3) I
showed her how the house enjoyed a southern aspect, whence it was plain,
in winter it would catch the sunlight and in summer lie in shade. (4) Then
I showed her the women's apartments, separated from the men's apartments
by a bolted door, (5) whereby nothing from within could be conveyed
without clandestinely, nor children born and bred by our domestics without
our knowledge and consent (6)—no unimportant matter, since, if the
act of rearing children tends to make good servants still more loyally
disposed, (7) cohabiting but sharpens ingenuity for mischief in the bad.
(3) See "Mem." III. viii. 8.
(4) See "Mem." ib. 9.
(5) "By bolts and bars." Lit. "a door fitted with a bolt-pin." See
Thuc. ii. 4; Aristoph. "Wasps," 200.
(6) Cf. (Aristot.) "Oecon." i. 5, {dei de kai exomereuein tais
teknopoiiais}.
(7) Lit. "since (you know) if the good sort of servant is rendered, as
a rule, better disposed when he becomes a father, the base,
through intermarrying, become only more ripe for mischief."
When we had gone over all the rooms (he continued), we at once set about
distribution our furniture (8) in classes; and we began (he said) by
collecting everything we use in offering sacrifice. (9) After this we
proceeded to set apart the ornaments and holiday attire of the wife, and
the husband's clothing both for festivals and war; then the bedding used
in the women's apartments, and the bedding used in the men's apartments;
then the women's shoes and sandals, and the shoes and sandals of the men.
(10) There was one division devoted to arms and armour; another to
instruments used for carding wood; another to implements for making bread;
another to utensils for cooking condiments; another to utensils for the
bath; another connected with the kneading trough; another with the service
of the table. All these we assigned to separate places, distinguishing one
portion for daily and recurrent use and the rest for high days and
holidays. Next we selected and set aside the supplies required for the
month's expenditure; and, under a separate head, (11) we stored away what
we computed would be needed for the year. (12) For in this way there is
less chance of failing to note how the supplies are likely to last to the
end.
(8) "Movable property," "meubles."
(9) Holden cf. Plut. "De Curios." 515 E, {os gar Xenophon legei toi
Oikonomikois, k.t.l.}
(10) Cf. "Cyrop." VIII. ii. 5. See Becker, op. cit. p. 447.
(11) See Cic. ap. Col. who curiously mistranslates {dikha}.
(12) Schneider, etc., cf. Aristot. "Oecon." i. 6.
And so having arranged the different articles of furniture in classes, we
proceeded to convey them to their appropriate places. That done, we
directed our attention to the various articles needed by our domestics for
daily use, such as implements or utensils for making bread, cooking
relishes, spinning wool, and anything else of the same sort. These we
consigned to the care of those who would have to use them, first pointing
out where they must stow them, and enjoining on them to return them safe
and sound when done with.
As to the other things which we should only use on feast-days, or for the
entertainment of guests, or on other like occasions at long intervals, we
delivered them one and all to our housekeeper. Having pointed out to her
their proper places, and having numbered and registered (13) the several
sets of articles, we explained that it was her business to give out each
thing as required; to recollect to whom she gave them; and when she got
them back, to restore them severally to the places from which she took
them. In appointing our housekeeper, we had taken every pains to discover
some one on whose self-restraint we might depend, not only in the matters
of food and wine and sleep, but also in her intercourse with men. She must
besides, to please us, be gifted with no ordinary memory. She must have
sufficient forethought not to incur displeasure through neglect of our
interests. It must be her object to gratify us in this or that, and in
return to win esteem and honour at our hands. We set ourselves to teach
and train her to feel a kindly disposition towards us, by allowing her to
share our joys in the day of gladness, or, if aught unkind befell us, by
inviting her to sympathise in our sorrow. We sought to rouse in her a zeal
for our interests, an eagerness to promote the increase of our estate, by
making her intelligent of its affairs, and by giving her a share in our
successes. We instilled in her a sense of justice and uprightness, by
holding the just in higher honour than the unjust, and by pointing out
that the lives of the righteous are richer and less servile than those of
the unrighteous; and this was the position in which she found herself
installed in our household. (14)
(13) Or, "having taken an inventory of the several sets of things."
Cf. "Ages." i. 18; "Cyrop." VII. iv. 12. See Newman, op. cit. i.
171.
(14) Or, "and this was the position in which we presently established
her herself."
And now, on the strength of all that we had done, Socrates (he added), I
addressed my wife, explaining that all these things would fail of use
unless she took in charge herself to see that the order of each several
part was kept. Thereupon I taught her that in every well-constituted city
the citizens are not content merely to pass good laws, but they further
choose them guardians of the laws, (15) whose function as inspectors is to
praise the man whose acts are law-abiding, or to mulct some other who
offends against the law. Accordingly, I bade her believe that she, the
mistress, was herself to play the part of guardian of the laws to her
whole household, examining whenever it seemed good to her, and passing in
review the several chattels, just as the officer in command of a garrison
(16) musters and reviews his men. She must apply her scrutiny and see that
everything was well, even as the Senate (17) tests the condition of the
Knights and of their horses. (18) Like a queen, she must bestow, according
to the power vested in her, praise and honour on the well-deserving, but
blame and chastisement on him who stood in need thereof.
(15) See Plat. "Laws," vi. 755 A, 770 C; Aristot. "Pol." iii. 15, 1287
A; iv. 14, 1298 B; vi. 8, 1323 A; "Ath. Pol." viii. 4; and Cic.
ap. Col. xii. 3. 10 f. Holden cf. Cic. "de Legg." iii. 20, S. 46;
"C. I. G." 3794.
(16) Lit. Phrourarch, "the commandant."
(17) Or, "Council" at Athens.
(18) Cf. "Hipparch." i. 8, 13.
Nor did my lessons end here (added he); I taught her that she must not be
annoyed should I seem to be enjoining upon her more trouble than upon any
of our domestics with regard to our possessions; pointing out to her that
these domestics have only so far a share in their master's chattels that
they must fetch and carry, tend and guard them; nor have they the right to
use a single one of them except the master grant it. But to the master
himself all things pertain to use as he thinks best. And so I pointed the
conclusion: he to whom the greater gain attaches in the preservation of
the property or loss in its destruction, is surely he to whom by right
belongs the larger measure of attention. (19)
(19) Or, "he it is on whom devolves as his concern the duty of
surveillance."
When, then (I asked), Ischomachus, how fared it? was your wife disposed at
all to lend a willing ear to what you told her? (20)
(20) Lit. "when she heard did she give ear at all?"
Bless you, (21) Socrates (he answered), what did she do but forthwith
answer me, I formed a wrong opinion if I fancied that, in teaching her the
need of minding our property, I was imposing a painful task upon her. A
painful task it might have been (22) (she added), had I bade her neglect
her personal concerns! But to be obliged to fulfil the duty of attending
to her own domestic happiness, (23) that was easy. After all it would seem
to be but natural (added he); just as any honest (24) woman finds it
easier to care for her own offspring than to neglect them, so, too, he
could well believe, an honest woman might find it pleasanter to care for
than to neglect possessions, the very charm of which is that they are
one's very own.
(21) Lit. "By Hera!" Cf. the old formula "Marry!" or "By'r lakin!"
(22) Lit. "more painful had it been, had I enjoined her to neglect her
own interests than to be obliged..."
(23) {ton oikeion agathon}, cp. "charity begins at home." See Joel,
op. cit. p. 448.
(24) Or, "true and honest"; "any woman worthy of the name." {sophroni}
= with the {sophrosune} of womanhood; possibly transl. "discreet
and sober-minded."
X
So (continued Socrates), when I heard his wife had made this answer, I
exclaimed: By Hera, Ischomachus, a brave and masculine intelligence the
lady has, as you describe her.
(To which Ischomachus) Yes, Socrates, and I would fain narrate some other
instances of like large-mindedness on her part: shown in the readiness
with which she listened to my words and carried out my wishes.
What sort of thing? (I answered). Do, pray, tell me, since I would far
more gladly learn about a living woman's virtues than that Zeuxis (1)
should show me the portrait of the loveliest woman he has painted.
(1) See "Mem." I. iv. 3.
Whereupon Ischomachus proceeded to narrate as follows: I must tell you,
Socrates, I one day noticed she was much enamelled with white lead, (2) no
doubt to enhance the natural whiteness of her skin; she had rouged herself
with alkanet (3) profusely, doubtless to give more colour to her cheeks
than truth would warrant; she was wearing high-heeled shoes, in order to
seem taller than she was by nature. (4)
(2) Cf. Aristoph. "Eccl." 878; ib. 929, {egkhousa mallon kai to son
psimuthion}: ib. 1072; "Plut." 1064.
(3) Lit. "enamelled or painted with anchusa or alkanet," a plant, the
wild bugloss, whose root yields a red dye. Cf. Aristoph. "Lys."
48; Theophr. "H. Pl." vii. 8. 3.
(4) See Becker, op. cit. p. 452; Breit. cf. "Anab." III. ii. 25;
"Mem." II. i. 22; Aristot. "Eth. Nic." iv. 3, 5, "True beauty
requires a great body."
Accordingly I put to her this question: (5) "Tell me, my wife, would you
esteem me a less lovable co-partner in our wealth, were I to show you how
our fortune stands exactly, without boasting of unreal possessions or
concealing what we really have? Or would you prefer that I should try to
cheat you with exaggeration, exhibiting false money to you, or sham (6)
necklaces, or flaunting purples (7) which will lose their colour, stating
they are genuine the while?"
(5) Lit. "So I said to her, 'Tell me, my wife, after which fashion
would you find me the more delectable partner in our joint estate
—were I to...? or were I to...?'"
(6) Lit. "only wood coated with gold."
(7) See Becker, op. cit. p. 434 f; Holden cf. Athen. ix. 374, xii.
525; Ael. "V. H." xii. 32; Aristoph. "Plut." 533.
She caught me up at once: "Hush, hush!" she said, "talk not such talk. May
heaven forfend that you should ever be like that. I could not love you
with my whole heart were you really of that sort."
"And are we two not come together," I continued, "for a closer
partnership, being each a sharer in the other's body?"
"That, at any rate, is what folk say," she answered.
"Then as regards this bodily relation," I proceeded, "should you regard me
as more lovable or less did I present myself, my one endeavour and my sole
care being that my body should be hale and strong and thereby well
complexioned, or would you have me first anoint myself with pigments, (8)
smear my eyes with patches (9) of 'true flesh colour,' (10) and so seek
your embrace, like a cheating consort presenting to his mistress's sight
and touch vermillion paste instead of his own flesh?"
(8) "Red lead."
(9) Cf. Aristoph. "Ach." 1029.
(10) {andreikelon}. Cf. Plat. "Rep." 501 B, "the human complexion";
"Crat." 424 E.
"Frankly," she answered, "it would not please me better to touch paste
than your true self. Rather would I see your own 'true flesh colour' than
any pigment of that name; would liefer look into your eyes and see them
radiant with health than washed with any wash, or dyed with any ointment
there may be."
"Believe the same, my wife, of me then," Ischomachus continued (so he told
me); "believe that I too am not better pleased with white enamel or with
alkanet than with your own natural hue; but as the gods have fashioned
horses to delight in horses, cattle in cattle, sheep in their fellow
sheep, so to human beings the human body pure and undefiled is sweetest;
(11) and as to these deceits, though they may serve to cheat the outside
world without detection, yet if intimates try to deceive each other, they
must one day be caught; in rising from their beds, before they make their
toilet; by a drop of sweat they stand convicted; tears are an ordeal they
cannot pass; the bath reveals them as they truly are."
(11) See "Mem." II. i. 22.
What answer (said I) did she make, in Heaven's name, to what you said?
What, indeed (replied the husband), save only, that thenceforward she
never once indulged in any practice of the sort, but has striven to
display the natural beauty of her person in its purity. She did, however,
put to me a question: Could I advise her how she might become not in false
show but really fair to look upon?
This, then, was the counsel which I gave her, Socrates: Not to be for ever
seated like a slave; (12) but, with Heaven's help, to assume the attitude
of a true mistress standing before the loom, and where her knowledge gave
her the superiority, bravely to give the aid of her instruction; where her
knowledge failed, as bravely try to learn. I counselled her to oversee the
baking woman as she made the bread; to stand beside the housekeeper as she
measured out her stores; to go tours of inspection to see if all things
were in order as they should be. For, as it seemed to me, this would at
once be walking exercise and supervision. And, as an excellent gymnastic,
I recommended her to knead the dough and roll the paste; to shake the
coverlets and make the beds; adding, if she trained herself in exercise of
this sort she would enjoy her food, grow vigorous in health, and her
complexion would in very truth be lovelier. The very look and aspect of
the wife, the mistress, seen in rivalry with that of her attendants, being
as she is at once more fair (13) and more beautifully adorned, has an
attractive charm, (14) and not the less because her acts are acts of
grace, not services enforced. Whereas your ordinary fine lady, seated in
solemn state, would seem to court comparison with painted counterfeits of
womanhood.
(12) See Becker, p. 491. Breit., etc., cf. Nicostr. ap. Stob. "Tit."
lxxiv. 61.
(13) Lit. "more spotles"; "like a diamond of purest water." Cf.
Shakesp. "Lucr." 394, "whose perfect white Showed like an April
daisy in the grass."
(14) Or, "is wondrous wooing, and all the more with this addition,
hers are acts of grace, theirs services enforced."
And, Socrates, I would have you know that still to-day, my wife is living
in a style as simple as that I taught her then, and now recount to you.
XI
The conversation was resumed as follows: Thanking Ischomachus for what he
had told me about the occupations of his wife; on that side I have heard
enough (I said) perhaps for a beginning; the facts you mention reflect the
greatest credit on both wife and husband; but would you now in turn
describe to me your work and business? In doing so you will have the
pleasure of narrating the reason of your fame. And I, for my part, when I
have heard from end to end the story of a beautiful and good man's works,
if only my wits suffice and I have understood it, shall be much indebted.
Indeed (replied Ischomachus), it will give me the greatest pleasure to
recount to you my daily occupations, and in return I beg you to reform me,
where you find some flaw or other in my conduct. (1)
(1) Lit.『in order that you on your side may correct and set me right
where I seem to you to act amiss.』{metarruthmises}—remodel. Cf.
Aristot. "Nic. Eth." x. 9. 5.
The idea of my reforming you! (I said). How could I with any show of
justice hope to reform you, the perfect model (2) of a beautiful, good man—I,
who am but an empty babbler, (3) and measurer of the air, (4) who have to
bear besides that most senseless imputation of being poor—an
imputation which, I assure you, Ischomachus, would have reduced me to the
veriest despair, except that the other day I chanced to come across the
horse of Nicias, (5) the foreigner? I saw a crowd of people in attendance
staring, and I listened to a story which some one had to tell about the
animal. So then I stepped up boldly to the groom and asked him,﹃Has the
horse much wealth?﹄The fellow looked at me as if I were hardly in my
right mind to put the question, and retorted,﹃How can a horse have
wealth?﹄Thereat I dared to lift my eyes from earth, on learning that
after all it is permitted a poor penniless horse to be a noble animal, if
nature only have endowed him with good spirit. If, therefore, it is
permitted even to me to be a good man, please recount to me your works
from first to last, I promise, I will listen, all I can, and try to
understand, and so far as in me lies to imitate you from to-morrow.
To-morrow is a good day to commence a course of virtue, is it not?
(2) Cf. Plat. "Rep." 566 A, "a tyrant full grown" (Jowett).
(3) Cf. Plat. "Phaed." 70 C; Aristoph. "Clouds," 1480.
(4) Or rather, "a measurer of air"—i.e. devoted not to good sound
solid "geometry," but the unsubstantial science of "aerometry."
See Aristoph. "Clouds," i. 225; Plat. "Apol." 18 B, 19 B; Xen.
"Symp." vi. 7.
(5) Nothing is known of this person.
You are pleased to jest, Socrates (Ischomachus replied), in spite of which
I will recount to you those habits and pursuits by aid of which I seek to
traverse life's course. If I have read aright life's lesson, it has taught
me that, unless a man first discover what he needs to do, and seriously
study to bring the same to good effect, the gods have placed prosperity
(6) beyond his reach; and even to the wise and careful they give or they
withhold good fortune as seemeth to them best. Such being my creed, I
begin with service rendered to the gods; and strive to regulate my conduct
so that grace may be given me, in answer to my prayers, to attain to
health, and strength of body, honour in my own city, goodwill among my
friends, safety with renown in war, and of riches increase, won without
reproach.
(6) "The gods have made well-doing and well-being a thing impossible."
Cf. "Mem." III. ix. 7, 14.
I, when I heard these words, replied: And are you then indeed so careful
to grow rich, Ischomachus?—amassing wealth but to gain endless
trouble in its management?
Most certainly (replied Ischomachus), and most careful must I needs be of
the things you speak of. So sweet I find it, Socrates, to honour God
magnificently, to lend assistance to my friends in answer to their wants,
and, so far as lies within my power, not to leave my city unadorned with
anything which riches can bestow.
Nay (I answered), beautiful indeed the works you speak of, and powerful
the man must be who would essay them. How can it be otherwise, seeing so
many human beings need the help of others merely to carry on existence,
and so many are content if they can win enough to satisfy their wants.
What of those therefore who are able, not only to administer their own
estates, but even to create a surplus sufficient to adorn their city and
relieve the burthen of their friends? Well may we regard such people as
men of substance and capacity. But stay (I added), most of us are
competent to sing the praises of such heroes. What I desire is to hear
from you, Ischomachus, in your own order, (7) first how you study to
preserve your health and strength of body; and next, how it is granted to
you (8) to escape from the perils of war with honour untarnished. And
after that (I added), it will much content me to learn from your own lips
about your money-making.
(7) "And from your own starting-point."
(8) As to the construction {themis einai} see Jebb ad "Oed. Col."
1191, Appendix.
Yes (he answered), and the fact is, Socrates, if I mistake not, all these
matters are in close connection, each depending on the other. Given that a
man have a good meal to eat, he has only to work off the effect by toil
(9) directed rightly; and in the process, if I mistake not, his health
will be confirmed, his strength added to. Let him but practise the arts of
war and in the day of battle he will preserve his life with honour. He
needs only to expend his care aright, sealing his ears to weak and soft
seductions, and his house shall surely be increased. (10)
(9) See "Mem." I. ii. 4; "Cyrop." I. ii. 16. Al. "bring out the effect
of it by toil."
(10) Lit. "it is likely his estate will increase more largely."
I answered: So far I follow you, Ischomachus. You tell me that by
labouring to his full strength, (11) by expending care, by practice and
training, a man may hope more fully to secure life's blessings. So I take
your meaning. But now I fain would learn of you some details. What
particular toil do you impose on yourself in order to secure good health
and strength? After what particular manner do you practise the arts of
war? How do you take pains to create a surplus which will enable you to
benefit your friends and to gratify the state?
(11) Or, "by working off ill-humours," as we should say.
Why then (Ischomachus replied), my habit is to rise from bed betimes, when
I may still expect to find at home this, that, or the other friend, whom I
may wish to see. Then, if anything has to be done in town, I set off to
transact the business and make that my walk; (12) or, if there is no
business to do in town, my serving-boy leads my horse to the farm; I
follow, and so make the country-road my walk, which suits my purpose quite
as well, or better, Socrates, perhaps, than pacing up and down the
colonnade. (13) Then when I have reached the farm, where mayhap some of my
men are planting trees, or breaking fallow, sowing or getting in the
crops, I inspect their various labours with an eye to every detail, and,
whenever I can improve upon the present system, I introduce reform. After
this, as a rule, I mount my horse and take a canter. I put him through his
paces, suiting these, as far as possible, to those inevitable in war (14)—in
other words, I avoid neither steep slope (15) nor sheer incline, neither
trench nor runnel, only giving my utmost heed the while so as not to lame
my horse while exercising him. When that is over, the boy gives the horse
a roll, (16) and leads him homewards, taking at the same time from the
country to town whatever we may chance to need. Meanwhile I am off for
home, partly walking, partly running, and having reached home I take a
bath and give myself a rub; (17) and then I breakfast—a repast which
leaves me neither empty nor replete, (18) and will suffice to last me
through the day.
(12) See "Mem." III. xiii. 5.
(13) {xusto}—the xystus,『a covered corridor in the gymnasium where
the athletes exercised in winter.』Vitruv. v. 11. 4; vi. 7. 5. See
Rich, "Companion," s.n.; Becker, op. cit. p. 309. Cf. Plat.
"Phaedr." 227—Phaedrus loq.: "I have come from Lysias the son of
Cephalus, and I am going to take a walk outside the wall, for I
have been sitting with him the whole morning; and our common
friend Acumenus advises me to walk in the country, which he says
is more invigorating than to walk in the courts."—Jowett.
(14) See "Horsemanship," iii. 7 foll.; ib. viii.; "Hipparch," i. 18.
(15) "Slanting hillside."
(16) See "Horsemanship," v. 3; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32.
(17) Lit. "scrape myself clean" (with the {stleggis} or strigil). Cf.
Aristoph. "Knights," 580. See Becker, op. cit. p. 150.
(18) See "Lac. Pol." ii. 5. Cf. Hor. "Sat." i. 6. 127:
pransus non avide, quantum interpellet inani ventre diem durare.
Then eat a temperate luncheon, just to stay A sinking stomach till the
close of day (Conington).
By Hera (I replied), Ischomachus, I cannot say how much your doings take
my fancy. How you have contrived, to pack up portably for use—together
at the same time—appliances for health and recipes for strength,
exercises for war, and pains to promote your wealth! My admiration is
raised at every point. That you do study each of these pursuits in the
right way, you are yourself a standing proof. Your look of heaven-sent
health and general robustness we note with our eyes, while our ears have
heard your reputation as a first-rate horseman and the wealthiest of men.
Isch. Yes, Socrates, such is my conduct, in return for which I am rewarded
with—the calumnies of half the world. You thought, I daresay, I was
going to end my sentence different, and say that a host of people have
given me the enviable title "beautiful and good."
I was indeed myself about to ask, Ischomachus (I answered), whether you
take pains also to acquire skill in argumentative debate, the cut and
thrust and parry of discussion, (19) should occasion call?
(19) Lit. "to give a reason and to get a reason from others." Cf.
"Cyrop." I. iv. 3.
Isch. Does it not strike you rather, Socrates, that I am engaged in one
long practice of this very skill, (20) now pleading as defendant that, as
far as I am able, I do good to many and hurt nobody? And then, again, you
must admit, I play the part of prosecutor when accusing people whom I
recognise to be offenders, as a rule in private life, or possibly against
the state, the good-for-nothing fellows?
(20) "The arts of the defendant, the apologist; and of the plaintiff,
the prosecutor."
But please explain one other thing, Ischomachus (I answered). Do you put
defence and accusation into formal language? (21)
(21)『Does your practice include the art of translating into words
your sentiments?』Cf. "Mem." I. ii. 52.
Isch. "Formal language," say you, Socrates? The fact is, I never cease to
practise speaking; and on this wise: Some member of my household has some
charge to bring, or some defence to make, (22) against some other. I have
to listen and examine. I must try to sift the truth. Or there is some one
whom I have to blame or praise before my friends, or I must arbitrate
between some close connections and endeavour to enforce the lesson that it
is to their own interests to be friends not foes. (23)... We are present
to assist a general in court; (24) we are called upon to censure some one;
or defend some other charged unjustly; or to prosecute a third who has
received an honour which he ill deserves. It frequently occurs in our
debates (25) that there is some course which we strongly favour: naturally
we sound its praises; or some other, which we disapprove of: no less
naturally we point out its defects.
(22) Or, "One member of my household appears as plaintiff, another as
defendant. I must listen and cross-question."
(23) The "asyndeton" would seem to mark a pause, unless some words
have dropped out. See the commentators ad loc.
(24) The scene is perhaps that of a court-martial (cf. "Anab." V.
viii.; Dem. "c. Timocr." 749. 16). (Al. cf. Sturz, "Lex." s.v. "we
are present (as advocates) and censure some general"), or more
probably, I think, that of a civil judicial inquiry of some sort,
conducted at a later date by the Minister of Finance ({to stratego
to epi tas summorias eremeno}).
(25) Or, "Or again, a frequent case, we sit in council" (as members of
the Boule). See Aristot. "Pol." iv. 15.
He paused, then added: Things have indeed now got so far, Socrates, that
several times I have had to stand my trial and have judgment passed upon
me in set terms, what I must pay or what requital I must make. (26)
(26) See "Symp." v. 8. Al. {dielemmenos} = "to be taken apart and have
..."
And at whose bar (I asked) is the sentence given? That point I failed to
catch. (27)
(27) Or, "so dull was I, I failed to catch the point."
Whose but my own wife's? (he answered).
And, pray, how do you conduct your own case? (I asked). (28)
(28) See "Mem." III. vii. 4; Plat. "Euth." 3 E.
Not so ill (he answered), when truth and interest correspond, but when
they are opposed, Socrates, I have no skill to make the worse appear the
better argument. (29)
(29) See Plat. "Apol." 19-23 D; Aristoph. "Clouds," 114 foll.
Perhaps you have no skill, Ischomachus, to make black white or falsehood
truth (said I). (30)
(30) Or,『It may well be, Ischomachus, you cannot manufacture
falsehood into truth.』Lit. "Like enough you cannot make an
untruth true."
XII
But (I continued presently), perhaps I am preventing you from going, as
you long have wished to do, Ischomachus?
To which he: By no means, Socrates. I should not think of going away until
the gathering in the market is dispersed. (1)
(1) Lit. "until the market is quite broken up," i.e. after mid-day.
See "Anab." I. viii. 1; II. i. 7; "Mem." I. i. 10. Cf. Herod. ii.
173; iii. 104; vii. 223.
Of course, of course (I answered), you are naturally most careful not to
forfeit the title they have given you of "honest gentleman"; (2) and yet,
I daresay, fifty things at home are asking your attention at this moment;
only you undertook to meet your foreign friends, and rather than play them
false you go on waiting.
(2) Lit. "beautiful and good."
Isch. Let me so far correct you, Socrates; in no case will the things you
speak of be neglected, since I have stewards and bailiffs (3) on the
farms.
(3) Cf. Becker, op. cit. p. 363.
Soc. And, pray, what is your system when you need a bailiff? Do you search
about, until you light on some one with a natural turn for stewardship;
and then try to purchase him?—as, I feel certain, happens when you
want a carpenter: first, you discover some one with a turn for carpentry,
and then do all you can to get possession of him. (4) Or do you educate
your bailiffs yourself?
(4) The steward, like the carpenter, and the labourers in general,
would, as a rule, be a slave. See below, xxi. 9.
Isch. Most certainly the latter, Socrates; I try to educate them, as you
say, myself; and with good reason. He who is properly to fill my place and
manage my affairs when I am absent, my "alter ego," (5) needs but to have
my knowledge; and if I am fit myself to stand at the head of my own
business, I presume I should be able to put another in possession of my
knowledge. (6)
(5) Or, "my other self."
(6) Lit. "to teach another what I know myself."
Soc. Well then, the first thing he who is properly to take your place when
absent must possess is goodwill towards you and yours; for without
goodwill, what advantage will there be in any knowledge whatsoever which
your bailiff may possess?
Isch. None, Socrates; and I may tell you that a kindly disposition towards
me and mine is precisely what I first endeavour to instil.
Soc. And how, in the name of all that is holy, do you pick out whom you
will and teach him to have kindly feeling towards yourself and yours?
Isch. By kindly treatment of him, to be sure, whenever the gods bestow
abundance of good things upon us.
Soc. If I take your meaning rightly, you would say that those who enjoy
your good things grow well disposed to you and seek to render you some
good?
Isch. Yes, for of all instruments to promote good feeling this I see to be
the best.
Soc. Well, granted the man is well disposed to you does it therefore
follow, Ischomachus, that he is fit to be your bailiff? It cannot have
escaped your observation that albeit human beings, as a rule, are kindly
disposed towards themselves, yet a large number of them will not apply the
attention requisite to secure for themselves those good things which they
fain would have.
Isch. Yes, but believe me, Socrates, when I seek to appoint such men as
bailiffs, I teach them also carefulness and application. (7)
(7) {epimeleia} is a cardinal virtue with the Greeks, or at any rate
with Xenophon, but it has no single name in English.
Soc. Nay, now in Heaven's name, once more, how can that be? I always
thought it was beyond the power of any teacher to teach these virtues. (8)
(8) For the Socratic problem {ei arete didakte} see Grote, "H. G."
viii. 599.
Isch. Nor is it possible, you are right so far, to teach such excellences
to every single soul in order as simply as a man might number off his
fingers.
Soc. Pray, then, what sort of people have the privilege? (9) Should you
mind pointing them out to me with some distinctness?
(9) Lit. "what kind of people can be taught them? By all means signify
the sort to me distinctly."
Ishc. Well, in the first place, you would have some difficulty in making
intemperate people diligent—I speak of intemperance with regard to
wine, for drunkenness creates forgetfulness of everything which needs to
be done.
Soc. And are persons devoid of self-control in this respect the only
people incapable of diligence and carefulness? or are there others in like
case?
Isch. Certainly, people who are intemperate with regard to sleep, seeing
that the sluggard with his eyes shut cannot do himself or see that others
do what is right.
Soc. What then? (10) Are we to regard these as the only people incapable
of being taught this virtue of carefulness? or are there others in a like
condition?
(10) Or, "What then—is the list exhausted? Are we to suppose that
these are the sole people..."
Isch. Surely we must include the slave to amorous affection. (11) Your
woeful lover (12) is incapable of being taught attention to anything
beyond one single object. (13) No light task, I take it, to discover any
hope or occupation sweeter to him than that which now employs him, his
care for his beloved, nor, when the call for action comes, (14) will it be
easy to invent worse punishment than that he now endures in separation
from the object of his passion. (15) Accordingly, I am in no great hurry
to appoint a person of this sort to manage (16) my affairs; the very
attempt to do so I regard as futile.
(11) See "Mem." I. iii. 8 foll.; II. vi. 22.
(12) {duserotes}. Cf. Thuc. vi. 13, "a desperate craving" (Jowett).
(13) Cf. "Symp." iv. 21 foll.; "Cyrop." V. i. 7-18.
(14) Or, "where demands of business present themselves, and something
must be done."
(15) Cf. Shakesp. "Sonnets," passim.
(16) Or, "I never dream of appointing as superintendent." See above,
iv. 7.
Soc. Well, and what of those addicted to another passion, that of gain?
Are they, too, incapable of being trained to give attention to field and
farming operations?
Isch. On the contrary, there are no people easier to train, none so
susceptible of carefulness in these same matters. One needs only to point
out to them that the pursuit is gainful, and their interest is aroused.
Soc. But for ordinary people? Given they are self-controlled to suit your
bidding, (17) given they possess a wholesome appetite for gain, how will
you lesson them in carefulness? how teach them growth in diligence to meet
your wishes?
(17) Or, "in matters such as you insist on."
Isch. By a simple method, Socrates. When I see a man intent on
carefulness, I praise and do my best to honour him. When, on the other
hand, I see a man neglectful of his duties, I do not spare him: I try in
every way, by word and deed, to wound him.
Soc. Come now, Ischomachus, kindly permit a turn in the discussion, which
has hitherto concerned the persons being trained to carefulness
themselves, and explain a point in reference to the training process. Is
it possible for a man devoid of carefulness himself to render others more
careful?
No more possible (he answered) than for a man who knows no music to make
others musical. (18) If the teacher sets but an ill example, the pupil can
hardly learn to do the thing aright. (19) And if the master's conduct is
suggestive of laxity, how hardly shall his followers attain to
carefulness! Or to put the matter concisely, "like master like man." I do
not think I ever knew or heard tell of a bad master blessed with good
servants. The converse I certainly have seen ere now, a good master and
bad servants; but they were the sufferers, not he. (20) No, he who would
create a spirit of carefulness in others (21) must have the skill himself
to supervise the field of labour; to test, examine, scrutinise. (22) He
must be ready to requite where due the favour of a service well performed,
nor hesitate to visit the penalty of their deserts upon those neglectful
of their duty. (23) Indeed (he added), the answer of the barbarian to the
king seems aposite. You know the story, (24) how the king had met with a
good horse, but wished to give the creature flesh and that without delay,
and so asked some one reputed to be clever about horses:﹃What will give
him flesh most quickly?﹄To which the other: "The master's eye." So, too,
it strikes me, Socrates, there is nothing like "the master's eye" to call
forth latent qualities, and turn the same to beautiful and good effect.
(25)
(18) Or, "to give others skill in 'music.'" See Plat. "Rep." 455 E;
"Laws," 802 B. Al.『a man devoid of letters to make others
scholarly.』See Plat. "Phaedr." 248 D.
(19) Lit.『when the teacher traces the outline of the thing to copy
badly.』For {upodeiknuontos} see "Mem." IV. iii. 13; "Horsem." ii.
2. Cf. Aristot. "Oecon." i. 6; "Ath. Pol." 41. 17; and Dr. Sandys'
note ad loc.
(20) Or, "but they did not go scot-free"; "punishments then were
rife."
(21) Cf. Plat. "Polit." 275 E: "If we say either tending the herds, or
managing the herds, or having the care of them, that will include
all, and then we may wrap up the statesman with the rest, as the
argument seems to require."—Jowett.
(22) Or, "he must have skill to over-eye the field of labour, and be
scrutinous."
(23)『For every boon of service well performed he must be eager to
make requital to the author of it, nor hesitate to visit on the
heads of those neglectful of their duty a just recompense.』(The
language is poetical.)
(24) See Aristot. "Oecon." i. 6; Aesch. "Pers." 165; Cato ap. Plin.
"H. N." xviii. 5. Cic. ap. Colum. iv. 18; ib. vi. 21; La Fontaine,
"L'Oeil du Maitre."
(25) Or, "so, too, in general it seems to me 'the master's eye' is
aptest to elicit energy to issue beautiful and good."
XIII
But now (I ventured), suppose you have presented strongly to the mind of
some one (1) the need of carefulness to execute your wishes, is a person
so qualified to be regarded as fit at once to be your bailiff? or is there
aught else which he must learn in order to play the part of an efficient
bailiff?
(1) Breit. cf. "Pol. Lac." xv. 8. Holden cf. Plat. "Rep." 600 C.
Most certainly there is (he answered): it still remains for him to learn
particulars—to know, that is, what things he has to do, and when and
how to do them; or else, if ignorant of these details, the profit of this
bailiff in the abstract may prove no greater than the doctor's who pays a
most precise attention to a sick man, visiting him late and early, but
what will serve to ease his patient's pains (2) he knows not.
(2) Lit. "what it is to the advantage of his patient to do, is beyond
his ken."
Soc. But suppose him to have learnt the whole routine of business, will he
need aught else, or have we found at last your bailiff absolute? (3)
(3) Cf. Plat. "Rep." 566 D. Or, "the perfect and consummate type of
bailiff."
Isch. He must learn at any rate, I think, to rule his fellow-workmen.
What! (I exclaimed): you mean to say you educate your bailiffs to that
extent? Actually you make them capable of rule?
At any rate I try to do so (he replied).
And how, in Heaven's name (I asked), do you contrive to educate another in
the skill to govern human beings?
Isch. I have a very simple system, Socrates; so simple, I daresay, you
will simply laugh at me.
Soc. The matter, I protest, is hardly one for laughter. The man who can
make another capable of rule, clearly can teach him how to play the
master; and if can make him play the master, he can make him what is
grander still, a kingly being. (4) Once more, therefore, I protest: A man
possessed of such creative power is worthy, not of ridicule, far from it,
but of the highest praise.
(4) i.e. {arkhikos} includes (1) {despotikos}, i.e. an arbitrary head
of any sort, from the master of one's own family to the {turannos
kai despotes} (Plat. "Laws," 859 A), despotic lord or owner; (2)
{basilikos}, the king or monarch gifted with regal qualities.
Thus, then, I reason, (5) Socrates (he answered): The lower animals are
taught obedience by two methods chiefly, partly through being punished
when they make attempts to disobey, partly by experiencing some kindness
when they cheerfully submit. This is the principle at any rate adopted in
the breaking of young horses. The animal obeys its trainer, and something
sweet is sure to follow; or it disobeys, and in place of something sweet
it finds a peck of trouble; and so on, until it comes at last to yield
obedience to the trainer's every wish. Or to take another instance: Young
dogs, (6) however far inferior to man in thought and language, (7) can
still be taught to run on errands and turn somersaults, (8) and do a host
of other clever things, precisely on this same principle of training.
Every time the animal obeys it gets something or other which it wanted,
and every time it misbehaves it gets a whipping. But when it comes to
human beings: in man you have a creature still more open to persuasion
through appeals to reason; (9) only make it plain to him﹃it is his
interest to obey.﹄Or if they happen to be slaves, (10) the more ignoble
training of wild animals tamed to the lure will serve to teach obedience.
Only gratify their bellies in the matter of appetite, and you will succeed
in winning much from them. (11) But ambitious, emulous natures feel the
spur of praise, (12) since some natures hunger after praise no less than
others crave for meats and drinks. My practice then is to instruct those
whom I desire to appoint as my bailiffs in the various methods which I
have found myself to be successful in gaining the obedience of my fellows.
To take an instance: There are clothes and shows and so forth, with which
I must provide my workfolk. (13) Well, then, I see to it that these are
not all alike in make; (14) but some will be of better, some of less good
quality: my object being that these articles for use shall vary with the
service of the wearer; the worse man will receive the worse things as a
gift, the better man the better as a mark of honour. For I ask you,
Socrates, how can the good avoid despondency seeing that the work is
wrought by their own hands alone, in spite of which these villains who
will neither labour nor face danger when occasion calls are to receive an
equal guerdon with themselves? And just as I cannot bring myself in any
sort of way to look upon the better sort as worthy to receive no greater
honour than the baser, so, too, I praise my bailiffs when I know they have
apportioned the best things among the most deserving. And if I see that
some one is receiving preference by dint of flatteries or like unworthy
means, I do not let the matter pass; I reprimand my bailiff roundly, and
so teach him that such conduct is not even to his interest.
(5) {oukoun}. "This, then, is my major premiss: the dumb animal..."
(lit. "the rest of animals").
(6) {ta kunidia} possibly implies "performing poodles."
(7) {te gnome... te glotte}, i.e. mental impression and expression,
"mind and tongue."
(8) Or, "to run round and round and turn heels over head." Al. "dive
for objects."
(9) "Logic, argument." Or, "a creature more compliant; merely by a
word demonstrate to him..."
(10) Cf. Plat. "Rep." 591 C.
(11) See Pater, "Plato and Platonism," "Lacedaemon," p. 196 foll.
(12) See "Cyrop." passim.
(13) {ergastersi}, Xenophontic for the common Attic {ergatais}. See
Hold. ad loc. for similar forms, and cf. Rutherford,『New
Phrynichus,』59.
(14) Cf. Aristot. "Oecon." i. 5 (where the thesis is developed
further).
XIV
Soc. Well, then, Ischomachus, supposing the man is now so fit to rule that
he can compel obedience, (1) is he, I ask once more, your bailiff
absolute? or even though possessed of all the qualifications you have
named, does he still lack something? (2)
(1) Or, "that discipline flows from him;" al. "he presents you with
obedient servants."
(2) Lit. "will he still need something further to complete him?"
Most certainly (replied Ischomachus). One thing is still required of him,
and that is to hold aloof from property and goods which are his master's;
he must not steal. Consider, this is the very person through whose hands
the fruits and produce pass, and he has the audacity to make away with
them! perhaps he does not leave enough to cover the expenses of the
farming operations! Where would be the use of farming the land by help of
such an overseer?
What (I exclaimed), can I believe my ears? You actually undertake to teach
them virtue! What really, justice!
Isch. To be sure, I do. but it does not follow therefore that I find all
equally apt to lend an ear to my instruction. However, what I do is this.
I take a leaf now out of the laws of Draco and again another out of the
laws of Solon, (3) and so essay to start my household on the path of
uprightness. And indeed, if I mistake not (he proceeded), both those
legislators enacted many of their laws expressly with a view to teaching
this branch of justice. (4) It is written, "Let a man be punished for a
deed of theft"; "Let whosoever is detected in the act be bound and thrown
in prison"; "If he offer violence, (5) let him be put to death." It is
clear that the intention of the lawgivers in framing these enactments was
to render the sordid love of gain (6) devoid of profit to the unjust
person. What I do, therefore, is to cull a sample of their precepts, which
I supplement with others from the royal code (7) where applicable; and so
I do my best to shape the members of my household into the likeness of
just men concerning that which passes through their hands. And now observe—the
laws first mentioned act as penalties, deterrent to transgressors only;
whereas the royal code aims higher: by it not only is the malefactor
punished, but the righteous and just person is rewarded. (8) The result
is, that many a man, beholding how the just grow ever wealthier than the
unjust, albeit harbouring in his heart some covetous desires, is constant
still to virtue. To abstain from unjust dealing is engrained in him. (9)
(3) Cobet, "Pros. Xen." cf. Plut. "Solon," xvii. {proton men oun tous
Drakontos nomous aneile k.t.l.}『First, then, he repealed all
Draco's laws, except those concerning homicide, because they were
too severe and the punishments too great; for death was appointed
for almost all offences, insomuch that those that were convicted
of idleness were to die, and those that stole a cabbage or an
apple to suffer even as villains that committed sacrilege or
murder』(Clough, i. 184). See Aul. Gell. "N. A." xi. 13.
(4) "The branch of justice which concerns us, viz. righteous dealing
between man and man."
(5) For this sense of {tous egkheirountas} cf. Thuc. iv. 121; "Hell."
IV. v. 16. Al. {dedesthai tous egkheirountas kai thanatousthai en
tis alo poion} (Weiske), "let the attempt be punished with
imprisonment"; "let him who is caught in the act be put to death."
(6) Cf. Plat. "Laws," 754 E.
(7) Or, "the royal laws," i.e. of Persia. Cf. "Anab." I. ix. 16;
"Cyrop." I. ii. 2, 3. Or possibly = "regal"; cf. Plat. "Minos,"
317 C; {to men orthon nomos esti basilikos}.
(8) Lit. "benefited."
(9) Lit. "Whereby, beholding the just becoming wealthier than the
unjust, many albeit covetous at heart themselves most constantly
abide by abstinence from evil-doing."
Those of my household (he proceeded) whom, in spite of kindly treatment, I
perceive to be persistently bent on evil-doing, in the end I treat as
desperate cases. Incurable self-seekers, (10) plain enough to see, whose
aspiration lifts them from earth, so eager are they to be reckoned just
men, not by reason only of the gain derivable from justice, but through
passionate desire to deserve my praise—these in the end I treat as
free-born men. I make them wealthy, and not with riches only, but in
honour, as befits their gentle manliness. (11) For if, Socrates, there be
one point in which the man who thirsts for honour differs from him who
thirsts for gain, it is, I think, in willingness to toil, face danger, and
abstain from shameful gains—for the sake of honour only and fair
fame. (12)
(10) Lit. "Those, on the other hand, whom I discover to be roused" (to
honesty—not solely because honesty is the best policy).
(11) Or, "men of fair and noble type"; "true gentlemen." This passage
suggests the "silver lining to the cloud" of slavery.
(12) Cf. Hom. "Il." ix. 413, {oleto men moi nostos, atar kleos
aphthiton estai}, "but my fame shall be imperishable."
XV
Soc. But now, suppose, Ischomachus, you have created in the soul of some
one a desire for your welfare; have inspired in him not a mere passive
interest, but a deep concern to help you to achieve prosperity; further,
you have obtained for him a knowledge of the methods needed to give the
operations of the field some measure of success; you have, moreover, made
him capable of ruling; and, as the crowning point of all your efforts,
this same trusty person shows no less delight, than you might take
yourself, in laying at your feet (1) earth's products, each in due season
richly harvested—I need hardly ask concerning such an one, whether
aught else is lacking to him. It is clear to me (2) an overseer of this
sort would be worth his weight in gold. But now, Ischomachus, I would have
you not omit a topic somewhat lightly handled by us in the previous
argument. (3)
(1) {apodeiknuon}, i.e. in presenting the inventory of products for
the year. Cf. "Hell." V. iii. 17; "Revenues," ii. 7.
(2) {ede}, at this stage of the discussion.
(3) Or,『that part of the discussion which we ran over in a light and
airy fashion,』in reference to xiii. 2.
What topic, pray, was that? (he asked).
Soc. You said, if I mistake not, that it was most important to learn the
methods of conducting the several processes of husbandry; for, you added,
unless a man knows what things he has to do and how to do them, all the
care and diligence in the world will stand him in no stead.
At this point (4) he took me up, observing: So what you now command me is
to teach the art itself of tillage, Socrates?
(4) Keeping the vulg. order of SS. 3-9, which many commentators would
rearrange in various ways. See Breit. ad loc.; Lincke, op. cit. p.
111 foll.
Yes (I replied), for now it looks as if this art were one which made the
wise and skilled possessor of it wealthy, whilst the unskilled, in spite
of all the pains he takes, must live in indigence.
Isch. Now shall you hear, then, (5) Socrates, the generous nature of this
human art. For is it not a proof of something noble in it, that being of
supreme utility, so sweet a craft to exercise, so rich in beauty, so
acceptable alike to gods and men, the art of husbandry may further fairly
claim to be the easiest of all the arts to learn? Noble I name it! this,
at any rate, the epithet we give to animals which, being beautiful and
large and useful, are also gentle towards the race of man. (6)
(5) Or, "Listen, then, and whilst I recount to you at once the
loving-kindness of this art, to man the friendliest."
(6) Schenkl regards this sentence as an interpolation. For the epithet
{gennaios} applied to the dog see "Cyrop." I. iv. 15, 21;
"Hunting," iv. 7.
Allow me to explain, Ischomachus (I interposed). Up to a certain point I
fully followed what you said. I understand, according to your theory, how
a bailiff must be taught. In other words, I follow your descriptions both
as to how you make him kindly disposed towards yourself; and how, again,
you make him careful, capable of rule, and upright. But at that point you
made the statement that, in order to apply this diligence to tillage
rightly, the careful husbandman must further learn what are the different
things he has to do, and not alone what things he has to do, but how and
when to do them. These are the topics which, in my opinion, have hitherto
been somewhat lightly handled in the argument. Let me make my meaning
clearer by an instance: it is as if you were to tell me that, in order to
be able to take down a speech in writing, (7) or to read a written
statement, a man must know his letters. Of course, if not stone deaf, I
must have garnered that for a certain object knowledge of letters was
important to me, but the bare recognition of the fact, I fear, would not
enable me in any deeper sense to know my letters. So, too, at present I am
easily persuaded that if I am to direct my care aright in tillage I must
have a knowledge of the art of tillage. But the bare recognition of the
fact does not one whit provide me with the knowledge how I ought to till.
And if I resolved without ado to set about the work of tilling, I imagine,
I should soon resemble your physician going on his rounds and visiting his
patients without knowing what to prescribe or what to do to ease their
sufferings. To save me from the like predicaments, please teach me the
actual work and processes of tillage.
(7) Or, "something from dictation."
Isch. But truly, (8) Socrates, it is not with tillage as with the other
arts, where the learner must be well-nigh crushed (9) beneath a load of
study before his prentice-hand can turn out work of worth sufficient
merely to support him. (10) The art of husbandry, I say, is not so ill to
learn and cross-grained; but by watching labourers in the field, by
listening to what they say, you will have straightway knowledge enough to
teach another, should the humour take you. I imagine, Socrates (he added),
that you yourself, albeit quite unconscious of the fact, already know a
vast amount about the subject. The fact is, other craftsmen (the race, I
mean, in general of artists) are each and all disposed to keep the most
important (11) features of their several arts concealed: with husbandry it
is different. Here the man who has the most skill in planting will take
most pleasure in being watched by others; and so too the most skilful
sower. Ask any question you may choose about results thus beautifully
wrought, and not one feature in the whole performance will the doer of it
seek to keep concealed. To such height of nobleness (he added), Socrates,
does husbandry appear, like some fair mistress, to conform the soul and
disposition of those concerned with it.
(8) "Nay, if you will but listen, Socrates, with husbandry it is not
the same as with the other arts."
(9) {katatribenai}, "worn out." See "Mem." III. iv. 1; IV. vii. 5. Al.
"bored to death."
(10) Or, "before the products of his pupilage are worth his keep."
(11) Or, "critical and crucial."
The proem (12) to the speech is beautiful at any rate (I answered), but
hardly calculated to divert the hearer from the previous question. A thing
so easy to be learnt, you say? then, if so, do you be all the readier for
that reason to explain its details to me. No shame on you who teach, to
teach these easy matters; but for me to lack the knowledge of them, and
most of all if highly useful to the learner, worse than shame, a scandal.
(12) Or, "the prelude to the piece."
XVI
Isch. First then, Socrates, I wish to demonstrate to you that what is
called (1) "the intricate variety in husbandry" (2) presents no
difficulty. I use a phrase of those who, whatever the nicety with which
they treat the art in theory, (3) have but the faintest practical
experience of tillage. What they assert is, that "he who would rightly
till the soil must first be made acquainted with the nature of the earth."
(1) "They term"; in reference to the author of some treatise.
(2) Or, "the riddling subtlety of tillage." See "Mem." II. iii. 10;
Plat. "Symp." 182 B; "Phileb." 53 E.
(3) Theophr. "De Caus." ii. 4, 12, mentions Leophanes amongst other
writers on agriculture preceding himself.
And they are surely right in their assertion (I replied); for he who does
not know what the soil is capable of bearing, can hardly know, I fancy,
what he has to plant or what to sow.
But he has only to look at his neighbour's land (he answered), at his
crops and trees, in order to learn what the soil can bear and what it
cannot. (4) After which discovery, it is ill work fighting against heaven.
Certainly not by dint of sowing and planting what he himself desires will
he meet the needs of life more fully than by planting and sowing what the
earth herself rejoices to bear and nourish on her bosom. Or if, as well
may be the case, through the idleness of those who occupy it, the land
itself cannot display its native faculty, (5) it is often possible to
derive a truer notion from some neighbouring district that ever you will
learn about it from your neighbour's lips. (6) Nay, even though the earth
lie waste and barren, it may still declare its nature; since a soil
productive of beautiful wild fruits can by careful tending be made to
yield fruits of the cultivated kind as beautiful. And on this wise, he who
has the barest knowledge (7) of the art of tillage can still discern the
nature of the soil.
(4) Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." i. 53; iv. 109. According to the
commentator Servius, the poet drew largely upon Xenophon's
treatise.
(5) Or, "cannot prove its natural aptitude."
(6) Or, "from a neighbouring mortal."
(7) Or, "a mere empiric in the art of husbandry."
Thank you (I said), Ischomachus, my courage needs no further fanning upon
that score. I am bold enough now to believe that no one need abstain from
agriculture for fear he will not recognise the nature of the soil. Indeed,
I now recall to mind a fact concerning fishermen, how as they ply their
business on the seas, not crawling lazily along, nor bringing to, for
prospect's sake, but in the act of scudding past the flying farmsteads,
(8) these brave mariners have only to set eyes upon crops on land, and
they will boldly pronounce opinion on the nature of the soil itself,
whether good or bad: this they blame and that they praise. And these
opinions for the most part coincide, I notice, with the verdict of the
skilful farmer as to quality of soil. (9)
(8) Or, "the flying coastland, fields and farmyards."
(9) Lit. "And indeed the opinions they pronounce about 'a good soil'
mostly tally with the verdict of the expert farmer."
Isch. At what point shall I begin then, Socrates, to revive your
recollection (10) of the art of husbandry? since to explain to you the
processes employed in husbandry means the statement of a hundred details
which you know yourself full well already.
(10) Or, "begin recalling to your mind." See Plat. "Meno," for the
doctrine of Anamensis here apparently referred to.
Soc. The first thing I should like to learn, Ischomachus, I think, if only
as a point befitting a philosopher, is this: how to proceed and how to
work the soil, did I desire to extract the largest crops of wheat and
barley.
Isch. Good, then! you are aware that fallow must be broken up in readiness
(11) for sowing?
(11) Or, "ploughed up." Cf. Theophr. "Hist. Pl." iii. i. 6; Dion. Hal.
"Ant." x. 17.
Soc. Yes, I am aware of that.
Isch. Well then, supposing we begin to plough our land in winter?
Soc. It would not do. There would be too much mud.
Isch. Well then, what would you say to summer?
Soc. The soil will be too hard in summer for a plough and a pair of oxen
to break up.
Isch. It looks as if spring-time were the season to begin this work, then?
What do you say?
Soc. I say, one may expect the soil broken up at that season of the year
to crumble (12) best.
(12) {kheisthai} = laxari, dissolvi, to be most friable, to scatter
readily.
Isch. Yes, and grasses (13) turned over at that season, Socrates, serve to
supply the soil already with manure; while as they have not shed their
seed as yet, they cannot vegetate. (14) I am supposing that you recognise
a further fact: to form good land, a fallow must be clean and clear of
undergrowth and weeds, (15) and baked as much as possible by exposure to
the sun. (16)
(13) "Herbage," whether grass or other plants, "grass," "clover," etc;
Theophr. "Hist. Pl." i. 3. 1; Holden, "green crops."
(14) Lit. "and not as yet have shed their seed so as to spring into
blade."
(15) Or, "quitch."
(16) Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." i. 65, coquat; ii. 260, excoquere. So
Lucr. vi. 962.
Soc. Yes, that is quite a proper state of things, I should imagine.
Isch. And to bring about this proper state of things, do you maintain
there can be any other better system than that of turning the soil over as
many times as possible in summer?
Soc. On the contrary, I know precisely that for either object, whether to
bring the weeds and quitch grass to the surface and to wither them by
scorching heat, or to expose the earth itself to the sun's baking rays,
there can be nothing better than to plough the soil up with a pair of oxen
during mid-day in midsummer.
Isch. And if a gang of men set to, to break and make this fallow with the
mattock, it is transparent that their business is to separate the quitch
grass from the soil and keep them parted?
Soc. Just so!—to throw the quitch grass down to wither on the
surface, and to turn the soil up, so that the crude earth may have its
turn of baking.
XVII
You see, Socrates (he said, continuing the conversation), we hold the same
opinion, both of us, concerning fallow.
Why, so it seems (I said)—the same opinion.
Isch. But when it comes to sowing, what is your opinion? Can you suggest a
better time for sowing than that which the long experience of former
generations, combined with that of men now living, recognises as the best?
See, so soon as autumn time has come, the faces of all men everywhere turn
with a wistful gaze towards high heaven.﹃When will God moisten the
earth,﹄they ask, "and suffer men to sow their seed?" (1)
(1) See Dr. Holden's interesting note at this point:『According to
Virgil ('Georg.' i. 215), spring is the time,』etc.
Yes, Ischomachus (I answered), for all mankind must recognise the precept:
(2) "Sow not on dry soil" (if it can be avoided), being taught wisdom
doubtless by the heavy losses they must struggle with who sow before God's
bidding.
(2) Or, "it is a maxim held of all men."
Isch. It seems, then, you and I and all mankind hold one opinion on these
matters?
Soc. Why, yes; where God himself is teacher, such accord is apt to follow;
for instance, all men are agreed, it is better to wear thick clothes (3)
in winter, if so be they can. We light fires by general consent, provided
we have logs to burn.
(3) Or, "a thick cloak." See Rich, s.v. Pallium (= {imation}).
Yet as regards this very period of seed-time (he made answer), Socrates,
we find at once the widest difference of opinion upon one point; as to
which is better, the early, or the later, (4) or the middle sowing?
(4) See Holden ad loc. Sauppe, "Lex. Xen.," notes {opsimos} as Ionic
and poet. See also Rutherford, "New Phryn." p. 124: "First met
with in a line of the 'Iliad' (ii. 325), {opsimos} does not appear
till late Greek except in the 'Oeconomicus,' a disputed work of
Xenophon."
Soc. Just so, for neither does God guide the year in one set fashion, but
irregularly, now suiting it to early sowing best, and now to middle, and
again to later.
Isch. But what, Socrates, is your opinion? Were it better for a man to
choose and turn to sole account a single sowing season, be it much he has
to sow or be it little? or would you have him begin his sowing with the
earliest season, and sow right on continuously until the latest?
And I, in my turn, answered: I should think it best, Ischomachus, to use
indifferently the whole sowing season. (5) Far better (6) to have enough
of corn and meal at any moment and from year to year, than first a
superfluity and then perhaps a scant supply.
(5) Or, "share in the entire period of seed time." Zeune cf. "Geop."
ii. 14. 8; Mr. Ruskin's translators, "Bibl. Past." vol. i.; cf.
Eccles. xi. 6.
(6) Lit. "according to my tenet," {nomizo}.
Isch. Then, on this point also, Socrates, you hold a like opinion with
myself—the pupil to the teacher; and what is more, the pupil was the
first to give it utterance.
So far, so good! (I answered). Is there a subtle art in scattering the
seed?
Isch. Let us by all means investigate that point. That the seed must be
cast by hand, I presume you know yourself?
Soc. Yes, by the testimony of my eyes. (7)
(7) Lit. "Yes, for I have seen it done."
Isch. But as to actual scattering, some can scatter evenly, others cannot.
(8)
(8) Holden cf. W. Harte, "Essays on Husbandry," p. 210, 2nd ed., "The
main perfection of sowing is to disperse the seeds equally."
Soc. Does it not come to this, the hand needs practice (like the fingers
of a harp-player) to obey the will?
Isch. Precisely so, but now suppose the soil is light in one part and
heavy in another?
Soc. I do not follow; by "light" do you mean weak? and by "heavy" strong?
Isch. Yes, that is what I mean. And the question which I put to you is
this: Would you allow both sorts of soil an equal share of seed? or which
the larger? (9)
(9) See Theophr. "Hist. Pl." viii. 6. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 275.
Holden cf. Adam Dickson, "Husbandry of the Ancients," vol. ii. 35.
33 f. (Edin. 1788), "Were the poor light land in Britain managed
after the manner of the Roman husbandry, it would certainly
require much less seed than under its present management."
Soc. The stronger the wine the larger the dose of water to be added, I
believe. The stronger, too, the man the heavier the weight we will lay
upon his back to carry: or if it is not porterage, but people to support,
there still my tenet holds: the broader and more powerful the great man's
shoulders, the more mouths I should assign to him to feed. But perhaps a
weak soil, like a lean pack-horse, (10) grows stronger the more corn you
pour into it. This I look to you to teach me. (11)
(10) Or, "lean cattle."
(11) Or, "Will you please answer me that question, teacher?"
With a laugh, he answered: Once more you are pleased to jest. Yet rest
assured of one thing, Socrates: if after you have put seed into the
ground, you will await the instant when, while earth is being richly fed
from heaven, the fresh green from the hidden seed first springs, and take
and turn it back again, (12) this sprouting germ will serve as food for
earth: as from manure an inborn strength will presently be added to the
soil. But if you suffer earth to feed the seed of corn within it and to
bring forth fruit in an endless round, at last (13) it will be hard for
the weakened soil to yield large corn crops, even as a weak sow can hardly
rear a large litter of fat pigs.
(12) "If you will plough the seedlings in again."
(13) {dia telous... es telos}, "continually... in the end." See
references in Holden's fifth edition.
Soc. I understand you to say, Ischomachus, that the weaker soil must
receive a scantier dose of seed?
Isch. Most decidedly I do, and you on your side, Socrates, I understand,
give your consent to this opinion in stating your belief that the weaker
the shoulders the lighter the burdens to be laid on them.
Soc. But those hoers with their hoes, Ischomachus, tell me for what reason
you let them loose (14) upon the corn.
(14) Cf. "Revenues," iv. 5.
Isch. You know, I daresay, that in winter there are heavy rains? (15)
(15) "And melting snows, much water every way."
Soc. To be sure, I do.
Isch. We may suppose, then, that a portion of the corn is buried by these
floods beneath a coat of mud and slime, or else that the roots are laid
quite bare in places by the torrent. By reason of this same drench, I take
it, oftentimes an undergrowth of weeds springs up with the corn and chokes
it.
Soc. Yes, all these ills are likely enough to happen.
Isch. Are you not agreed the corn-fields sorely need relief at such a
season?
Soc. Assuredly.
Isch. Then what is to be done, in your opinion? How shall we aid the
stricken portion lying mud-bedabbled?
Soc. How better than by lifting up and lightening the soil?
Isch. Yes! and that other portion lying naked to the roots and
defenceless, how aid it?
Soc. Possibly by mounding up fresh earth about it. (16)
(16) "Scraping up a barrier of fresh earth about it."
Isch. And what when the weeds spring up together with the corn and choke
it? or when they rob and ruthlessly devour the corn's proper sustenance,
like unserviceable drones (17) that rob the working bees of honey,
pilfering the good food which they have made and stored away with labour:
what must we do?
(17) Cf. Shakesp. "Lazy yawning drones," "Henry V." I. ii. 204.
Soc. In good sooth, there can be nothing for it save to cut out the
noisome weed, even as drones are cleared out from the hive.
Isch. You agree there is some show of reason for letting in these gangs of
hoers?
Soc. Most true. And now I am turning over in my mind, (18) Ischomachus,
how grand a thing it is to introduce a simile or such like figure well and
aptly. No sooner had you mentioned the word "drones" than I was filled
with rage against those miserable weeds, far more than when you merely
spoke of weeds and undergrowth.
(18) Or,『I was just this moment pondering the virtue of a happy
illustration.』Lit.『what a thing it is to introduce an 'image'
({tas eikonas}) well.』See Plat. "Rep." 487 E, {de eikonos},『in a
parable』(Jowett); "Phaed." 87 B, "a figure"; Aristoph. "Clouds,"
559; Plat. "Phaedr." 267 C; Aristot. "Rhet." III. iv. As to the
drones, J. J. Hartman, "An. X." 186, aptly cf. Aristoph. "Wasps,"
1114 f.
XVIII
But, not to interrupt you further (I continued), after sowing, naturally
we hope to come to reaping. If, therefore, you have anything to say on
that head also, pray proceed to teach me.
Isch. Yes, by all means, unless indeed you prove on this head also to know
as much yourself already as your teacher. To begin then: You know that
corn needs cutting?
Soc. To be sure, I know that much at any rate.
Isch. Well, then, the next point: in the act of cutting corn how will you
choose to stand? facing the way the wind blows, (1) or against the wind?
(1) Lit. "(on the side) where the wind blows or right opposite."
Soc. Not against the wind, for my part. Eyes and hands must suffer, I
imagine, if one stood reaping face to face with husks and particles of
straw. (2)
(2) i.e. "with particles of straw and beards of corn blowing in one's
face."
Isch. And should you merely sever the ears at top, or reap close to the
ground? (3)
(3) See Holden ad loc.; Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, "Husbandry," 27 (ed.
1767), "In Somersetshire... they do share theyr wheate very
lowe...."
If the stalk of corn were short (I answered), I should cut down close, to
secure a sufficient length of straw to be of use. But if the stalk be
tall, you would do right, I hold, to cut it half-way down, whereby the
thresher and the winnower will be saved some extra labour (which both may
well be spared). (4) The stalk left standing in the field, when burnt down
(as burnt it will be, I presume), will help to benefit the soil; (5) and
laid on as manure, will serve to swell the volume of manure. (6)
(4) Lit. "will be spared superfluous labour on what they do not want."
(5) Al. "if burnt down...; if laid on as manure..."
(6) "Help to swell the bulk" (Holden). For the custom see Virg.
"Georg." i. 84; J. Tull, op. cit. ix. 141: "The custom of burning
the stubble on the rich plains about Rome continues to this time."
Isch. There, Socrates, you are detected "in the very act"; you know as
much about reaping as I do myself.
It looks a little like it (I replied). But I would fain discover whether I
have sound knowledge also about threshing.
Isch. Well, I suppose you are aware of this much: corn is threshed by
beasts of burthen? (7)
(7) Holden cf. Dr. Davy,『Notes and Observations on the Ionian
Islands.』"The grain is beaten out, commonly in the harvest field,
by men, horses, or mules, on a threshing-floor prepared extempore
for the purpose, where the ground is firm and dry, and the chaff
is separated by winnowing."—Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," ii.
41 foll.
Soc. Yes, I am aware of that much, and beast of burthen is a general name
including oxen, horses, mules, and so forth. (8)
(8) See Varro, i. 52, as to tritura and ventilatio.
Isch. Is it your opinion that these animals know more than merely how to
tread the corn while driven with the goad?
Soc. What more can they know, being beasts of burthen?
Isch. Some one must see, then, that the beasts tread out only what
requires threshing and no more, and that the threshing is done evenly
itself: to whom do you assign that duty, Socrates?
Soc. Clearly it is the duty of the threshers who are in charge. (9) It is
theirs to turn the sheaves, and ever and again to push the untrodden corn
under the creatures' feet; and thus, of course, to keep the
threshing-floor as smooth, and finish off the work as fast, as possible.
(9) Or, "to the over-threshers," "the drivers" (Holden).
Isch. Your comprehension of the facts thus far, it seems, keeps pace with
mine.
Soc. Well, after that, Ischomachus, we will proceed to cleanse the corn by
winnowing. (10)
(10) Breit. cf. Colum. "de r. r." ii. 10, 14, 21; vide Rich, s.v.
ventilabrum.
Isch. Yes, but tell me, Socrates; do you know that if you begin the
process from the windward portion (of the threshing-floor), you will find
your chaff is carried over the whole area.
Soc. It must be so.
Isch. Then it is more than likely the chaff will fall upon the corn.
Soc. Yes, considering the distance, (11) the chaff will hardly be carried
across the corn into the empty portion of the threshing-floor.
(11) Lit. "it is a long space for the chaff to be carried." Al. (1)
『It is of great consequence the chaff should be carried beyond the
corn.』(2)『It often happens that the corn is blown not only on to
the corn, but over and beyond it into the empty portion of the
threshing-floor.』So Breit.
Isch. But now, suppose you begin winnowing on the "lee" side of the
threshing-floor? (12)
(12) Or, "on the side of the threshing-floor opposite the wind." Al.
"protected from the wind."
Soc. It is clear the chaff will at once fall into the chaff-receiver. (13)
(13) A hollowed-out portion of the threshing-floor, according to
Breitenbach.
Isch. And when you have cleansed the corn over half the floor, will you
proceed at once, with the corn thus strewn in front of you, to winnow the
remainder, (14) or will you first pack the clean grain into the narrowest
space against the central pillar? (15)
(14) Lit. "of the chaff," where we should say "corn," the winnowing
process separating chaff from grain and grain from chaff.
(15) If that is the meaning of {ton polon}. Al. "the outer edge or rim
of the threshing-floor."
Soc. Yes, upon my word! first pack together the clean grain, and proceed.
My chaff will now be carried into the empty portion of the floor, and I
shall escape the need of winnowing twice over. (16)
(16) Or, "the same chaff (i.e. unwinnowed corn, Angl. corn) twice."
Isch. Really, Socrates, you are fully competent yourself, it seems, to
teach an ignorant world (17) the speediest mode of winnowing.
(17) Lit. "After all, Socrates, it seems you could even teach another
how to purge his corn most expeditiously."
Soc. It seems, then, as you say, I must have known about these matters,
though unconsciously; and here I stand and beat my brains, (18) reflecting
whether or not I may not know some other things—how to refine gold
and play the flute and paint pictures—without being conscious of the
fact. Certainly, as far as teaching goes, no one ever taught me these, no
more than husbandry; while, as to using my own eyes, I have watched men
working at the other arts no less than I have watched them till the soil.
(18) Lit. "all this while, I am thinking whether..."
Isch. Did I not tell you long ago that of all arts husbandry was the
noblest, the most generous, just because it is the easiest to learn?
Soc. That it is without a doubt, Ischomachus. It seems I must have known
the processes of sowing, without being conscious of my knowledge. (19)
(19) Or, "but for all my science, I was ignorant (of knowing my own
knowledge)."
XIX
Soc. (continuing). But may I ask, is the planting of trees (1) a
department in the art of husbandry?
(1) i.e. of fruit trees, the vine, olive, fig, etc.
Isch. Certainly it is.
Soc. How is it, then, that I can know about the processes of sowing and at
the same time have no knowledge about planting?
Isch. Is it so certain that you have no knowledge?
Soc. How can you ask me? when I neither know the sort of soil in which to
plant, nor yet the depth of hole (2) the plant requires, nor the breadth,
or length of ground in which it needs to be embedded; (3) nor lastly, how
to lay the plant in earth, with any hope of fostering its growth. (4)
(2) Reading {to phuto},『nor yet how deep or broad to sink (the hole)
for the plant.』Holden (ed. 1886) supplies {bothunon}. Al.
{bothron}.
(3) See Loudon, "Encycl. of Agric." S. 407, ap. Holden: "In France
plantations of the vine are made by dibbling in cuttings of two
feet of length; pressing the earth firmly to their lower end, an
essential part of the operation, noticed even by Xenophon."
(4) Lit. "how, laid in the soil, the plant will best shoot forth or
grow."
Isch. Come, then, to lessons, pupil, and be taught whatever you do not
know already! You have seen, I know, the sort of trenches which are dug
for plants?
Soc. Hundreds of times.
Isch. Did you ever see one more than three feet deep?
Soc. No, I do not think I ever saw one more than two and a half feet deep.
Isch. Well, as to the breadth now. Did you ever see a trench more than
three feet broad? (5)
(5) Or, "width," "wide." The commentators cf. Plin. "H. N." xvii. 11,
16, 22; Columell. v. 5. 2; ib. iii. 15. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 288.
Soc. No, upon my word, not even more than two feet broad.
Isch. Good! now answer me this question: Did you ever see a trench less
than one foot deep?
Soc. No, indeed! nor even less than one foot and a half. Why, the plants
would be no sooner buried than dug out again, if planted so extremely near
the surface.
Isch. Here, then, is one matter, Socrates, which you know as well as any
one. (6) The trench is not to be sunk deeper than two feet and a half, or
shallower than one foot and a half.
(6) Lit. "quite adequately."
Soc. Obviously, a thing so plain appeals to the eye at once.
Isch. Can you by eyesight recognise the difference between a dry soil and
a moist?
Soc. I should certainly select as dry the soil round Lycabettus, (7) and
any that resembles it; and as moist, the soil in the marsh meadows of
Phalerum, (8) or the like.
(7) See Leake, "Topog. of Athens," i. 209.
(8) Or, "the Phaleric marsh-land." See Leake, ib. 231, 427; ii. 9.
Isch. In planting, would you dig (what I may call) deep trenches in a dry
soil or a moist?
Soc. In a dry soil certainly; at any rate, if you set about to dig deep
trenches in the moist you will come to water, and there and then an end to
further planting.
Isch. You could not put it better. We will suppose, then, the trenches
have been dug. Does your eyesight take you further? (9) Have you noticed
at what season in either case (10) the plants must be embedded?
(9) Lit. "As soon as the trenches have been dug then, have you further
noticed..."
(10) (1) The vulg. reading {openika... ekatera} =『at what precise
time... either (i.e. 'the two different' kinds of) plant,』i.e.
"vine and olive" or "vine and fig," I suppose; (2) Breit. emend.
{opotera... en ekatera} = "which kind of plant... in either
soil..."; (3) Schenkl. etc., {openika... en ekatera} = "at
what season... in each of the two sorts of soil..."
Soc. Certainly. (11)
(11) There is an obvious lacuna either before or after this remark, or
at both places.
Isch. Supposing, then, you wish the plants to grow as fast as possible:
how will the cutting strike and sprout, do you suppose, most readily?—after
you have laid a layer of soil already worked beneath it, and it merely has
to penetrate soft mould? or when it has to force its way through unbroken
soil into the solid ground?
Soc. Clearly it will shoot through soil which has been worked more quickly
than through unworked soil.
Isch. Well then, a bed of earth must be laid beneath the plant?
Soc. I quite agree; so let it be.
Isch. And how do you expect your cutting to root best?—if set
straight up from end to end, pointing to the sky? (12) or if you set it
slantwise under its earthy covering, so as to lie like an inverted gamma?
(13)
(12) Lit. "if you set the whole cutting straight up, facing
heavenwards."
(13) i.e. Anglice, "like the letter {G} upon its back" {an inverted
"upper-case" gamma looks like an L}. See Lord Bacon, "Nat. Hist."
Cent. v. 426: "When you would have many new roots of fruit-trees,
take a low tree and bow it and lay all his branches aflat upon the
ground and cast earth upon them; and every twig will take root.
And this is a very profitable experiment for costly trees (for the
boughs will make stock without charge), such as are apricots,
peaches, almonds, cornelians, mulberries, figs, etc. The like is
continually practised with vines, roses, musk roses, etc."
Soc. Like an inverted gamma, to be sure, for so the plant must needs have
more eyes under ground. Now it is from these same eyes of theirs, if I may
trust my own, (14) that plants put forth their shoots above ground. I
imagine, therefore, the eyes still underground will do the same precisely,
and with so many buds all springing under earth, the plant itself, I
argue, as a whole will sprout and shoot and push its way with speed and
vigour.
(14) Lit. "it is from their eyes, I see, that plants..."
Isch. I may tell you that on these points, too, your judgment tallies with
my own. But now, should you content yourself with merely heaping up the
earth, or will you press it firmly round your plant?
Soc. I should certainly press down the earth; for if the earth is not
pressed down, I know full well that at one time under the influence of
rain the unpressed soil will turn to clay or mud; at another, under the
influence of the sun, it will turn to sand or dust to the very bottom: so
that the poor plant runs a risk of being first rotted with moisture by the
rain, and next of being shrivelled up with drought through overheating of
the roots. (15)
(15) Through "there being too much bottom heat." Holden (ed. 1886).
Isch. So far as the planting of vines is concerned, it appears, Socrates,
that you and I again hold views precisely similar.
And does this method of planting apply also to the fig-tree? (I inquired).
Isch. Surely, and not to the fig-tree alone, but to all the rest of
fruit-trees. (16) What reason indeed would there be for rejecting in the
case of other plant-growths (17) what is found to answer so well with the
vine?
(16) {akrodrua} = "edible fruits" in Xenophon's time. See Plat.
"Criti." 115 B; Dem. "c. Nicostr." 1251; Aristot. "Hist. An."
viii. 28. 8, {out akrodrua out opora khronios}; Theophr. "H. Pl."
iv. 4. 11. (At a later period, see "Geopon." x. 74, =『fruits
having a hard rind or shell,』e.g. nuts, acorns, as opposed to
pears, apples, grapes, etc., {opora}.) See further the interesting
regulations in Plat. "Laws," 844 D, 845 C.
(17) Lit. "planting in general."
Soc. How shall we plant the olive, pray, Ischomachus?
Isch. I see your purpose. You ask that question with a view to put me to
the test, (18) when you know the answer yourself as well as possible. You
can see with your own eyes (19) that the olive has a deeper trench dug,
planted as it is so commonly by the side of roads. You can see that all
the young plants in the nursery adhere to stumps. (20) And lastly, you can
see that a lump of clay is placed on the head of every plant, (21) and the
portion of the plant above the soil is protected by a wrapping. (22)
(18) Plat. "Prot." 311 B, 349 C; "Theaet." 157 C:『I cannot make out
whether you are giving your own opinion, or only wanting to draw
me out』(Jowett).
(19) For the advantage, see "Geopon." iii. 11. 2.
(20) Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." ii. 30—
quin et caudicibus sectis, mirabile dictu, truditur e sicco radix oleagina
ligno.
The stock in slices cut, and forth shall shoot, O passing strange! from
each dry slice a root (Holden).
See John Martyn ad loc.:﹃La Cerda says, that what the Poet here speaks of
was practised in Spain in his time. They take the trunk of an olive, says
he, deprive it of its root and branches, and cut it into several pieces,
which they put into the ground, whence a root and, soon afterwards, a tree
is formed.﹄This mode of propagating by dry pieces of the trunk (with bark
on) is not to be confounded with that of "truncheons" mentioned in
"Georg." ii. 63.
(21) See Theophr. "H. Pl." ii. 2, 4; "de Caus." iii. 5. 1; "Geopon."
ix. 11. 4, ap. Hold.; Col. v. 9. 1; xi. 2. 42.
(22) Or, "covered up for protection."
Soc. Yes, all these things I see.
Isch. Granted, you see: what is there in the matter that you do not
understand? Perhaps you are ignorant how you are to lay the potsherd on
the clay at top?
Soc. No, in very sooth, not ignorant of that Ischomachus, or anything you
mentioned. That is just the puzzle, and again I beat my brains to discover
why, when you put to me that question a while back:﹃Had I, in brief, the
knowledge how to plant?﹄I answered, "No." Till then it never would have
struck me that I could say at all how planting must be done. But no sooner
do you begin to question me on each particular point than I can answer
you; and what is more, my answers are, you tell me, accordant with the
views of an authority (23) at once so skilful and so celebrated as
yourself. Really, Ischomachus, I am disposed to ask:﹃Does teaching
consist in putting questions?﹄(24) Indeed, the secret of your system has
just this instant dawned upon me. I seem to see the principle in which you
put your questions. You lead me through the field of my own knowledge,
(25) and then by pointing out analogies (26) to what I know, persuade me
that I really know some things which hitherto, as I believed, I had no
knowledge of.
(23) Or, "whose skill in farming is proverbial."
(24) Lit. "Is questioning after all a kind of teaching?" See Plat.
"Meno"; "Mem." IV. vi. 15.
(25) It appears, then, that the Xenophontean Socrates has {episteme}
of a sort.
(26) Or, "a series of resemblances," "close parallels," reading
{epideiknus}: or if with Breit. {apodeiknus}, transl. "by proving
such or such a thing is like some other thing known to me
already."
Isch. Do you suppose if I began to question you concerning money and its
quality, (27) I could possibly persuade you that you know the method to
distinguish good from false coin? Or could I, by a string of questions
about flute-players, painters, and the like, induce you to believe that
you yourself know how to play the flute, or paint, and so forth?
(27) Lit. "whether it is good or not."
Soc. Perhaps you might; for have you not persuaded me I am possessed of
perfect knowledge of this art of husbandry, (28) albeit I know that no one
ever taught this art to me?
(28) Or,『since you actually succeeded in persuading me I was
scientifically versed in,』etc. See Plat. "Statesm." 301 B;
"Theaet." 208 E; Aristot. "An. Post." i. 6. 4; "Categ." 8. 41.
Isch. Ah! that is not the explanation, Socrates. The truth is what I told
you long ago and kept on telling you. Husbandry is an art so gentle, so
humane, that mistress-like she makes all those who look on her or listen
to her voice intelligent (29) of herself at once. Many a lesson does she
herself impart how best to try conclusions with her. (30) See, for
instance, how the vine, making a ladder of the nearest tree whereon to
climb, informs us that it needs support. (31) Anon it spreads its leaves
when, as it seems to say, "My grapes are young, my clusters tender," and
so teaches us, during that season, to screen and shade the parts exposed
to the sun's rays; but when the appointed moment comes, when now it is
time for the swelling clusters to be sweetened by the sun, behold, it
drops a leaf and then a leaf, so teaching us to strip it bare itself and
let the vintage ripen. With plenty teeming, see the fertile mother shows
her mellow clusters, and the while is nursing a new brood in primal
crudeness. (32) So the vine plant teaches us how best to gather in the
vintage, even as men gather figs, the juiciest first. (33)
(29) Or, "gives them at once a perfect knowledge of herself."
(30) Lit. "best to deal with her," "make use of her."
(31) Lit. "teaches us to prop it."
(32) Lit. "yet immature."
(33) Or, "first one and then another as it swells." Cf. Shakespeare:
The mellow plum doth fall, the green sticks fast, Or being early pluck'd
is sour to taste ("V. and A." 527).
XX
At this point in the conversation I remarked: Tell me, Ischomachus, if the
details of the art of husbandry are thus easy to learn, and all alike know
what needs to be done, how does it happen that all farmers do not fare
like, but some live in affluence owning more than they can possibly enjoy,
while others of them fail to obtain the barest necessities and actually
run into debt?
I will tell you, Socrates (Ischomachus replied). It is neither knowledge
nor lack of knowledge in these husbandmen which causes some to be well
off, while others are in difficulties; nor will you ever hear such tales
afloat as that this or that estate has gone to ruin because the sower
failed to sow evenly, or that the planter failed to plant straight rows of
plants, or that such an one, (1) being ignorant what soil was best suited
to bear vines, had set his plants in sterile ground, or that another (2)
was in ignorance that fallow must be broken up for purposes of sowing, or
that a third (3) was not aware that it is good to mix manure in with the
soil. No, you are much more likely to hear said of So-and-so: No wonder
the man gets in no wheat from his farm, when he takes no pains to have it
sown or properly manured. Or of some other that he grows no wine: Of
course not, when he takes no pains either to plant new vines or to make
those he has bear fruit. A third has neither figs nor olives; and again
the self-same reason: He too is careless, and takes no steps whatever to
succeed in growing either one or other. These are the distinctions which
make all the difference to prosperity in farming, far more than the
reputed discovery of any clever agricultural method or machine. (4)
(1) "Squire This."
(2) "Squire That."
(3) "Squire T'other."
(4) There is something amiss with the text at this point. For
emendations see Breit., Schenkl, Holden, Hartman.
You will find the principle applies elsewhere. There are points of
strategic conduct in which generals differ from each other for the better
or the worse, not because they differ in respect of wit or judgment, but
of carefulness undoubtedly. I speak of things within the cognisance of
every general, and indeed of almost every private soldier, which some
commanders are careful to perform and others not. Who does not know, for
instance, that in marching through a hostile territory an army ought to
march in the order best adapted to deliver battle with effect should need
arise? (5)—a golden rule which, punctually obeyed by some, is
disobeyed by others. Again, as all the world knows, it is better to place
day and night pickets (6) in front of an encampment. Yet even that is a
procedure which, carefully observed at times, is at times as carelessly
neglected. Once more: not one man in ten thousand, (7) I suppose, but
knows that when a force is marching through a narrow defile, the safer
method is to occupy beforehand certain points of vantage. (8) Yet this
precaution also has been known to be neglected.
(5) See Thuc. ii. 81: "The Hellenic troops maintained order on the
march and kept a look-out until..."—Jowett.
(6) See "Cyrop." I. vi. 43.
(7) Lit. "it would be hard to find the man who did not know."
(8) Or, "to seize advantageous positions in advance." Cf. "Hiero," x.
5.
Similarly, every one will tell you that manure is the best thing in the
world for agriculture, and every one can see how naturally it is produced.
Still, though the method of production is accurately known, though there
is every facility to get it in abundance, the fact remains that, while one
man takes pains to have manure collected, another is entirely neglectful.
And yet God sends us rain from heaven, and every hollow place becomes a
standing pool, while earth supplies materials of every kind; the sower,
too, about to sow must cleanse the soil, and what he takes as refuse from
it needs only to be thrown into water and time itself will do the rest,
shaping all to gladden earth. (9) For matter in every shape, nay earth
itself, (10) in stagnant water turns to fine manure.
(9) Lit. "Time itself will make that wherein Earth rejoices."
(10) i.e.『each fallen leaf, each sprig or spray of undergrowth, the
very weeds, each clod.』Lit. "what kind of material, what kind of
soil does not become manure when thrown into stagnant water?"
So, again, as touching the various ways in which the earth itself needs
treatment, either as being too moist for sowing, or too salt (11) for
planting, these and the processes of cure are known to all men: how in one
case the superfluous water is drawn off by trenches, and in the other the
salt corrected by being mixed with various non-salt bodies, moist or dry.
Yet here again, in spite of knowledge, some are careful of these matters,
others negligent.
(11) See Anatol. "Geop." ii. 10. 9; Theophr. "de Caus." ii. 5. 4, 16.
8, ap. Holden. Cf. Virg. "Georg." ii. 238:
salsa autem tellus, et quae perhibetur amara frugibus infelix.
But even if a man were altogether ignorant what earth can yield, were he
debarred from seeing any fruit or plant, prevented hearing from the lips
of any one the truth about this earth: even so, I put it to you, it would
be easier far for any living soul to make experiments on a piece of land,
(12) than on a horse, for instance, or on his fellow-man. For there is
nought which earth displays with intent to deceive, but in clear and
simple language stamped with the seal of truth she informs us what she can
and cannot do. (13) Thus it has ever seemed to me that earth is the best
discoverer of true honesty, (14) in that she offers all her stores of
knowledge in a shape accessible to the learner, so that he who runs may
read. Here it is not open to the sluggard, as in other arts, to put
forward the plea of ignorance or lack of knowledge, for all men know that
earth, if kindly treated, will repay in kind. No! there is no witness (15)
against a coward soul so clear as that of husbandry; (16) since no man
ever yet persuaded himself that he could live without the staff of life.
He therefore that is unskilled in other money-making arts and will not
dig, shows plainly he is minded to make his living by picking and
stealing, or by begging alms, or else he writes himself down a very fool.
(17)
(12) Or, "this fair earth herself."
(13) Or, "earth our mother reveals her powers and her impotence."
(14) Lit. "of the good and the bad." Cf. Dem. "adv. Phorm." 918. 18.
(15) Lit. "no accuser of." Cf. Aesch. "Theb." 439.
(16) Reading, with Sauppe, {all' e georgia}, or if, with Jacobs, {e en
georgia argia}, transl. "as that of idleness in husbandry."
(17) Or, "if not, he must be entirely irrational." Cf. Plat. "Apol."
37 C.
Presently, Ischomachus proceeded: Now it is of prime importance, (18) in
reference to the profitableness or unprofitableness of agriculture, even
on a large estate where there are numerous (19) workfolk, (20) whether a
man takes any pains at all to see that his labourers are devoted to the
work on hand during the appointed time, (21) or whether he neglects that
duty. Since one man will fairly distance ten (22) simply by working at the
time, and another may as easily fall short by leaving off before the hour.
(23) In fact, to let the fellows take things easily the whole day through
will make a difference easily of half in the whole work. (24)
(18) Lit. "it made a great difference, he said, with regard to profit
and loss in agriculture."
(19) Or if, after Hertlein, adding {kai meionon}, transl. "workmen now
more, now less, in number."
(20) {ergasteron}, "poet." L. & S. cf. "Orph. H." 65. 4. See above, v.
15; xiii. 10.
(21) Cf. Herod. II. ii. 2.
(22) Or, "Why! one man in ten makes all the difference by..."
{para} = "by comparison with."
(23) Reading as vulg., or if {to me pro k.t.l.} transl. "by not
leaving off, etc."
(24) i.e. "is a difference of fifty per cent on the whole work."
As, on a walking-expedition, it may happen, of two wayfarers, the one will
gain in pace upon the other half the distance say in every five-and-twenty
miles, (25) though both alike are young and hale of body. The one, in
fact, is bent on compassing the work on which he started, he steps out
gaily and unflinchingly; the other, more slack in spirit, stops to recruit
himself and contemplate the view by fountain side and shady nook, as
though his object were to court each gentle zephyr. So in farm work; there
is a vast difference as regards performance between those who do it not,
but seek excuse for idleness and are suffered to be listless. Thus,
between good honest work and base neglect there is as great a difference
as there is between—what shall I say?—why, work and idleness.
(26) The gardeners, look, are hoeing vines to keep them clean and free of
weeds; but they hoe so sorrily that the loose stuff grows ranker and more
plentiful. Can you call that (27) anything but idleness?
(25) Lit. "per 200 stades."
(26) Or, "wholly to work and wholly to be idle." Reading as Sauppe,
etc., or if with Holden, etc., {to de de kalos kai to kakos
ergazesthai e epimeleisthai}, transl.『between toil and
carefulness well or ill expended there lies all the difference;
the two things are sundered as wide apart as are the poles of work
and play,』etc. A. Jacobs' emend. ap. Hartm. "An. Xen." p. 211,
{to de de kakos ergazesthai e kakos epimeleisthai kei to kalos},
seems happy.
(27) Or, "such a hoer aught but an idle loon."
Such, Socrates, are the ills which cause a house to crumble far more than
lack of scientific knowledge, however rude it be. (28) For if you will
consider; on the one hand, there is a steady outflow (29) of expenses from
the house, and, on the other, a lack of profitable works outside to meet
expenses; need you longer wonder if the field-works create a deficit and
not a surplus? In proof, however, that the man who can give the requisite
heed, while straining every nerve in the pursuit of agriculture, has
speedy (30) and effective means of making money, I may cite the instance
of my father, who had practised what he preached. (31)
(28) Cf. Thuc. v. 7; Plat. "Rep." 350 A; "Theaet." 200 B.
(29) Or, "the expenses from the house are going on at the full rate,"
{enteleis}. Holden cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 1367: {ton misthon
apodoso 'ntele},『I'll have the arrears of seamen's wages paid to
a penny』(Frere).
(30) {anutikotaten}. Cf. "Hipparch," ii. 6.
(31) Or, "who merely taught me what he had himself carried out in
practice."
Now, my father would never suffer me to purchase an estate already under
cultivation, but if he chanced upon a plot of land which, owing to the
neglect or incapacity of the owner, was neither tilled nor planted, (32)
nothing would satisfy him but I must purchase it. He had a saying that
estates already under cultivation cost a deal of money and allowed of no
improvement; and where there is no prospect of improvement, more than half
the pleasure to be got from the possession vanishes. The height of
happiness was, he maintained, to see your purchase, be it dead chattel or
live animal, (33) go on improving daily under your own eyes. (34) Now,
nothing shows a larger increase (35) than a piece of land reclaimed from
barren waste and bearing fruit a hundredfold. I can assure you, Socrates,
many is the farm which my father and I made worth I do not know how many
times more than its original value. And then, Socrates, this valuable
invention (36) is so easy to learn that you who have but heard it know and
understand it as well as I myself do, and can go away and teach it to
another if you choose. Yet my father did not learn it of another, nor did
he discover it by a painful mental process; (37) but, as he has often told
me, through pure love of husbandry and fondness of toil, he would become
enamoured of such a spot as I describe, (38) and then nothing would
content him but he must own it, in order to have something to do, and at
the same time, to derive pleasure along with profit from the purchase. For
you must know, Socrates, of all Athenians I have ever heard of, my father,
as it seems to me, had the greatest love for agricultural pursuits.
(32) i.e. out of cultivation, whether as corn land or for fruit trees,
viz. olive, fig, vine, etc.
(33) Or, "be it a dead thing or a live pet." Cf. Plat. "Theaet." 174
B; "Laws," 789 B, 790 D, 819 B; "C. I." 1709.
(34) Cf. "Horsem." iii. 1; and see Cowley's Essay above referred to.
(35) Or, "is susceptible of greater improvement."
(36) Or, "discovery." See "Anab." III. v. 12; "Hell." IV. v. 4;
"Hunting," xiii. 13.
(37) Or, "nor did he rack his brains to discover it." See "Mem." III.
v. 23. Cf. Aristoph. "Clouds," 102, {merimnophrontistai}, minute
philosophers.
(38) "He could not see an estate of the sort described but he must
fall over head and ears in love with it at first sight; have it he
must."
When I heard this, I could not resist asking a question; Ischomachus (I
said), did your father retain possession of all the farms he put under
cultivation, or did he part with them whenever he was offered a good
price?
He parted with them, without a doubt (replied Ischomachus), but then at
once he bought another in the place of what he sold, and in every case an
untilled farm, in order to gratify his love for work.
As you describe him (I proceeded), your father must truly have been formed
by nature with a passion for husbandry, not unlike that corn-hunger which
merchants suffer from. You know their habits: by reason of this craving
after corn, (39) whenever they hear that corn is to be got, they go
sailing off to find it, even if they must cross the Aegean, or the Euxine,
or the Sicilian seas. And when they have got as much as ever they can get,
they will not let it out of their sight, but store it in the vessel on
which they sail themselves, and off they go across the seas again. (40)
Whenever they stand in need of money, they will not discharge their
precious cargo, (41) at least not in haphazard fashion, wherever they may
chance to be; but first they find out where corn is at the highest value,
and where the inhabitants will set the greatest store by it, and there
they take and deliver the dear article. Your father's fondness for
agriculture seems to bear a certain family resemblance to this passion.
(39) Lit. "of their excessive love for corn."
(40) Lit. "they carry it across the seas again, and that, too, after
having stored it in the hold of the very vessel in which they sail
themselves."
(41) Or, "their treasure." {auton} throughout, which indeed is the
humour of the passage. The love of John Barleycorn is their master
passion.
To these remarks Ischomachus replied: You jest, Socrates; but still I hold
to my belief: that man is fond of bricks and mortar who no sooner has
built one house than he must needs sell it and proceed to build another.
To be sure, Ischomachus (I answered), and for my part I assure you, upon
oath, I, Socrates, do verily and indeed believe (42) you that all men by
nature love (or hold they ought to love) those things wherebysoever they
believe they will be benefited.
(32) Reading {e men pisteuein soi phusei (nomizein) philein tauta
pantas...}; and for the "belief" propounded with so much
humorous emphasis, see Adam Smith, "Moral Sentiments." Hartman,
"An. Xen." 180, cf. Plat. "Lysis."
XXI
After a pause, I added: I am turning over in my mind how cleverly you have
presented the whole argument to support your thesis: which was, that of
all arts the art of husbandry is the easiest to learn. And now, as the
result of all that has been stated, I am entirely persuaded that this is
so.
Isch. Yes, Socrates, indeed it is. But I, on my side, must in turn admit
that as regards that faculty which is common alike to every kind of
conduct (tillage, or politics, the art of managing a house, or of
conducting war), the power, namely, of command (1)—I do subscribe to
your opinion, that on this score one set of people differ largely from
another both in point of wit and judgement. On a ship of war, for
instance, (2) the ship is on the high seas, and the crew must row whole
days together to reach moorings. (3) Now note the difference. Here you may
find a captain (4) able by dint of speech and conduct to whet the souls of
those he leads, and sharpen them to voluntary toils; and there another so
dull of wit and destitute of feeling that it will take his crew just twice
the time to finish the same voyage. See them step on shore. The first
ship's company are drenched in sweat; but listen, they are loud in praise
of one another, the captain and his merry men alike. And the others? They
are come at last; they have not turned a hair, the lazy fellows, but for
all that they hate their officer and by him are hated.
(1) See "Mem." I. i. 7.
(2) Or, "the crew must row the livelong day..."
(3) For an instance see "Hell." VI. ii. 27, Iphicrates' periplus.
(4) Or, "one set of boatswains." See Thuc. ii. 84. For the duties of
the Keleustes see "Dict. Gk. Rom. Ant." s.v. portisculus; and for
the type of captain see "Hell." V. i. 3, Teleutias.
Generals, too, will differ (he proceeded), the one sort from the other, in
this very quality. Here you have a leader who, incapable of kindling a
zest for toil and love of hairbreadth 'scapes, is apt to engender in his
followers that base spirit which neither deigns nor chooses to obey,
except under compulsion. They even pride and plume themselves, (5) the
cowards, on their opposition to their leader; this same leader who, in the
end, will make his men insensible to shame even in presence of most foul
mishap. On the other hand, put at their head another stamp of general: one
who is by right divine (6) a leader, good and brave, a man of scientific
knowledge. Let him take over to his charge those malcontents, or others
even of worse character, and he will have them presently ashamed of doing
a disgraceful deed. "It is nobler to obey" will be their maxim. They will
exult in personal obedience and in common toil, where toil is needed,
cheerily performed. For just as an unurged zeal for voluntary service (7)
may at times invade, we know, the breasts of private soldiers, so may like
love of toil with emulous longing to achieve great deeds of valour under
the eyes of their commander, be implanted in whole armies by good
officers.
(5) Lit. "magnify themselves." See "Ages." x. 2; "Pol. Lac." viii. 2.
(6) Or, "god-like," "with something more than human in him." See Hom.
"Il." xxiv. 259:
{oude eokei andros ge thnetou pais emmenai alla theoio.}
"Od." iv. 691; {theioi basilees}. Cf. Carlyle, "Heroes"; Plat. "Meno," 99
D: Soc.﹃And may we not, Meno, truly call those men divine who, having no
understanding, yet succeed in many a grand deed and word?﹄And below: Soc.
﹃And the women too, Meno, call good men divine; and the Spartans, when
they praise a good man, say, 'that he is a divine man'﹄(Jowett). Arist.
"Eth. N." vii. 1: "That virtue which transcends the human, and which is of
an heroic or godlike type, such as Priam, in the poems of Homer, ascribes
to Hector, when wishing to speak of his great goodness:
Not woman-born seemed he, but sprung from gods."
And below:﹃And exactly as it is a rare thing to find a man of godlike
nature—to use the expression of the Spartans, 'a godlike man,' which
they apply to those whom they expressively admire—so, too, brutality
is a type of character rarely found among men﹄(Robert Williams).
(7) Reading {etheloponia tis}, or if {philoponia}, transl.『just as
some strange delight in labour may quicken in the heart of many an
individual soldier.』See "Anab." IV. vii. 11.
Happy must that leader be whose followers are thus attached to him: beyond
all others he will prove a stout and strong commander. And by strong, I
mean, not one so hale of body as to tower above the stoutest of the
soldiery themselves; no, nor him whose skill to hurl a javelin or shoot an
arrow will outshine the skilfullest; nor yet that mounted on the fleetest
charger it shall be his to bear the brunt of danger foremost amid the
knightliest horsemen, the nimblest of light infantry. No, not these, but
who is able to implant a firm persuasion in the minds of all his soldiers:
follow him they must and will through fire, if need be, or into the jaws
of death. (8)
(8) Or, "through flood and fire or other desperate strait." Cf.
"Anab." II. vi. 8.
Lofty of soul and large of judgment (9) may he be designated justly, at
whose back there steps a multitude stirred by his sole sentiment; not
unreasonably may he be said to march "with a mighty arm," (10) to whose
will a thousand willing hands are prompt to minister; a great man in every
deed he is who can achieve great ends by resolution rather than brute
force.
(9) See "Ages." ix. 6, "of how lofty a sentiment."
(10) See Herod. vii. 20, 157; Thuc. iii. 96.
So, too, within the field of private industry, the person in authority, be
it the bailiff, be it the overseer, (11) provided he is able to produce
unflinching energy, intense and eager, for the work, belongs to those who
haste to overtake good things (12) and reap great plenty. Should the
master (he proceeded), being a man possessed of so much power, Socrates,
to injure the bad workman and reward the zealous—should he suddenly
appear, and should his appearance in the labour field produce no visible
effect upon his workpeople, I cannot say I envy or admire him. But if the
sight of him is followed by a stir of movement, if there come upon (13)
each labourer fresh spirit, with mutual rivalry and keen ambition, drawing
out the finest qualities of each, (14) of him I should say, Behold a man
of kingly disposition. And this, if I mistake not, is the quality of
greatest import in every operation which needs the instrumentality of man;
but most of all, perhaps, in agriculture. Not that I would maintain that
it is a thing to be lightly learnt by a glance of the eye, or hearsay
fashion, as a tale that is told. Far from it, I assert that he who is to
have this power has need of education; he must have at bottom a good
natural disposition; and, what is greatest of all, he must be himself a
god-like being. (15) For if I rightly understand this blessed gift, this
faculty of command over willing followers, by no means is it, in its
entirety, a merely human quality, but it is in part divine. It is a gift
plainly given to those truly initiated (16) in the mystery of
self-command. Whereas despotism over unwilling slaves, the heavenly ones
give, as it seems to me, to those whom they deem worthy to live the life
of Tantalus in Hades, of whom it is written (17) "he consumes unending
days in apprehension of a second death."
(11) According to Sturz, "Lex." s.v., the {epitropos} is (as a rule,
see "Mem." II. viii.) a slave or freedman, the {epistates} a free
man. See "Mem." III. v. 18.
(12) Apparently a homely formula, like『make hay whilst the sun
shines,』"a stitch in time saves nine."
(13) Cf. Hom. "Il." ix. 436, xvii. 625; "Hell." VII. i. 31.
(14) Reading {kratiste ousa}, or if with Heindorf, {kratisteusai},
transl. "to prove himself the best."
(15) See "Cyrop." I. i. 3; Grote, "Plato," vol. iii. 571.
(16) See Plat. "Phaed." 69 C; Xen. "Symp." i. 10.
(17) Or, "it is said." See Eur. "Orest." 5, and Porson ad loc.
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