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Title: Fruits of Philosophy
A Treatise on the Population Question
Author: Charles Knowlton
Editor: Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant
Release Date: December 1, 2011 [EBook #38185]
Last Updated: January 25, 2013
Language: English
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*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FRUITS OF PHILOSOPHY ***
Produced by David Widger
FRUITS OF PHILOSOPHY
A TREATISE ON THE POPULATION QUESTION
By Charles Knowlton
Edited by Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant
Contents
PUBLISHERS' PREFACE
PHILOSOPHICAL PROEM
FRUITS OF PHILOSOPHY
APPENDIX
PUBLISHERS' PREFACE.
The pamphlet which we now present to the public is one which has been
lately prosecuted under Lord Gampbell's Act, and which we republish, in
order to test the right of publication. It was originally written by
Charles Knowlton, M. D., whose degree entitles him to be heard with
respect on a medical question. It was first published in England, about
forty years ago, by James Watson, the gallant radical, who came to London
and took up Richard Carlile's work, when Carlile was in jail. He sold it,
unchallenged, for many years, approved it, and recommended it. It was
printed and published by Messrs. Holyoake & Co., and found its place,
with other works of a similar character, in their "Freethought Directory,"
of 1853, and was thus identified with freethought literature at the then
leading freethought depot Mr. Austin Holyoake, working in
con-junction with Mr. Bradlaugh at the National Reformer office,
Johnson's Court, printed and published it in his turn, and this well-known
freethought advocate, in his "Large or Small Families," selected this
pamphlet, together with R. D. Owen's "Moral Physiology" and the﹃Elements
of Social Science,﹄for special recommendation. Mr. Charles Watts,
succeeding to Mr. Austin Holyoake's business, continued the sale, and,
when Mr. Watson died, in 1875, he bought the plates of the work (with
others) from Mrs. Watson, and continued to advertise and to sell it until
December 23, 1876. For the last forty years the book has thus been
identified with freethought, advertised by leading freethinkers, published
under the sanction of their names, and sold in the headquarters of
freethought literature. If, during this long period, the party has thus—without
one word of protest—circulated an indecent work, the less we talk
about freethought morality the better; the work has been largely sold,
and, if leading freethinkers have sold it—profiting by the sale—through
mere carelessness, few words could be strong enough to brand the
indifference which thus scattered obscenity broadcast over the land. The
pamphlet has been withdrawn from circulation in consequence of the
prosecution instituted against Mr. Charles Watts, but the question of its
legality or illegality has not been tried; a plea of "Guilty" was put in
by the publisher, and the book, therefore, was not examined, nor was any
judgment passed upon it; no jury registered a verdict, and the judge
stated that he had not read the work.
We republish this pamphlet, honestly believing that on all questions
affecting the happiness of the people, whether they be theological,
political or social, fullest right of free discussion ought to be
maintained at all hazards. We do not personally indorse all that Dr.
Knowles says: his "Philosophical Proem" seems to us full of philosophical
mistakes, and—as we are neither of us doctors—we are not
prepared to indorse his medical views; but since progress can only be made
through discussion, and no discussion is possible where differing opinions
are suppressed, we claim the right to publish all opinions, so that the
public, enabled to see all sides of a question, may have the materials for
forming a sound judgment.
The alterations made are very slight, the book was badly printed, and
errors of spelling and a few clumsy grammatical expressions have been
corrected; the subtitle has been changed, and in one case four lines have
been omitted, because they are repeated word for word further on. We have,
however, made some additions to the pamphlet, which are in all cases kept
distinct from the original text. Physiology has made great strides during
the past forty years, and not considering it right to circulate erroneous
physiology, we submitted the pamphlet to a doctor in whose accurate
knowledge we have the fullest confidence, and who is widely known in all
parts of the world as the author of the "Elements of Social Science;" the
notes signed "G. B." are written by this gentleman. References to other
works are given in foot-notes for the assistance of the reader, if he
desires to study up the subject further.
Old Radicals will remember that Richard Carlile published a work entitled
"Every Woman's Book," which deals with the same subject and advocates the
same object as Dr. Knowlton's pamphlet R. D. Owen objected to the﹃style
and tone﹄of Carlile's "Every Woman's Book," as not being in "good taste,"
and he wrote his "Moral Physiology" to do in America what Carlile's work
was intended to do in England. This work of Carlile's was stigmatized as
"indecent" and "immoral," because it advocated, as does Dr. Knowlton's,
the use of preventive checks to population. In striving to carry on
Carlile's work, we cannot expect to escape Carlile's reproach; but,
whether applauded or condemned, we mean to carry it on, socially as well
as politically and theologically.
We believe, with the Rev. Mr. Malthus, that population has a tendency to
increase faster than the means of existence, and that some checks
must therefore exercise control over population. The checks now exercised
are semi-starvation and preventable disease; the enormous mortality among
the infants of the poor is one of the checks which now keep down the
population. The checks that ought to control population are scientific,
and it is these which we advocate. We think it more moral to prevent the
conception of children than, after they are born, to murder them by want
of food, air and clothing. We advocate scientific checks to population,
because, so long as poor men have large families, pauperism is a
necessity, and from pauperism grow crime and disease. The wages which
would support the parents and two or three children in comfort and
decency, is utterly insufficient to maintain a family of twelve or
fourteen, and we consider it a crime to bring into the world human beings
doomed to misery or to premature death. It is not only the hard-working
classes which are concerned in this question. The poor preacher, the
struggling man of business, the young professional man, are often made
wretched for life by their inordinately large families, and their years
are passed in one long battle to live; meanwhile, the woman's health is
sacrificed and her life embittered from the same cause. To all of these we
point the way of relief and happiness; for the sake of these we publish
what others fear to issue; and we do it confident that if we fail the
first time, we shall succeed at last, and that the English public will not
permit the authorities to stifle a discussion of the most important social
question which can influence a nation's welfare.
Charles Bradlaugh.
Annie Besant.
PHILOSOPHICAL PROEM
Consciousness is not a "principle" or substance of any kind, nor is it,
strictly speaking, a property of any substance or being. It is a peculiar
action of the nervous system, and the system is said to be sensible, or to
possess the property of sensibility, because those sentient actions which
constitute our different consciousnesses may be excited in it. The nervous
system includes not only the brain and spinal marrow, but numerous soft
white cords, called nerves, which extend from the brain and spinal marrow
to every part of the body in which a sensation can be excited.
A sensation is a sentient action of a nerve and the brain; a thought or
idea (both the same thing) is a sentient action of the brain alone. A
sensation or a thought is consciousness, and there is no consciousness but
that which consists either in a sensation or a thought.
Agreeable consciousness constitutes what we call happiness, and
disagreeable consciousness constitutes misery. As sensations are a higher
degree of consciousness than mere thought, it follows that agreeable
sensations constitute a more exquisite happiness than agreeable thoughts.
That portion of happiness which consists in agreeable sensations is
commonly called pleasure. No thoughts are agreeable except those which
were originally excited by or have been associated with agreeable
sensations. Hence, if a person never had experienced any agreeable
sensations, he could have no agreeable thoughts, and would, of course, be
an entire stranger to happiness.
There are five species of sensations—seeing, hearing, smelling,
tasting and feeling. There are many varieties of feeling—as the
feelings of hunger, thirst, cold, hardness, etc. Many of these feelings
are excited by agents that act upon the exterior of the body, such as
solid substances of every kind, heat, and various chemical irritants.
These latter feelings are called passions.
Those passions which owe their existence chiefly to the state of the
brain, or to causes acting directly upon the brain, are called the moral
passion. They are grief, anger, love, etc. They consist of sentient
actions, which commence in the brain and extend to the nerves in the
region of the stomach, etc. But when the cause of the internal feeling of
passion is seated in some organ remote from the brain, as in the stomach,
genital organs, etc., the sentient action which constitutes the passion
commences in the nerves of such organ and extends to the brain, and the
passion is called an appetite, instinct, or desire. Some of these
passions are natural, as hunger, thirst, the reproductive instinct, the
desire to urinate, etc. Others are gradually acquired by habit A hankering
for stimulants, as spirits, opium and tobacco, is one of these.
Such is the nature of things that our most vivid and agreeable sensations
cannot be excited under all circumstances, nor beyond a certain extent
under any circumstances, without giving rise in one way or another to an
amount of disagreeable consciousness or misery, exceeding the amount of
agreeable consciousness which attends such ill-timed or excessive
gratification. To excite agreeable sensations to a degree not exceeding
this certain extent is temperance; to excite them beyond this extent is
intemperance; not to excite them at all is mortification or abstinence.
This certain extent varies with different individuals, according to their
several circumstances, so that what would be temperance in one person may
be intemperance in another.
To be free from disagreeable consciousness is to be in a state which,
compared with a state of misery, is a happy state; yet absolute happiness
does not exist in the absence of misery, if it does, rocks are happy. It
consists, as aforesaid, in agreeable consciousness. That which enables a
person to excite or maintain agreeable consciousness is not happiness; but
the idea of having such in one's possession is agreeable, and of
course is a portion of happiness. Health and wealth go far in enabling a
person to excite and maintain agreeable consciousness. That which gives
rise to agreeable consciousness is good, and we desire it. If we
use it intemperately, such use is bad, but the thing itself is still good.
Those acts (and intentions are acts of that part of man which intends) of
human beings which tend to the promotion of happiness are good, but they
are also called virtuous, to distinguish them from other things of
the same tendency. There is nothing for the word virtue to signify,
but virtuous actions. Sin signifies nothing but sinful actions, and
sinful, wicked, vicious, or bad actions are those which are productive of
more misery than happiness.
When an individual gratifies any of his instincts in a temperate
degree, he adds an item to the sum total of human happiness, and causes
the amount of human happiness to exceed the amount of misery farther than
if he had not enjoyed himself, therefore it is virtuous, or, to say the
least, it is not vicious or sinful for him to do so. But it must ever be
remembered that this temperate degree depends on circumstances; that one
person's health, pecuniary circumstances, or social relation may be such
that it would cause more misery than happiness for him to do an act which
being done by a person under different circumstances would cause more
happiness than misery. Therefore, it would be right for the latter to
perform such act, but not for the former.
Again: owing to his ignorance, a man may not be able to gratify a
desire without causing misery (wherefore it would be wrong for him to do
it), but with knowledge of means to prevent this misery, he may so gratify
it that more pleasure than pain will be the result of the act, in which
case the act, to say the least, is justifiable. Now, therefore, it is
virtuous, nay, it is the duty, for him who has a knowledge of such
means, to convey it to those who have it not, for by so doing he furthers
the cause of human happiness.
Man by nature is endowed with the talent of devising means to remedy or
prevent the evils that are liable to arise from gratifying our appetites;
and it is as much the duty of the physician to inform mankind of the means
to prevent the evils that are liable to arise from gratifying the
productive instinct as it is to inform them how to keep clear of the gout
or dyspepsia. Let not the old ascetic say we ought not to gratify our
appetites any further than is necessary to maintain health and to
perpetuate the species. Mankind will not so abstain, and if any means to
prevent the evils that may arise from a farther gratification can be
devised, they need not. Heaven has not only given us the capacity
of greater enjoyment, but the talent of devising means to prevent the
evils that are liable to arise therefrom, and it becomes us,﹃with
thanksgiving,﹄to make the most of them.
FRUITS OF PHILOSOPHY.
CHAPTER I. TO LIMIT AT WILL THE NUMBER OF THEIR OFFSPRING
Showing how desirable it is, both in a political and a social point of
view, for mankind to be able to limit at WILL THE NUMBER OF THEIR
OFFSPRING, WITHOUT SACRIFICING THE PLEASURE THAT ATTENDS THE GRATIFICATION
OF THE REPRODUCTIVE INSTINCT.
First.—-In a political point of view.—If population be
not restrained by some great physical calamity, such as we have reason to
hope will not hereafter be visited upon the children of men, or by some moral
restraint, the time will come when the earth cannot support its
inhabitants. Population unrestrained will double three times in a century.
Hence, computing the present population of the earth at 1,000 millions,
there would be at the end of 100 years from the present time, 8,000
millions.
At the end of 200 years, 64,000 millions.
" " 300 " 512,000 "
And so on, multiplying by eight for every additional hundred years. So
that in 500 years from the present time there would be thirty-two thousand
seven hundred and sixty eight times as many inhabitants as at present. If
the natural increase should go on without check for 1,500 years, one
single pair would increase to more than thirty-five thousand one
hundred and eighty-four times as many as the present population of the
whole earth!
Some check then there must be, or the time will come when millions will be
born but to suffer and to perish for the necessaries of life. To what an
inconceivable amount of human misery would such a state of things give
rise! And must we say that vice, war, pestilence and famine are desirable
to prevent it? Must the friends of temperance and domestic happiness stay
their efforts? Must peace societies excite to war and bloodshed? Must the
physician cease to investigate the nature of contagion, and to search for
the means of destroying its baneful influence? Must he that becomes
diseased be marked as a victim to die for public good, without the
privilege of making an effort to restore him to health? And in case of a
failure of crops in one part of the world, must the other parts withhold
the means of supporting life that the far greater evil of excessive
population throughout the world may be prevented? Can there be no
effectual moral restraint, attended with far less human misery than such
physical calamities as these? Most surely there can. But what is it?
Malthus, an English writer on the subject of population, gives us none but
celibacy to a late age. But how foolish it is to suppose that men and
women will become as monks and nuns during the very holiday of their
existence, and abjure during the fairest years of life the nearest and
dearest of social relations, to avert a catastrophe which they and perhaps
their children will not live to witness. But, besides being ineffectual,
or if effectual, requiring a great sacrifice of enjoyment, this restraint
is highly objectionable on the score of its demoralizing tendency. It
would give rise to a frightful increase of prostitution, of intemperance
and onanism, and prove destructive to health and moral feelings. In spite
of preaching, human nature will ever remain the same; and that restraint
which forbids the gratification of the reproductive instinct will avail
but little with the mass of mankind. The checks to be hereafter mentioned
are the only moral restraints to population known to the writer that are
unattended with serious objections.
Besides starvation, with all its accompanying evils, overpopulation is
attended with other public evils, of which may be mentioned, ignorance and
slavery. Where the mass of the people must toil incessantly to obtain
support, they must remain ignorant; and where ignorance prevails, tyranny
reigns.*
* The scientific part of Malthus' Doctrine of Population is
not very clearly or correctly given in the above passages.
His great theory, now or generally held by the most eminent
political economists, is that the increase of population is
always powerfully checked in old countries by the difficulty
in increasing the supply of food; that the existing evils of
poverty and low wages are really at bottom caused by this
check, and are brought about by the pressure of population
on the soil, and the continual overstocking of the labor
markets with laborers; and hence that the only way in which
society can escape from poverty, with all its miseries, is
by putting a strong restraint on their natural powers of
multiplication. "It is not in the nature of things," he
says, "that any permanent and general improvement in the
condition of the poor can be effected without an increase in
the preventive checks to population."—G. R.
Second—In a social point of view.—"Is it not notorious
that the families of the married often increase beyond which a regard for
the young beings coming into the world, and the happiness of those who
give them birth, would dictate. In how many instances does the
hard-working father, and more especially the mother, of a poor family
remain slave throughout their lives, tugging at the oar of incessant
labor, toiling to live, and living to toil; when, if their offspring had
been limited to two or three only, they might have enjoyed comfort and
comparative affluence? How often is the health of the mother, giving birth
every year to an infant—happy if it be not twins—and compelled
to toil on, even at those times when nature imperiously calls for some
relief from daily drudgery,—how often is the mother's comfort,
health, nay, even her life, thus sacrificed? Or if care and toil have
weighed down the spirit, and at length broken the health of the father;
how often is the widow left unable, with the most virtuous intentions, to
save her fatherless offspring from becoming degraded objects of charity,
or profligate votaries of vice!
"Nor is this all. Many women are so constituted that they cannot give
birth to healthy, sometimes not to living children. Is it desirable, is it
moral, that such women should become pregnant? Yet this is continually the
case. Others there are who ought never to become parents; because, if they
do, it is only to transmit to their offspring grievous hereditary
diseases, which render such offspring mere subjects of misery throughout
their sickly existence. Yet such women will not lead a life of celibacy.
They marry. They become parents, and the sum of human misery is increased
by their doing so. But it is folly to expect that we can induce such
persons to live the lives of Shakers. Nor is it necessary; all that duty
requires of them is to refrain from becoming parents. Who can estimate the
beneficial effect which a rational moral restraint may thus have on the
health and beauty and physical improvement of our race throughout future
generations?"
Let us now turn our attention to the case of unmarried youth.
"Almost all young persons, on reaching the age of maturity, desire to
marry. That heart must be very cold, or very isolated, that does not find
some object on which to bestow its affections. Thus, early marriage would
be almost universal did not prudential consideration interfere. The young
man thinks, 'I cannot marry yet; I cannot support a family. I must make
money first, and think of a matrimonial settlement afterwards.'
"And so he goes to making money, fully and sincerely resolved in a few
years to share it with her whom he now loves. But passions are strong and
temptations great. Curiosity, perhaps, introduces him into the company of
those poor creatures whom society first reduces to a dependence on the
most miserable of mercenary trades, and then curses for being what she has
made them. There his health and moral feelings are alike made shipwreck.
The affections he had thought to treasure up for their first object are
chilled by dissipation and blunted by excess. He scarcely retains a
passion but avarice. Years pass on—years of profligacy and
speculation—and his wish is accomplished, his fortune is made. Where
now are the feelings and resolve of his youth?
'Like the dew on the mountain,
Like the foam on the river,
Like the bubbles on the fountain,
They are gone—and forever.'
"He is a man of pleasure, a man of the world. He laughs at the romance of
his youth, and marries a fortune. If gaudy equipage and gay parties confer
happiness, he is happy. But if these be only the sunshine on the stormy
sea below, he is a victim to that system of morality which forbids a
reputable connection until the period when provision has been made for a
large expected family. Had he married the first object of his choice, and
simply delayed becoming a father until his prospects seemed to warrant it,
how different might have been his lot. Until men and women are absolved
from the fear of becoming parents, except when they themselves desire it,
they will ever form mercenary and demoralizing connections, and seek in
dissipation the happiness they might have found in domestic life.
"I know that this, however common, is not a universal case. Sometimes the
heavy responsibilities of a family are incurred at all risks; and who
shall say how often a life of unremitting toil and poverty is the
consequence. Sometimes, if even rarely, the young mind does hold its first
resolves. The youth plods through years of cold celibacy and solitary
anxiety, happy if, before the best hours of his life are gone and its
warmest feelings withered, he may return to claim the reward of his
forbearance and his industry. But even in this comparatively happy case,
shall we count for nothing the years of ascetic sacrifice at which after
happiness is purchased? The days of youth are not too many, nor its
affections too lasting. We may, indeed, if a great object require it,
sacrifice the one and mortify the other. But is this, in itself,
desirable? Does not wisdom tell us that such a sacrifice is a dead loss—to
the warm-hearted often a grievous one? Does not wisdom bid us temperately
enjoy the springtimes of life, 'while the evil day come not, nor the years
draw nigh, when we shall say we have no pleasure in them?'
"Let us say, then, if we will, that the youth who thus sacrifices the
present for the future, chooses wisely between the two evils, profligacy
and asceticism. This is true. But let us not imagine the lesser evil to be
good. It is not good for man to be alone. It is for no man or
woman's happiness or benefit that they should be condemned to Shakerism.
It is a violence done to the feelings and an injury to the character. A
life of rigid celibacy, though infinitely preferable to a life of
dissipation, is yet fraught with many evils. Peevishness, restlessness,
vague longings and instability of character, are amongst the least of
these. The mind is unsettled, and the judgment warped. Even the very
instinct which is thus mortified assumes an undue importance, and occupies
a portion of the thoughts which does not of right or nature belong to it,
and which, during a life of satisfied affection, it would not obtain."
In many instances, the genital organs are rendered so irritable by the
repletion to which unnatural continency gives rise, and by the much
thinking caused by such repletion, as to induce a disease known to medical
men by the name of Gonorrhoea Dormientium. It consists in an
emission or discharge of the semen during sleep. This discharge is
immediately excited in most instances by a lascivious dream, but such
dream is caused by the repletion and irritability of the genital organs.
It is truly astonishing to what a degree of mental anguish the disease
gives rise in young men. They do not understand the nature, or rather, the
cause of it. They think it depends on a weakness—indeed, the disease
is often called a "seminal weakness"—and that the least
gratification in a natural way would but serve to increase it. Their
anxiety about it weakens the whole system. This weakness they erroneously
attribute to the discharges; they think themselves totally disqualified
for entering into or enjoying the married state. Finally, the genital and
mental organs act and react upon each other so perniciously as to cause a
degree of nervousness, debility, emaciation and melancholy—in a
word, wretchedness that sets description at defiance. Nothing is so
effectual in curing this diseased state of a body and mind in young men as
marriage. All restraint, fear and solicitude should be removed.
"Inasmuch, then, as the scruples of incurring heavy responsibilities deter
from forming moral connections and encourage intemperance and
prostitution, the knowledge which enables man to limit the number of his
offspring would, in the present state of things, save much unhappi-ness
and prevent many crimes. Young persons sincerely attached to each other,
and who might wish to marry, should marry early, merely resolving not to
become parents until prudence permitted it. The young man, instead of
solitary toil and vulgar dissipation, would enjoy the society and the
assistance of her he has chosen as his companion; and the best years of
life, whose pleasures never return, would not be squandered in riot, nor
lost through mortification."*
* The passages quoted are from Robert Dale Owen's "Moral
Physiology."
CHAPTER II. ON GENERATION
I hold the following to be important and undeniable troths: That every man
has a natural right both to receive and convey a knowledge of all the
facts and discoveries of every art and science, excepting such only as may
be secured to some particular person or persons by copyright or patent;
that a physical truth in its general effect cannot be a moral evil; that
no fact in physics or in morals ought to be concealed from the inquiring
mind.
Some may make a misuse of knowledge, but that is their fault; and it is
not right that one person should be deprived of knowledge, of spirits, of
razors, or of anything else which is harmless in itself and may be useful
to him, because another may misuse it.
The subject on generation is not only interesting as a branch of science,
but it is so connected with the happiness of mankind that it is highly
important in a practical point of view. Such, to be sure, is the custom of
the age, that it is not considered a proper subject to investigate before
a popular assembly, nor is it proper to attend the calls of nature in a
like place; yet they must and ought to be attended to, for the good, the
happiness of mankind require it; so, too, for like reason, the subject of
generation ought to be investigated until it be rightly understood by all
people, but at such opportunities as the good sense of every individual
will easily decide to be proper. This, I presume to say, not simply upon
the abstract principle that all knowledge of Nature's workings is useful,
and the want of it disadvantageous, but from the known moral fact that
ignorance of this process has in many instances proved the cause of a
lamentable "mishap," and more especially as it is essential to the
attainment of the great advantage, which it is the chief object of this
work to bestow upon mankind.
People generally, as it was the case with physicians until late years,
entertain a very erroneous idea of what takes place in the conception.
Agreeably to this idea the "check" which I consider far preferable to any
other, would not be effectual, as would be obvious to all. Consequently,
entertaining this idea, people would not have due confidence in it. Hence,
it is necessary to correct a long-held and widely extended error. But this
I cannot expect to do by simply saying it is an error. Deeply rooted and
hitherto undisputed opinions are not so easily eradicated. If I would
convince any one that the steps in one of the most recondite processes of
nature are not such as he has always believed, it will greatly serve my
purpose to show what these steps are. I must first prepare him to be
reasoned with, and then reason the matter all over with him. I must point
out the facts which disprove his opinion, and show that my own is
unattended with difficulties.
But what can be more obvious than that it is absolutely impossible to
explain any process or function of the animal economy, so as to be
understood, before the names of the organs which perform this function
have been defined, that is, before the organs themselves have been
described. Now it is well known to every anatomist, and indeed it may be
obvious to all, that in describing any organ or system of organs, we must
always begin with some external and known parts, and proceed regularly,
step by step, to the internal and unknown. As in arithmetic, "everything
must be understood as you go along."*
* This is an Americanism, which appears to us to convey a
false idea. If it refers to the cases used as illustrations,
Dr. Knowlton is more sparing in his use of them than either
Dr. Bull or Dr. Chavasse.—Publishers' Note.
Fully to effect the objects of this work, it is, therefore, a matter of
necessity that I give an anatomical description of certain parts—even
external parts—which some, but imagine what I have just said, might
think it useless to mention. It is not to gratify the idle curiosity of
the light-minded that this book is written; it is for utility in
the broad and truly philosophical sense of the term; nay, farther, it
shall with the exception of here and there a little spicing*, have
confined to practical utility. I shall, therefore, endeaver to
treat of the subject in this chapter so as to be understood, without
giving any description of the male organs of generation; though I hold it
an accomplishment for one be able to speak of those organs, as diseases
often put them under the necessity of doing, without being compelled use
low and vulgar language. But I must briefly describe the female organs; in
doing which I must, of course, speak as do other anatomists and
physiologists; and whoever objects to this will discover more affectation
and prudery than good sense and good will to mankind.
The adipose, or fatty matter, immediately over the share bone, forms a
considerable prominence in females, which, at the age of puberty, is
covered with hair, as in males. This prominence is called Mons Veneris.
The exterior orifice commences immediately below this. On each side of
this orifice is a prominence continued from the mons veneris, which is
largest above and gradually diminishes as it descends. These two
prominences are called the Labia Externa, or external lips. Near the
latter end of pregnancy they become somewhat enlarged and relaxed, so that
they sustain little or no injury during parturition. Just within the upper
or anterior commissure, formed by the junction of these lips, a little
round oblong body is situated. The body is called the clitoris. Most of
its length is bound down, as it were, pretty closely to the bone; and it
is of very variable size in different females. Instances have occurred
where it was so enlarged as to allow the female to have venereal commerce
with others; and in Paris this fact was once made a public exhibition to
the medical faculty. Women thus formed appear to partake in their general
form of the male character, and are called hermaphrodites. The idea of
human beings, called hermaphrodites, which could be either father or
mother, is, doubtless, erroneous. The clitoris is analogous in its
structure to the penis, and like it, is exquisitely sensitive, being, as
it is supposed, the principal seat of pleasure. It is subject to erection
or distension, like the penis, from like causes.
The skin which lines the internal surface of the external lips is folded
in such manner as to form two flat bodies, the exterior edges of which are
convex. They are called the nymphse. They extend downward, one on each
side, from the clitoris to near the middle of the external orifice,
somewhat diverging from each other. Their use is not very evident The
orifice of the urethra (the canal, short in females, which leads to the
bladder) is situated an inch or more farther inward than the clitoris, and
is a little protuberant.
Passing by the external lips, the clitoris, the nymphse and the orifice of
the urethra, we come to the membrane called the hymen. It is situated just
at, or a trifle behind the orifice of the urethra. It is stretched across
the passage, and were it a complete septum, it would close up the anterior
extremity of that portion of the passage which is called the vagina. But
the instances in which the septum or partition is complete are very rare,
there being, in almost all cases, an aperture either in its center, or
frequently in its anterior edge, giving the membrane the form of a
crescent Through this aperture passes the menstrual fluid. Sometimes,
however, this septum is complete, and the menstrual fluid is retained
month after month, until appearances and symptoms much like those of
pregnancy are produced, giving rise to perhaps unjust suspicions. Such
cases require the simple operation of dividing the hymen. In many
instances the hymen is very imperfect, insomuch that some have doubted
whether it is to be found in the generality of virgins. Where it exists it
is generally ruptured in the first intercourse of the sexes, and the
female is said to lose her virginity. In some rare instances it is so very
strong as not to be ruptured by such intercourse, and the nature of the
difficulty not being understood, the husband has sued for a divorce. But
everything may be put to rights by a slight surgical operation. The parts
here described are among those called the external parts of generation.
The internal organs of generation consist in the female of the Vagina, the
Uterus, the Ovaries and their appendages.
The Vagina is a membranous canal commencing at the hymen and extending to
the uterus. It is a little curved, and extends backward and upward between
the bladder, which lies before and above it, and that extreme portion of
the bowels called the rectum, which lies behind it. The coat of membrane
which lines the internal surface of the vagina forms a number of
transverse ridges. These are to be found only in the lower or anterior
half of the vagina, and they do not extend all round the vagina, but are
situated on its anterior and posterior sides, while their lateral sides
are smooth. I mention these ridges because a knowledge of them may lead to
a more effectual use of one of the checks to be made known hereafter.
The uterus or womb is also situated between the bladder and the rectum,
but above the vagina. Such is its shape that it has been compared to a
pear with a long neck. There is, of course, considerable difference
between the body and the neck, the first being twice as broad as the last.
Each of these parts is somewhat flattened. In subjects of mature age, who
have been pregnant, the whole of the uterus is about two inches and a half
in length, and more than an inch and a half in breadth at the broadest
part of the body. It is near an inch in thickness. The neck of the uterus
is situated downward, and may be said to be inserted into the upper
extremity of the vagina. It extends down into the vagina the better part
of an inch. In the uterus is a cavity which approaches the triangular
form, and from which a canal passes down through the neck of the uterus
into the vagina. This cavity is so small that its sides are almost in
contact So that the uterus is a thick, firm organ for so small a one.
Comparing the cavity of the uterus to a triangle, we say the upper side or
line of this triangle is transverse with respect to the body, and the
other two lines pass downward and inward, so that they would form an angle
below, did they not before they meet take a turn more directly downward to
form the canal just mentioned. In each of the upper angles there is an
orifice of such size as to admit of a hog's bristle. These little orifices
are the mouths of two tubes, called the Fallopian tubes, of which more
will be said presently. The canal which passes through the neck of the
uterus, connecting the cavity of this organ with that of the vagina, is
about a quarter of an inch in diameter. It is different from other ducts,
for it seems to be a part of the cavity from which it extends, inasmuch as
when the cavity of the uterus is enlarged in the progress of pregnancy,
this canal is gradually converted into a part of that cavity.
The lower extremity of the neck of the uterus is irregularly convex and
tumid. The orifice of the canal in it is oval, and so situated that it
divides the convex surface of the lower extremity of the neck in two
portions, which are called the lips of the uterus. The anterior is thicker
than the posterior. The orifice itself is called os tincæoros
uteri, or in English, the mouth of the womb. When the parts are in a
weak, relaxed state, the mouth or neck of the uterus is quite low, and in
almost all oases it may be reached by a finger introduced into the vagina,
especially by a second person, who carries the hand behind.
The Ovaries are two bodies of a flattened or oval form, one of which is
situated on each side of the uterus at a little distance from it, and
about as high up as where the uterus becomes narrow to form its neck. The
longest diameter of the ovarium is about an inch. Each ovarium has a firm
coat of membrane. In those who have not been pregnant, it contains from
ten to twenty vesicles, which are little round bodies, formed of a
delicate membrane, and filled with a transparent fluid. Some of these
vesicles are situated so near the surface of the ovarium as to be
prominent on its surface. They are of different sizes, the largest nearly
a quarter of a inch in diameter.*
* The vesicles here mentioned are the so-called Graafian
vesicles, or ovisacs, each of which contains in its interior
a little ovum or egg. In the human female the ovum is
extremely minute, so as only to be visible with the aid of a
lens. The Graafian vesicles are not limited to a certain
small number, as was formerly thought, but continue to be
formed in the ovaries, and to discharge at intervals mature
ova during the whole of the fruitful period.—G. R.
In those in whom conception has ever taken place, some of these vesicles
are removed, and in their place a cicatrix or scar is formed which
continues through life. However, the number of cicatrices does not always
correspond with the number of conceptions. They often exceed it, and are
sometimes found where conception has not been known to take place. The
Fallopian Tubes are two canals four or five inches in length, proceeding
from the upper angles of the cavity of the uterus, in a transverse
direction in respect to the body. Having so proceeded for some distance
they turn downward toward the ovaries. At their commencement in the uterus
they are very small, but they enlarge as much as they progress. The large
ends, which hang loose, terminate in open mouths, the margins of which
consist of fimbriated processes, and nearly touch the ovaria.
We are now prepared to treat of conception. Yet, as menstruation is
closely connected with it, and as a knowledge of many things concerning
menstruation may contribute much to the well-being of females, for whom
this work is at least as much designed as for males, I shall first briefly
treat of this subject.
Menstruation.—When females arrive at the age of puberty they begin
to have a discharge once every month, by way of the vagina, of the color
of blood. This discharge is termed the menses. To have it is to
menstruate. The age at which menstruation commences varies with different
individuals, and also in different climates. The warmer the climate the
earlier it commences and ceases. In temperate climates it generally
commences at the age of fourteen or fifteen, and it ceases at forty-four,
or a little later. *
Whenever it commences the girl acquires a more womanly appearance. It is a
secretion of the uterus, or, in other words, the minute vessels
distributed to the inner coat of uterus, select as it were, from the
blood, and pour out in a gradual manner the materials of this fluid. It
has one of the properties, color, of blood, but it does not coagulate, or
separate into different parts like blood, and cannot properly be called
blood.**
* Dr. Chavasse, on p. 94 of his "Advice to a Wife"
published by W. H. Smith & Son gives instances of very
early menstruation and consequent fecundity.—Publishers'
note,
** "The menstrual discharge," says Dr. Kirkes, "consists of
blood effused from the inner surface of the uterus, and
mixed with mucus from the uterus, vagina, and the external
parts of the generative apparatus. Being diluted by this
admixture, the menstrual blood coagulates less perfectly
than ordinary blood; and the frequent acidity of the vaginal
mucus tends still further to diminish its coagulability."—
Handbook of Physiology, 8th ed., p. 727, 1874.—G. R.
When this discharge is in all respects regular, it amounts in most females
to six or eight ounces, and from two to four days' continuance. During its
continuance the women is said to be unwell, or out of order. Various
unpleasant feelings are liable to attend it; but when it is attended with
severe pain, as it not infrequently is, it becomes a disease, and the
woman is not likely to conceive until it is cured. During the existence of
the "turns," or "monthlies," as they are often called, indigestible food,
dancing in warm rooms, sudden exposure to cold or wet, and mental
agitations, should be avoided as much as possible. The "turns" do not
continue during pregnancy, nor nursing, unless nursing be continued after
the "turns" recommence. Some women, it is true, are subject to a slight
hemorrhage that sometimes occurs with considerable regularity during
pregnancy, and which has led them to suppose they have their turns at such
times; but it is not so; the discharge at such times is real blood.*
* Consult on the whole of this Dr. Chavasse's book, pp. 91-
101, where full details are given.—Publishers' note.
The use of the menstrual discharge seems to be to prepare the uterine
system for conception. For females do not become pregnant before they
commence, nor after they cease having turns; nor while they are suppressed
by some disease, by cold or by nursing. Some credible women, however, have
said that they become pregnant while nursing, without having had any turn
since their last lying-in. It is believed that in these oases they had
some discharge, colorless, perhaps, which they did not notice, but which
answered the purposes of the common one. Women are not nearly so likely to
conceive during the week before a monthly as during the week immediately
after.* But although the use of this secretion seems to be to prepare for
conception, it is not to be inferred that the reproductive instinct ceases
at the "turn of life," or when the woman ceases to menstruate. On the
contrary, it is said that this passion often increases at this period, and
continues in a greater or less degree to an extreme age.
* See, however, Dr. Bull's "Hints to Mothers," pp. 31-58,
and 127-129 (published by Longmans, Green & Co.)—
Publishers' note.
Conception.—The part performed by the male in the reproduction of
the species consists in exciting the organism of the female, and
depositing the semen in the vagina. Before I inquire what takes place in
the females I propose to speak of the semen.
This fluid, which is secreted by the testicles, may be said to possess
three kinds of properties, physical, chemical, physiological. Its physical
properties are known to every one—it is a thickish, nearly opaque
fluid, of a peculiar odor, saltish taste, etc. As to its chemical
properties, it is found by analysis to consist of 900 parts of water, 60
of animal muscilage, 10 of soda, 30 of phosphate of lime. Its
physiological property is that of exciting the female genital organs in a
peculiar manner.
When the semen is examined by microscope, there can be distinguished a
multitude of small animalculæ, which appear to have a rounded head and a
long tail. These animalculæ move with a certain degree of rapidity. They
appear to avoid the light and to delight in the shade. Leeuwenhoek, if not
the discoverer of the seminal animalculse, was the first who brought the
fact of their existence fully before the public. With respect to their
size, he remarked that ten thousand of them might exist in a space not
larger than a grain of sand. They have a definite figure, and are
obviously different from the animalculse found in any other fluid.*
* See Dr. Carpenter's "Animal Physiology," p. 558 (published
by H. G. Bonn); Nichol's "Human Physiology," pp. 253-255
(published by Trubner & Co.)—Publishers' note.
Leeuwenhoek believed them to be the beginnings of future animals—that
they are of different sexes, upon which depends the future sex of the
foetus. Be this as it may, it appears to be admitted on all hands that the
animalculæ are present in the semen of the various species of male
animals, and that they cannot be detected when either from age or disease
the animals are rendered sterile. "Hence," says Bostock,﹃we can scarcely
refuse our assent to the position that these animalculæ are in some way or
other instrumental to the production of the foetus.﹄The secretion of the
semen commences at the age of puberty. Before this period the testicles
secrete a viscid, transparent fluid, which has never been analyzed, but
which is doubtless essentially different from semen. The revolution which
the whole economy undergoes at this period, such as the tone of the voice,
and development of hairs, the beard, the increase of the muscles and
bones, etc., is intimately connected with the testicles and the secretion
of this fluid.* "Eunuchs preserve the same form as in childhood; their
voice is effeminate, they have no beard, their disposition is timid; and
finally their physical and moral character very nearly resembles that of
females. Nevertheless, many of them take delight in venereal intercourse,
and give themselves up with ardor to a connection which must always prove
unfruitful."**
* Nichol's "Human Physiology," pp. 256-257.
—Publishers' note
** Magendic's Physiology.—Author's note.
The part performed by the female in the reproduction of the species is far
more complicated than that performed by the male. It consists, in the
first instance, in providing a substance which, in connection with the
male secretion, is to constitute the foetus; in furnishing a suitable
situation in which the foetus may be developed; in affording due
nourishment for its growth; in bringing it forth, and afterward furnishing
it with food especially adapted to the digestive organs of the young
animal. Some parts of this process are not well understood, and such
variety of hypotheses have been proposed to explain them that Drelincourt,
who lived in the latter part of the seventeenth century, is said to have
collected two hundred and sixty hypotheses of generation.
It ought to be known that women have conceived when the semen was merely
applied to the parts anterior to the hymen, as the internal surface of the
external lips, the nymphæ, etc. This is proved by the fact that several
cases of pregnancy have occurred when the hymen was entire. The fact need
not surprise us, for, agreeable to the theory of absorption, we have to
account for it only to suppose that some of the absorbent vessels are
situated anterior to the hymen—a supposition by no means
unreasonable.
There are two peculiarities of the human species respecting conception
which I will notice. First, unlike other animals they are liable, and for
what has been proved to the contrary, equally liable—to conceive at
all seasons of the year. Second, a woman rarely, if ever, conceives until
after having several sexual connections; nor does one connection in fifty
cause conception in the matrimonial state, where the husband and wife live
together uninterruptedly. Public women rarely conceive, owing probably to
a weakened state of the genital system, induced by too frequent and
promiscuous intercourse.
It is universally agreed, that some time after a fruitful connection, a
vesicle (two in case of twins) of one or the other ovary becomes so
enlarged that it bursts forth from the ovary and takes the name of ovum,
which is taken up, or rather received, as it bursts forth, by the
fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube, and is then conducted along
the tube into the uterus, to the inner surface of which it attaches
itself.*
* Since Dr. Knowlton's work was written, the very important
fact has been discovered that ova are periodically
discharged from the ovaries in the human female and other
animals, not in consequence of fruitful connection having
taken place, as was formerly believed, but quite
independently of intercourse with the male. Such a discharge
of ova occurs in the lower animals at the time of heat or
rut, and in women during menstruation. At each menstrual
period, a Graafian vesicle becomes enlarged, bursts, and
lets the ovum which it contains escape into the Fallopian
tube, along which it passes to the uterus.『It has long been
known,』says Dr. Kirke, "that in the so-called oviparous
animals, the separation of ova from the ovary may take place
independently of impregnation by the male, or even of sexual
union. And it is now established that a like maturation and
discharge of ova, independently of coition, occurs in
Mammalia, the periods at which the matured ova are separated
from the ovaries and received into the Fallopian tubes being
indicated in the lower Mammalia by the phenomena of heatorrut; in the human female by the phenomena of
menstruation. Sexual desire manifests itself in the human
female to a greater degree at these periods, and in the
female of mammiferous animals at no other time. If the union
of the sexes takes place, the ovum may be fecundated, and if
no union occur, it perishes. From what has been said it may
therefore be concluded that the two states, heat and
menstruation, are analogous, and that the essential
accompaniment of both is the maturation and extrusion of
ova."—"Handbook of Physiology," page 724.—G. R.
Here it becomes developed into a full grown foetus, and is brought forth
about forty-two weeks from the time of conception by a process termed
parturition. But one grand question is, how the semen operates itself, or
any part thereof reaches the ovary, and if so, in what way it is conveyed
to them. It was long the opinion that the semen was ejected into the
uterus in the act of coition, and that it afterward, by some unknown
means, found its way into and along the Fallopian tubes to the ovary. But
there are several facts which weigh heavily against this opinion, and some
that entirely forbid it. In the first place, there are several well
attested instances in which impregnation took place while the hymen
remained entire, where the vagina terminated in the rectum, where it was
so contracted by a cicatrix as not to admit the penis. In all these cases
the semen could not have been lodged anywhere near the mouth of the
uterus, much less ejected into it. Secondly, it has followed a connection
where from some defect in the male organs, as the urethra terminating some
inches behind the end of the penis, and it is clear that the semen could
not have been injected into the uterus, nor even near its mouth. Third,
the neck of the unimpregnated uterus is so narrow as merely to admit a
probe, and is filled with a thick tenacious fluid, which seemingly could
not be forced away by any force which the male organ possesses of ejecting
the semen, even if the mouth of the male urethra were in opposition with
that of the uterus. But fourth, the mouth of the uterus is by no means
fixed. By various causes it is made to assume various situations, and
probably the mouth of the urethra rarely comes in contact with it.
Fifth. "The tenacity of the male semen is such as renders its passage
through the small aperture in the neck of the uterus impossible, even by a
power of force much superior to that which we may rationally suppose to
reside in the male organs of generation."
Sixth. "Harvey and DeGraaf dissected animals at almost every period after
coition for the express purpose of discovering the semen, but were never
able to detect the smallest vestige of it in the uterus in any one
instance."*
* Dewees' Essay on Superfoetation.—Author's note.
Aware of the insurmountable objection to this view of the manner in which
the semen reaches the ovary, it has been supposed by some physiologists
that the semen is absorbed from the vagina into the great circulating
system, where it is mixed, of course, with the blood, and goes the whole
round of the circulation subject to the influence of those causes which
produce great changes in the latter fluid.
To this hypothesis it may be objected, that while there is no direct
evidence in support of it, it is exceedingly unreasonable, inasmuch as we
can scarcely believe that the semen can go the whole round of circulation,
and then find its way to the ovary in such a pure unaltered state as the
experiments of Spallanzani prove it must be in, that it may impregnate.
A third set of theorists have maintained that an imperceptible something,
which they have called aura seminalis, passes from the semen lodged
in the vagina to the ovary, and excites those actions which are essential
to the development of an ovum. Others, again, have told us that it is all
done by sympathy. That neither the semen nor any volatile part of it finds
its way to the ovary; but that the semen excites the parts with which it
is in contact in a peculiar manner, and by the law of animal economy,
termed sympathy, or consent of parts, a peculiar action commences in the
ovary, by which an ovum is developed.
To both these conjectures it may be objected that they have no other
foundation but the supposed necessity of adopting them, to account for the
effect of impregnation; and, further, they﹃make no provision for the
formation of mules; for the peculiarities of, and likeness to, parents,
and for the propagation of predisposition to disease, from parent to
child; for the production of mulattoes,﹄etc.
A fifth, and to me far more satisfactory view of the subject than any
other, is that advanced by our distinguished countryman, Dr. Dewees, of
Philadelphia. It appears to harmonize with all known facts relating to the
conception and something from analogy may also be drawn in its favor. It
is this, that there is a set of absorbent vessels, leading directly from
the inner surface of the labia externa and the vagina, to the
ovaries, the whole office of which vessels is to absorb the semen and
convey it to the ovaries.* I do not know that these vessels have yet been
fully discovered, but in a note on the sixteenth page of his﹃Essays on
Various Subjects,﹄the doctor says: "The existence of these vessels is now
rendered almost certain, as Dr. Gartner, of Copenhagen, has discovered a
duct leading from the ovary to the vagina."
* This view is not held at the present day. The commonly
received doctrine now is that the seminal fluid enters the
uterus, whether during the intercourse or after it, and
passes along the Fallopian tubes to the ovaries; and that
fecundation takes place at some point of this course, most
frequently in the tubes, but also at times in the ovary
itself, or even, perhaps, in the uterus. It is essentially
necessary for fecundation that the spermatozoa should come
into actual contact with the ovum.『That the spermatozoa
make their way toward the ovarium, and fecundate the ovum
either before it entirely quits the ovisac or very shortly
afterward,』says Dr. Carpenter, "appears to be the general
rule in regard to the Mammalia; and their power of movement
must obviously be both vigorous and long continued to enable
them to traverse so great an extent of mucous membrane,
especially when it is remembered that they ascend in
opposition to the direction of the ciliary movement of the
epithelial cells and to the downward peristaltic action of
the Fallopian tubes. * * * There can be no doubt that it is
the contact of the spermatozoa with the ovum, and in the
changes which occur as the immediate consequence of that
contact, that the act of fecundation essentially consists."
—"Principles of Human Physiology," 8th ed., p. 961,1876.—G.R.
Another question of considerable moment relating to generation is from
which parent are the first rudiments of the foetus derived.
The earliest hypothesis with which we are acquainted, and which has
received the support of some of the most eminent of the moderns, ascribes
the original formation of the foetus to the combination of particles of
matter derived from each of the parents. This hypothesis naturally
presents itself to the mind as the obvious method of explaining the
necessity for the cooperation of the two sexes, and the resemblance in
external form, and even in mind and character, which the offspring often
bears to the male parent. "The principal objections," says Bostock, "to
his hypothesis, independent of the want of any direct proof of a female
seminal fluid, are of two descriptions, those which depend upon the
supposed impossibility of unorganized matter forming an organized being,
and those which are derived from observations and experiments of Haller
and Spallanzani, which they brought forward in support of their theory of
pre-existent germs."
In relation to these objections I remark, first those whose experience has
been with hale females, I suspect, can have no doubt but that the female
organism increases like that of the male, until an emission of fluid of
some kind or other takes place. But whether this secretion may properly be
called semen, whether any part of it unites with the male semen in forming
the rudiments of the foetus, is another question. For my part I am
inclined to the opinion that it does not.* I rather regard it as the
result of exalted excitation, analogous to the increased secretion of
other organs from increased stimulation; and if it may be for any object
or use, as it probably is, it is that of affording nature a means of
relieving herself; or, in other words, of quieting the venereal passion.
If this passion, being once roused, could not by some means or other be
calmed, it would command by far too great a portion of our thoughts, and
with many constitutions the individuals, whether male or female, could not
conduct themselves with due decorum. One fact which leads me to think that
the female secretion in the act of coition is not essential to
impregnation is, that many females have conceived, if their unbiased
testimony may be relied on, when they experienced no pleasure. In these
cases it is more than probable that there was no orgasm, nor any secretion
or emission of fluid on the part of the female.
* With regard to this secretion in the female, which has
nothing of a seminal character, Dr. Carpenter observes: "Its
admixture with the male semen has been supposed to have some
connection with impregnation; but no proof whatever has been
given that any such admixture is necessary."—"Human
Physiology," p. 991.—G. R.
As to the objection of the supposed impossibility of unorganized matter
forming an organized being, I do not believe such a thing takes place,
even if we admit that﹃the original formation of the foetus is a
combination of particles of matter derived from each of the parents.﹄What
do, or rather what ought we to mean by organized matter? Not, surely, that
it exhibits some obvious physical structure, unlike what is to be found in
inorganic matter, but that it exhibits phenomena, and of course may be
said to possess properties unlike any kind of inorganic matter. Matter
unites with matter in three ways, mechanically, chemically and
organically, and each mode of union gives rise to properties peculiar to
itself. When matter unites organically, the substance or being so formed
exhibits some phenomena essentially different from what inorganic bodies
exhibit. It is on this account that we ascribe to organic bodies certain
properties, which we call physiological properties, such as contractility,
sensibility, life, etc. When, from any cause, these bodies have undergone
such a change that they no longer exhibit the phenomena peculiar to them,
they are said to have lost these properties, and to be dead. A substance
need not possess all the physiological properties of an animal of the
higher orders to entitle it to the name of an organized or living
substance, nor need it possess the physical property of solidity. The
blood, as well as many of the secretions, does several things, exhibits
several phenomena, which no mechanical or mere chemical combinations of
matter do exhibit. We must therefore ascribe to it certain physiological
properties, and regard it as an organized, a living fluid, as was
contended by the celebrated John Hunter. So with respect to the semen, it
certainly possesses physiological properties, one in particular peculiar
to itself, namely, the property of impregnating the female; and upon no
sound principle can it be regarded in any other light than as an
organized, and of course a living fluid. And if the female secretion or
any part of it unite with the male secretion in the formation of the
rudiments or the foetus in a different manner than any other substance
would, then it certainly has the property of doing so, whether we give
this property a name or not; and a regard to the soundest principles of
physiology compels us to class this property with the physiological or
vital, and of course to regard this secretion as an organized and living
fluid So, then, unorganized matter does not form an organized being,
admitting the hypothesis before us as correct.
That organized being should give rise to other organized beings under
favorable circumstances as to nourishment, warmth, etc., is no more
wonderful than that fire should give rise to fire when air and fuel are
present. To be sure, there are some minute steps in the processes which
are not fully known to us; still, if they ever should be known, we should
unquestionably see that there is a natural cause for every one of them;
and that they are all consonant with certain laws of the animal economy.
We should see no necessity of attempting to explain the process of
generation by bringing to our aid, or rather to the darkening of the
subject, any imaginary principle, as the visus formaticus of
Blumenbach.
As to the "observations and experiments of Haller and Spallanzani," I
think, with Dr. Bostock, that they weigh but little, if any, against the
theory before us. I shall not be at the labor of bringing them forward and
showing their futility as objections to this theory, for I am far from
insisting on the correctness of it; that is, I do not insist that any part
of the female secretion, during coition, unites with the male semen in the
formation of the rudiments of the foetus.
The second hypothesis or theory, I shall notice, as to the rudiments of
the foetus, is that of Leeuwenhoek, who regarded the seminal animalculse
of the male semen as the proper rudiments of the foetus, and thought that
the office of the female is to afford them a suitable receptacle where
they may be supported and nourished until they are able to exist by the
exercise of their own functions. This is essentially the view of the
subject which I intend to give more particularly presently.
I know of no serious objections to this hypothesis, nothing but the
"extreme improbability," as its opponents say,﹃that these animalculæ
should be the rudiments of being so totally dissimilar to them.﹄But I
wish to know if there is more difference between a foetus and a seminal
animalcule than there is between a foetus and a few material particles in
some other form than that of such animalcule?
The third hypothesis, or that of pre-existing germs, proceeded upon a
precisely opposite view of the subject to that of Leeuwenhoek, namely,
that the foetus is properly the production of the female; that it exists
previous to the sexual congress, with all its organs, in some parts of the
uterine system; and that it receives no proper addition from the male, but
that the seminal fluid acts merely by exciting the powers of the foetus,
or endowing it with vitality.
It is not known who first proposed this hypothesis; but strange as it may
appear, it has had the support of such names as Bonnet, Haller and
Spallanzani, and met with a favorable reception in the middle of the last
century. Agreeable to this hypothesis, our common mother, Eve, contained a
number of homuncules (little men) one within another, like a nest of
boxes, and all within her ovaries, equal to all the number of births that
have ever been, or ever will be, not to reckon abortions. Were I to bring
forward all the facts and arguments that have been advanced in support of
this idea, it seems to me I should fail to convince sound minds of its
correctness; as to arguments against it, they surely seem uncalled for.
Having now presented several hypotheses of generation, some as to the
manner in which the semen reaches or influences the ovary, and others as
to the rudiments of the foetus, I shall now bring together those views
which, upon the whole, appear to me the most satisfactory.
I believe, with Dr. Dewees, that a set of absorbent vessels extend from
the innermost surface of the labia externa, and from the vagina to
the ovary, the whole office of which is to take up the semen or some part
thereof, and convey it to the ovary. I believe, with Leeuwenhoek, that the
seminal animalculæ are the proper rudiments of the foetus, and are perhaps
of different sexes; that in cases of impregnation one of them is carried
not only to, but into a vesicle of an ovary, which is in a condition to
receive and be duly affected by it.* It is here surrounded by the
albuminous fluid which the vesicle contains. This fluid being somewhat
changed in its qualities by its new-comer, stimulates the minute vessels
of the parts which surround it, and thus causes more of this fluid to be
formed; and while it affords the animalcule material for its development,
it puts the delicate membrane of the ovary which retains it in its place
upon the stretch, and finally bursts forth surrounded probably by an
exceedingly delicate membrane of its own. This membrane, with the
albuminous fluid it contains and the animalcule in the center of it,
constitutes the ovum or egg. It is received by the fimbriated extremity of
the Fallopian tube, which by this time has grasped the ovary, and is by
this tube slowly conveyed into the uterus, to the inner surface of which
it attaches itself, through the medium of the membrane, which is formed by
the uterus itself in the interim between impregnation and the arriving of
the ovum in the way I have just mentioned.
* The opinion that the spermatozoa of seminal filaments are
real animalculæ is now abandoned, but it is held by Dr.
Carpenter and other authorities that they actually, as here
stated, penetrate into the interior of the ovum.『The nature
of impregnation,』says Dr. Hermann, "is as yet unknown. In
all probability it is, above all, essential, in order that
it should occur, that one or more spermatozoa should
penetrate the ovum. At any rate, spermatozoa have been found
within the fecundated eggs of the most diverse species of
animals."—Elements of "Human Physiology," translated from
the 5th ed., by Dr. Gamgee, p. 534, 1875.—G. R.
The idea that a seminal animalcule enters an ovum while it remains in the
ovary, was never before advanced to my knowledge; hence I consider it
incumbent upon me to advance some reason for the opinion.
First, it is admitted on all hands that the seminal animalculæ are
essential to impregnation, since "they cannot be detected when either from
age or disease the animal is rendered sterile."
Second, the ovum is impregnated while it remains in the ovary. True, those
who never met with Dr. Dewees' theory, and who, consequently, have adopted
the idea that the semen is ejected into the uterus, as the least
improbable of any with which they were acquainted, have found it very
difficult to dispose of the fact that the ovum is impregnated in the
ovary, and have consequently presumed this is not generally the case. They
admit it is certainly so sometimes, and that it is difficult to reject the
conclusion that it is always so. Dr. Bostock—who, doubtless, had not
met with Dewees' theory at the time he wrote, and who admits it impossible
to conceive how the semen can find its way along the Fallopian tubes, how
it can find its way toward the ovary, farther, at most, than into the
uterus, and, consequently, cannot see how the ovum can be impregnated into
the ovary—says, "Perhaps the most rational supposition may be that
the ovum is transmitted to the uterus in the unimpregnated state; but
there are certain facts which seem almost incompatible with this idea,
especially the cases which not infrequently occur of perfect foetuses
having been found in the tubes, or where they escaped them into the cavity
of the abdomen. Hence it is demonstrated the ovum is occasionally
impregnated in the tubes (why did he not say ovaria?), and we can scarcely
resist the conclusion that it must always be the case."..."Haller
discusses this hypothesis (Bostock's 'most natural supposition, perhaps')
and decides against it."..."The experiments of Cruikshank, which were very
numerous, and appear to have been made with the requisite degree of skill
and correctness, led to the conclusion that the rudiment of the young
animal is perfected in the ovarium."... "A case is detailed by Dr.
Granville, of a foetus which appears to have been lodged in the body of
the ovarium itself, and is considered by its author as a proof that
conception always takes place in this organ."
The above quotations are from the third volume of Bostock's Physiology.
Now, as the seminal animalculæ are essential to impregnation, and as the
ovum is impregnated in the ovarium, what more probable conjecture can we
form than that an animalcule, as the real proper rudiment of the foetus,
enters the ovum, where, being surrounded with albuminous fluid with which
it is nourished, it gradually becomes developed? It may be noticed that
Leeuwenhoek estimates that ten thousand animalculæ of the human semen may
exist in a space not larger than a grain of sand. There can, therefore, be
no difficulty in admitting that they may find their way along exceedingly
minute vessels from the vagina, not only to, but into the ovum while
situated in the ovarium.
I think no one can be disposed to maintain that the animalculæ merely
reaches the surface of the ovum and thus impregnates it. But possibly some
may contend that its sole office is to stimulate the ovum, and in this way
set going that train of actions which are essential to impregnation. But
there is no evidence in favor of this last idea, and certainly it does not
so well harmonize with the fact that the offspring generally partakes more
or less of the character of its male parent. As Dr. Dewees says of the
doctrine of sympathy,﹃It makes no provision for the formation of mules;
for the peculiarities of and likeness of parents; and for the propagation
of predisposition to disease from parent to child; for the production of
mulattoes,﹄etc.
Considering it important to do away with the popular and mischievous error
that the semen must enter the uterus to effect impregnation, I shall, in
addition to what has been already advanced, here notice the experiments of
Dr. Haighton. He divided the Fallopian tubes in numerous instances, and
that after the operation a foetus is never produced, but that corpora
lutea were formed. The obvious conclusions from these facts are that
the semen does not traverse the Fallopian tubes to reach the ovaria; yet,
that the ovum becomes impregnated while in the ovarium and, consequently,
that the semen reaches the ovum in some way, except by the uterus and
Fallopian tubes. I may remark, however, that a corpus luteum is not
positive proof that impregnation at some time or other has taken place;
yet they are so rarely found in virgins that they were regarded as such
proofs until the time of Blumenbach, a writer of the present century.*
* A corpus luteum is a little yellowish body, formed in
the ovary by changes that take place in the Graafian vesicle
after it has burst and discharged its contents. Corpora
lutea were formerly considered a sure sign of impregnation,
as they were thought to be developed only or chiefly in
cases of pregnancy, but it is now known that they occur in
all cases where a vesicle has been ruptured and an ovum
discharged; though they attain a larger, size and are longer
visible in the ovary when pregnancy takes place than when it
does not.—G. R.
"Harvey and DeGraaf dissected animals at most every period after coition
for the express purpose of discovering the semen, but were never able to
detect the smallest vestige of it in the uterus in any one instance."—Dewells
Essay on Superfoetation. The fact of superfoetation furnishes a very
strong argument against the idea that the semen enters the uterus in
impregnation.
A woman being impregnated while she is already impregnated constitutes
superfoetation. It is established beyond a doubt that such instances have
occurred, yet those who have supposed that it is necessary for the semen
to pass through the mouth of the uterus to produce conception have urged
that superfoetation could not take place, because, say they—and they
say correctly—"so soon as impregnation shall have taken place, the
os uteri closes and becomes impervious to the semen ejected in
subsequent acts of coition."
Dr. Dewees related two cases, evidently cases of superfoetation, that
occurred to his own personal knowledge. The first shows that, agreeable to
the old theory, the semen must have met with other difficulties than a
closed month of the uterus,—it must have passed through several
membranes, as well as the waters surrounding the foetus, to have reached
even the uterine extremity of a Fallopian tube. The second case I will
give in his own words:
"A white woman, servant to Mr. H., of Abington township, Montgomery
county, was delivered about five and twenty years since of twins, one of
which was perfectly white, the other perfectly black. When I resided in
that neighborhood I was in the habit of seeing them almost daily and also
had frequent conversations with Mrs. H. respecting them. She was present
at their birth, so that no possible deception could have been practiced
respecting them. The white girl is delicate, fair-skinned, light-haired
and blue eyed, and is said very much to resemble the mother. The other has
all the characteristic marks of the African; short of stature, flat,
broad-nosed, thick-lipped, woolly-headed, flat-footed, and projecting
heels; she is said to resemble a negro they had on the farm, but with whom
the woman would never acknowledge an intimacy; but of this there was no
doubt, as both he and the white man, with whom her connection was
detected, ran from the neighborhood as soon as it was known the girl was
with child."
I am aware that some have thought that they had actually discovered semen
in the uterus, while Ruysch, an anatomist of considerable eminence, who
flourished at the close of the seventeenth century, asserted in the most
unequivocal manner that he found the semen in its gross white state in one
of the Fallopian tubes of a woman, who died very soon after, or during the
act of coition; but says Dewees, "the semen, after it has escaped from the
penis, quickly loses its albuminous appearance and becomes as thin and
transparent as water. And we are certain that Ruysch was mistaken. Some
alteration in the natural secretion of the parts was mistaken for semen.
This was nowise difficult for him to do, as he had a particular theory to
support, and more especially as this supposed discovery made so much for
it. It is not merely speculative when we say that some change in the
natural secretion of the parts may be mistaken for semen, for we have the
testimony of Morgani on our side. He tells us he has seen similar
appearances in several instances in virgins and others, who have been
subject during their lives to leucorrhæ, and that it has been mistaken by
some for male semen."
On the whole I would say, that in some instances, where the mouth of the
uterus is uncommonly relaxed, the semen may, as it were, accidentally have
found its way into it; but that is not generally the case, nor is it
essential to impregnation; and further, that whatever semen may at any
time be lodged in the uterus, has nothing to do with conception. It is not
consistent with analogy to suppose that the uterus has vessels for
absorbing the semen and conveying it to the ovaria, considering the other
important functions which we know it performs.
The circumstances under which a female is most likely to conceive are,
first, when she is in health; second, between the ages of twenty-six and
thirty; third, after she has for a season been deprived of those
intercourses she had previously enjoyed; fourth, soon after menstruating.
Respect-ing this latter circumstance, Dr. Dewees remarks,﹃Perhaps it is
not erring greatly to say, that the woman is liable to conceive at any
part of the menstrual interval. It is generally supposed, however, that
the most favorable instant is immediately after the catamenia have
ceased.﹄Perhaps this is so as a general rule, but it is certainly liable
to exceptions,* and he relates the following case which occurred to his
own notice:
* This view, which concerns a question of the utmost
practical importance, is held at the present day by the
great physiologists. It is believed that although conception
may occur at other times, it is much more likely to happen
from intercourse a few days before or after the menstrual
periods; that is to say, during the time when ova are in
process of being ripened and detached from the ovaries, and
before they perish and are conveyed out of the body.『There
is good reason to believe,』says Dr. Carpenter, "that in the
human female the sexual feeling becomes stronger at the
period of menstruation; and it is quite certain that there
is a greater aptitude for conception immediately before and
after that epoch, than there is at any immediate period.
This question has been made the subject of special inquiry
by M. Raciborski, who affirms that the exceptions to the
rule—that conception occurs immediately before or after or
during menstruation—are not more than six or seven per
cent. Indeed, in his latest work on the subject, he gives
the details of fifteen cases, in which the date of
conception could be accurately fixed, and the time of the
last appearance of the catamenia was also known, and in all
but one of them the correspondence between the periods was
very close."—"Human Physiology," p. 959. So, too, Dr.
Kirkes remarks, that "although conception is not confined to
the periods of menstruation, yet it is more likely to occur
within a few days after cessation of the menstrual flux than
at other times."—"Handbook of Physiology," p. 725.
"The husband of a lady who was obliged to absent himself many months in
consequence of the embarrassment of his affairs, returned one night
clandestinely, his visit being only known to his wife, his mother, and
myself. The consequence of this visit was the impregnation of his wife.
The lady was at that time within a week of her menstrual period; but as
this did not fail to take place, she was led to hope that she had not
suffered by the visit of her husband. But her catamenia not appearing at
the next period, gave rise to a fear that she had not escaped! and the
birth of a child nine months and thirteen days from the night of the
clandestine visit proved her apprehensions too well grounded."
I think this case is an exception to a general rule; and, furthermore,
favors an idea which reason and a limited observation, rather than
positive knowledge, has led me to advance, the above, namely, that a woman
is more likely to conceive, other things being the same, after being
deprived for a season of those intercourses she had previously enjoyed.
Had this lady's husband remained constantly at home, she would probably
either not have conceived at all, or have done so a fortnight sooner than
she did.
This case is also remarkable for two other facts: one, "that a woman in
perfect health, and pregnant with a healthy child, may exceed the period
of nine months by several days; the other, that a check is not always
immediately given to the catamenial flow by an ovum being impregnated."
Probably it is not so generally so as many suppose.
The term of utero-gestation, or the length of time from conception to the
commencement of labor, is not precisely determined by physiologists.﹃It
seems, however,﹄says Dr. Dewees,﹃from the best calculations that can be
made, that nine calendar months, or forty weeks, approaches the truth so
nearly that we can scarcely need or desire more accuracy, could it be
obtained.﹄Unquestionably, however, some cases exceed this period by many
days, or even weeks, and it has been a question much agitated, how far
this period is ever exceeded. It is a question of some moment in a legal
point of view. Cases are reported where the usual period was exceeded by
five or six months; cases, too, where the circumstances attending them and
the respectability of their reporters are such as to command our belief.
Dr. Dewees has paid much attention to this subject, and he declares
himself entirely convinced "that the commonly fixed period may be extended
from thirteen days to six weeks, under the influence of certain causes or
peculiarities of constitution."*
* See tables in Dr. Bull's "Hints to Mothers," pp. 130-141.
—Publishers' note.
These occasional departures from the general rule will, perhaps, be the
more readily admitted when we consider that they are not confined to the
human species. From the experiments of Tessier, it appears that the term
of utero-gestation varies greatly with the cow, sheep, horse, swine and
other animals to which his attention was directed.
Properly connected with the subject of generation are the signs of
pregnancy. Dr. Dewees remarks that﹃our experience furnishes no certain
mark by which the moment conception takes place is to be distinguished.
All appeals by the women to particular sensations experienced at the
instant should be very guardedly received, for we are certain they cannot
be relied upon; for enjoyment and indifference are alike fallacious. Nor
are certain nervous tremblings, nausea, palpitation of the heart, the
sensation of something flowing from them during coition, etc, more to be
relied upon.﹄Burns, however, says,﹃Some women feel, immediately after
conception, a peculiar sensation, which apprises them of their situation,
but such instances are not frequent, and generally the first circumstances
which lead a woman to suppose herself pregnant are the suppression of the
menses;﹄a fickle appetite, some sickness, perhaps vomiting, especially in
the morning; returning qualms, or languor in the afternoon; she is liable
to heartburn, and to disturbed sleep. The breasts at first often become
smaller and sometimes tender; but about the third month they enlarge, and
occasionally become painful. The nipple is surrounded with an aureole or
circle of a brown color, or at least of a color sensibly deeper or darker
than before. She loses her looks, becomes paler, and the under part of the
lower eyelid is often somewhat of a leaden hue. The features become
sharper, and sometimes the whole body begins to emaciate, while the pulse
quickens. In many instances particular sympathies take place, causing
salivation, toothache, jaundice, etc. In other cases very little
disturbance is produced, and the woman is not certain of her condition
until the time of quickening, which is generally about four months from
conception. It is possible for a woman to mistake the effects of wind for
the motion of the child, especially if they have never borne children, and
be anxious for a family; but the sensation produced by wind in the bowels
is not confined to one spot, but is often felt at a part of the abdomen
where the motion of a child could not possibly be felt. Quite as
frequently, perhaps, do fleshy women think themselves dropsical, and
mistake motions of the child for movements of water within the abdominal
cavity. The motion of the child is not to be confounded with the sensation
sometimes produced by the uterus rising out of the pelvis, which produces
the feeling of fluttering. At the end of the fourth month, the uterus
becomes so large that it is obliged to rise out of the pelvis, and if this
elevation takes place suddenly, the sensation accompanying it is pretty
strong, and the woman at the time feels sick or faint, and in irritable
habits; even a hysterical fit may accompany it After this the morning
sickness and other sympathetic effects of pregnancy generally abate, and
the health improves.
Very soon after impregnation, if blood be drawn and suffered to stand a
short time undisturbed, it will become sizy, of a yellowish or bluish
color, and somewhat of an oily appearance. But we cannot from such
appearances of the blood alone pronounce a woman pregnant, for a
suppression of the menses, accompanied with a febrile state, may give the
blood a like appearance as pregnancy, so also may some local disease. Of
the above-mentioned symptoms, perhaps there is no one on which we
can place more reliance than the increased color of the circle around the
nipple.*
* See "Advice to a Wife," P. H. Chavasse, pp. 115-124, where
many details are given.—Publishers' note.
Six or eight weeks after conception, the most sure way of ascertaining
pregnancy is to examine the mouth and neck of the uterus, by way of the
vagina. The uterus will be found lower down than formerly, its mouth is
not directed so much forward as before impregnation, and is more
completely closed, and the neck is felt to be thicker, or increased in
circumference. When raised on the finger it is found to be heavier or more
resisting. Whoever makes this examination must have examined the same
uterus in an unimpregnated state, and retained a tolerably correct idea of
its feeling at that time, or he will be liable to uncertainty, because the
uterus of one woman is naturally different in magnitude from another, and
the uterus is frequently lower down than natural from other causes than
pregnancy.*
* No one but a doctor, or one trained in physiology could,
of course, make any such examination with safety and
utility.—Publishers' note.
It has not been fully ascertained how long it is after a fruitful
connection before an effect is produced upon the ovaria, that is before
any alteration could be discovered, were the female to be dissected. But
Brighton's experiments have established the fact, that with rabbits, whose
term of utero-gestation is but thirty days, no effect is propagated to the
ovaria until nearly fifty hours after coition; we should judge, therefore,
that with the human species it must be several days, and it is generally
estimated by physiologists that the ovum does not reach the uterus until
the expiration of twenty days from the time of connection.*
*『The time occupied in the passage of the ovum from the
ovary to the uterus,』says Dr. Kirkes, "occupies probably
eight or ten days in the human female."—"Handbook of
Physiology," p. 741.—G. R.
It is probable that in all cases in which any matter is absorbed from any
part of the animal system, some little time is required for such matter,
after its application, to stimulate and arouse the absorbent vessels to
action; hence it is probable that after the semen is lodged in the vagina,
it is many minutes, possibly some hours, before any part of it is
absorbed.
CHAPTER III. OF PROMOTING AND CHECKING CONCEPTION
Sterility depends either on imperfect organization, or imperfect action of
the organs of generation. In the former cases, which are rare, the menses
do not generally appear, the breasts are not developed, and the sexual
desire is inconsiderable. There is no remedy in these cases.
The action may be imperfect in several respects. The menses may be
obstructed or sparing, or they may be too profuse or frequent. It is
extremely rare for a woman to conceive who does not menstruate regularly.
Hence where this is the case the first step is to regulate this periodical
discharge. For this purpose the advice of a physician will generally be
required, for these irregularities depend upon such various causes and
require such a variety of treatment that it would be inconsistent with the
plan of this work to give instructions for remedying them. A state of
exhaustion or weakness of the uterine system, occasioned by too frequent
intercourse, is a frequent cause of sterility. The sterility of
prostitutes is attributed to this cause, but I doubt it being the only
one. With females who are apparently healthy, the most frequent cause is a
torpor, rather than weakness of the genital organs.
For the removal of sterility from this cause, I shall give some
instructions, and this I do the more readily because the requisite means
are such as will regulate the menses in many cases, where they do not
appear so early in life, so freely or so frequently as they ought.
In the first place, it will generally be necessary to do something toward
invigorating the system by exercise in the open air, by nourishing food of
easy digestion, by sufficient dress, particularly flannel, and especially
by strict temperance in all things. With this view, also, some scales
which fall from the blacksmith's anvil, or some steel filings may be put
into old cider or wine (cider the best), and after standing a week or so,
as much may be taken two or three times a day as can be borne without
disturbing the stomach.
All the while the bowels are to be kept rather open by taking from one to
three of Pill rufi every night on going to bed. These pills consist
of four parts of aloes, two parts of myrrh, and one of saffron, by weight.
These measures having been regularly pursued until the system be brought
into a vigorous state, medicines which are more particularly calculated to
arouse the genital organs from a state of torpor may be commenced, and
continued for months if necessary. The cheapest, most simple (and I am not
prepared to say it is not the most effectual in many cases) is cayenne.
All the virtues of this article are not generally known even to
physicians. I know it does not have the effect upon the coats of the
stomach that many have conjectured. It may be taken in the quantity of
from one to two rising teaspoonsful, or even more, everyday up on food or
on any liquid vehicle. Another medicine of much efficacy is Dewees'
Volatile Tincture of Guaiac. It is generally kept by apothecaries, and is
prepared as follows:
Take of Gum Guaicum, in powder, eight ounces; carbonate of Potash, or of
Soda, or (what will answer) Saleratus, three drachms; Allspice, in powder,
two ounces; any common spirits of good strength, two pounds, or what is
about the same two pints and a gill. Put all into a bottle, which may be
shaken now and then, and use of it may be commenced in a few days. To
every gill of this, at least a large teaspoon-ful of Spirits of Ammonia is
to be added. A teaspoonful is to be taken for a dose, three times a day,
in a glass of milk, cider or wine. It is usually given before eating; but
if it should chance to offend the stomach when taken before breakfast, it
may in this case be taken an hour after.
Dr. Dewees found this tincture, taken perhaps for months, the most
effectual remedy for painful menstruation, which is an obstinate
complaint. If there be frequent strong pulse, heat, thirst, florid
countenance, etc., it is not to be taken until these symptoms be removed
by low diet, a few doses of salts, and bleeding, if required.
A third medicine for arousing the genital organs, is tincture of Spanish
Flies. But I doubt its being equal, in sterility, to the above mentioned
medicines, though it may exceed them in some cases, and may be tried if
these fail. A drachm of them may be put to two gills of spirits. Dose, 25
drops, in water, three times a day, increasing each one by two or three
drops, until some degree of stranguary occurs, then omit until this pass
off, as it will in a day or two. Should the stranguary be severe, drink
freely of milk and water, slippery elm, or flaxseed tea.
In many cases of sterility, where the general health is considerably in
fault, and especially when the digestive organs are torpid, I should have
much faith in a Thomsonian course. It is calculated to arouse the
capillary vessels throughout the whole system, and thus to open the
secretions, to remove obstructions, and free the blood of those effete and
phlegmy materials which nature requires to be thrown off. The views of the
Thomsonian as to heat and cold appear to me unphilosophical. But this has
nothing to do with the efficiency of their measures.
In relation to sterility, I would here bring to mind, what has before been
stated, that a woman is most likely to conceive immediately after a
menstrual turn. And now, also, let me suggest the idea that Nature's
delicate beginnings may be frustrated by the same means that put her a
going. This idea is certainly important when the woman is known to have
miscarried a number of times. Sterility is sometimes to be attributed to
the male, though he apparently be in perfect health. It would be an
interesting fact to ascertain if there be no seminal animalculæ in these
cases; and whether medicines of any kind are available.
It has been ascertained that a male and female may be sterile in relation
to each other, though neither of them be so with others.
The foregoing measures for sterility are also suitable in cases of
impotency. This term, I believe, is generally con-lined to, and defined as
a want of desire or ability, or both on the part of the male; but I see no
good reason why it should not comprehend the case in which there is
neither desire nor pleasure with the female. Such females, it is true, may
be fruitful; but so, on the other hand, the semen may not have lost its
fecundating property. Impotency, at a young or middle age, and in some
situations in life especially, is certainly a serious misfortune, to say
the least of it. The whole evil by no means consists, in every case, in
the loss of a source of pleasure. All young people ought to be apprised of
the causes of it—causes which, in many instances, greatly lessen
one's ability of giving and receiving that pleasure which is the root of
domestic happiness. I shall allude to one cause, that of premature, and
especially solitary gratification, in another place. Intemperance in the
use of spirits is another powerful cause. Even a moderate use of spirits,
and also of tobacco, in any form, have some effect It is a law of animal
economy, that no one part of the system can be stimulated or excited,
without an expense of vitality, as it is termed. The part which is
stimulated draws the energy from other parts. And hence it is, that close
and deep study, as well as all the mental passions when excessive, impair
the venereal appetite. All excesses, all diseases and modes of life which
impair the general health, impair this appetite, but some things more
directly and powerfully than others.
As to the remedies for impotency, they are much the same as for sterility.
It is of the first importance that the mind be relieved from all care and
anxiety. The general health is to be improved by temperance, proper
exercise in the open air, cheerful company, change of scenery, or some
occupation to divert the mind without requiring much exercise of it;
nourishing food of easy digestion; flannel worn next to the skin. The cold
bath may be tried, and if it be followed by agreeable feelings, it will do
good. The bowels may be gently stimulated by the pills before mentioned;
and the preparation of iron also, already mentioned, should be taken.
To stimulate the genital organs more directly, cayenne, Dewees' tincture
of guaiac, or tincture of flies, may be taken. I have given directions for
making and taking the tincture of flies, chiefly because it is esteemed
one of the best remedies for impotency caused by or connected with
nocturnal emissions, to which I have before alluded.
It is in cases where little or no pleasure, nor erection, attend these
emissions—cases brought on by debauchery, or in elderly persons—that
I would recommend tincture of flies, and the other measures above
mentioned. In some bad cases, enormous doses of this tincture are
required, say two or three hundred drops. Yet the best rule for taking it
is that already given, namely, begin with small doses, and gradually
increase until some stranguary be felt, or some benefit be received. In
this affection, as well as in all cases of impaired virility, the means I
have mentioned are to be pursued for a long time, unless relief be
obtained. These have cured after having been taken for a year or more
without the result. In all cases of impotency not evidently depending upon
disease of some part besides the genital organs, I should have much
confidence in blisters applied to the lower part of the spine.
Occasional nocturnal emissions, accompanied with erection and pleasure,
are by no means to be considered a disease, though they have given many a
one such uneasiness. Even if they be frequent, and the system considerably
debilitated, if not caused by debauch, and the person be young, marriage
is the proper measure.
There have been several means proposed and practiced for checking
conception. I shall briefly notice them, though a knowledge of the best is
what most concerns us. That of withdrawal immediately before emission is
certainly effectual, if practiced with sufficient care. But if (as I
believe) Dr. Dewees' theory of conception be correct, and as Spallanzani's
experiments show that only a trifle of semen, even largely diluted with
water, may impregnate by being injected into the vagina, it is clear that
nothing short of entire withdrawal is to be depended upon. But the old
notion that the semen must enter the uterus to cause conception, has led
many to believe that a partial withdrawal is sufficient, and it is on this
account that this error has proved mischievous, as all important errors
generally do. It is said by those who speak from experience that the
practice of withdrawal has an effect upon the health similar to
intemperance in eating. As the subsequent exhaustion is probably mainly
owing to the shock the nervous system sustains in the act of coition, this
opinion may be correct. It is further said that this practice serves to
keep alive those fine feelings with which married people first come
together. Still, I leave it for every one to decide for himself whether
this check be so far from satisfactory as not to render some other very
desirable.
As to the baudruche, which consists in a covering used by the male, made
of very delicate skin, it is by no means calculated to come into general
use. It has been used to secure immunity from syphilitic affections.
Another check which the old idea of conception has led some to recommend
with considerable confidence, consists in introducing into the vagina,
previous to connection, a very delicate piece of sponge, moistened with
water, to be immediately afterward withdrawn by means of a very narrow
ribbon attached to it, But, as our views would lead us to expect, this
check has not proved a sure preventive. As there are many little ridges or
folds in the vagina, we cannot suppose the withdrawal of the sponge would
dislodge all the semen in every instance. If, however, it were well
moistened with some liquid which acted chemically upon the semen, it would
be pretty likely to destroy the fecundating property of what might remain.
But if this check were ever so sure, it would, in my opinion, fall short
of being equal, all things considered, to the one I am about to mention—one
which not only dislodges the semen pretty effectually, but at the same
time destroys the fecundating property of the whole of it.
It consists in syringing the vagina immediately after connection with a
solution of sulphate of zinc, of alum, pearl-ash, or any salt that acts
chemically on the semen, and at the same time produces no unfavorable
effect on the female.
In all probability a vegetable astringent would answer—as an
infusion of white oak bark, of red rose leaves, of nut-galls, and the
like. A lump of either of the above-mentioned salts, of the size of a
chestnut, may be dissolved in a pint of water, making the solution weaker
or stronger, as it may be borne without any irritation of the parts to
which it is applied. These solutions will not lose their virtues by age. A
female syringe, which will be required in the use of the check, may be had
at the shop of an apothecary for a shilling or less. If preferred, the
semen may be dislodged as far as it can be, by syringing with simple
water, after which some of the solution is to be injected, to destroy the
fecundating property of what may remain lodged between the ridges of the
vagina, etc.
I know the use of this check requires the woman to leave her bed for a few
moments, but this is its only objection; and it would be unreasonable to
suppose that any check can ever be devised entirely free of objections. In
its favor it may be said, it costs nearly nothing; it is sure; it requires
no sacrifice of pleasure; it is in the hand of the female; it is to be
used after, instead of before the connection, a weighty consideration in
its favor, as a moment's reflection will convince any one; and last, but
not least, it is conducive to cleanliness, and preserves the parts from
relaxation and disease. The vagina may be very much contracted by a
persevering use of astringent injections, and they are constantly used for
this purpose in cases of procidentia uteri, or a sinking down of
the womb; subject as women are to fluor albus, and other diseases
of the genital organs, it is rather a matter of wonder that they are not
more so, considering the prevailing practices. Those who have used this
check (and some have used it, to my certain knowledge with entire success
for nine or ten years, and under such circumstances as leave no room to
doubt its efficacy) affirm that they would be at the trouble of using
injections merely for the purposes of health and cleanliness.
By actual experiment it has been rendered highly probable that pregnancy
may, in many instances, be prevented by injections of simple water,
applied with a tolerable degree of care. But simple water has failed, and
its occasional failure is what we should expect, considering the anatomy
of the parts, and the results of Spallanzani's experiments heretofore
alluded to.
This much did I say respecting this check in the first edition of this
work. That is what I call the chemical check. The idea of destroying the
fecundating property of the semen was original, if it did not originate
with me. My attention was drawn to the subject by the perusal of﹃Moral
Physiology.﹄Such was my confidence in the chemical idea that I sat down
and wrote this work in July, 1831. But the reflection that I did not know
that this check would never fail, and that if it should, I might do
someone an injury in recommending it, caused the manuscript to lie on hand
until the following December. Some time in November I fell in with an old
acquaintance, who agreeably surprised me by stating that to his personal
knowledge this last check had been used as above stated. I have since
conversed with a gentleman with whom I was acquainted, who stated that,
being in Baltimore some few years ago, he was there informed of this check
by those who have no doubt of its efficacy. From what has as yet fell
under my observation, I am not warranted in drawing any conclusion. I can
only say that I have never known it to fail. Such are my views on the
whole subject, that it would require many instances of its reputed failure
to satisfy me that such failures were not owing to an insufficient use of
it. I even believe that quite cold water alone, if thoroughly used, would
be sufficient. In Spallanzani's experiments warm water was unquestionably
used. As the seminal animalcule are essential to impregnation, all we have
to do is to change the condition of, or, if you will, to kill them; and as
they are so exceedingly small and delicate, this is doubtless easily done,
and hence cold water may be sufficient.
What has now been advanced in this work will enable the reader to judge
for himself or herself of the efficacy of the chemical or syringe check,
and time will probably determine whether I am correct in this matter. I do
know that those married females who have much desire to escape will not
stand for the little trouble of using this check, especially when they
consider that on the score of cleanliness and health alone it is worth the
trouble.
A great part of the time no check is necessary, and women of experience
and observation, with the information conveyed by this work, will be able
to judge pretty correctly when it is and when it is not. They may rest
assured that none of the salts mentioned will have any deleterious effect.
The sulphate of zinc is commonly known by the name of white vitriol. This,
as well as alum, have been extensively used for leucorrhæ. Acetate of lead
would doubtless be effectual—indeed, it has proven to be so; but I
do not recommend it, because I conceive it possible that a long continued
use of it might impair the instinct.
I hope that no failures will be charged of efficacy of this check which
ought to be attributed to negligence or insufficient use of it. I will
therefore recommend at least two applications of the syringe, the sooner
the surer, yet it is my opinion that five minutes' delay would not prove
mischievous—perhaps not ten.
CHAPTER IV. REMARKS ON THE REPRODUCTIVE INSTINCT
I scarcely need observe that by this instinct is meant the desire for
sexual intercourse. Blumenbach speaks of this instinct as﹃superior to all
others in universality and violence.﹄Perhaps hunger is an exception. But
surely no instinct commands a greater proportion of our thoughts or has a
greater influence upon happiness for better or for worse. "Controlled by
reason and chastened by good feelings, it gives to social intercourse much
of its charm and zest, but directed by selfishness or governed by force,
it is prolific of misery and degradation. In itself it appears to be the
most social and least selfish of all instincts. It fits us to give even
while we receive pleasure, and among cultivated beings the former power is
even more highly valued than the latter. Not one of our instincts perhaps
affords larger scope for the exercise of disinterestedness, or fitter play
for the best moral feelings of our race. Not one gives birth to relations
more gentle, more humanizing and endearing; not one lies more immediately
at the root of the kindliest charities and most generous impulses that
honor and bless human nature. It is a much more noble, because less purely
selfish, instinct than hunger or thirst. It is an instinct that entwines
itself around the warmest feelings and best affections of the heart"—Moral
Physiology. But too frequently its strength, together with a want of
moral culture, is such that it is not "controlled by reason;" and
consequently, from time immemorial, it has been gratified, either in a
mischievous manner, or to such an intemperate degree, or under such
improper circumstances, as to give rise to an incalculable amount of human
misery. For this reason it has, by some, been regarded as a low, degrading
and "carnal" passion, with which family life must be ever at war. But in
the instinct itself the philosopher sees nothing deserving of degrading
epithets. He sees not that nature should war against herself. He believes
that in savage life it is, and in wisely organized society of duly
enlightened and civilized beings it should be the source of ten-fold more
happiness than misery.
A part of the evil consequences to which this instinct is daily giving
rise under the present state of things, it belongs more particularly to
the moralist to point out; whilst of others it falls within the province
of the physician to treat. But let me first remark that physicians have
hitherto fallen far short of giving those instructions concerning this
instinct which its importance demands. In books, pamphlets, journals,
etc., they have laid much before the public respecting eating, drinking,
bathing, lacing, air, exercise, etc., but have passed by the still more
important subject now before us, giving only here and there spine faint
allusion to it This, it is true, the customs, not to say pruderies, of the
age have compelled them to do, in publications designed for the public
eye, yet, in some small work, indicated by its title to be for private
perusal, they might, with the utmost propriety, have embodied much highly
useful instruction in relation to this instinct.
This instinct is liable to be gratified at improper times, to an
intemperate degree, and in a mischievous manner.
True philosophy dictates that this and all other appetites be so gratified
as will most conduce to human happiness—not merely the happiness
attending the gratification of one of the senses, but all the senses—not
merely sensual happiness, but intellectual—not merely the happiness
of the individual, but of the human family.
First.—Of the times at which this instinct ought not to be
gratified. With females it ought not to be gratified until they are
seventeen or eighteen years of age, and with males not until they are a
year or two older. The reason is, if they refrain until these ages, the
passion will hold out the longer, and they will be able to derive much
more pleasure from it in after life, than if earlier gratified, especially
to any great extent A due regard to health also enjoins with most persons
some restraint on this instinct—indeed, at all times, but especially
for a few years after the above-mentioned ages. It ought not to be rashly
gratified at first. Begin temperately, and as the system becomes more
mature, and habituated to the effects naturally produced by the
gratification of this instinct, it will bear more without injury. Many
young married people, ignorant of the consequences, have debilitated the
whole system—the genital system in particular; have impaired their
mental energies; have induced consumptive and other diseases; have
rendered themselves irritable, unsocial, melancholy and finally much
impaired, perhaps destroyed their affection for each other by an undue
gratification of the reproductive instinct. In almost all diseases, if
gratified at all, it should be very temperately. It ought not to be
gratified during menstruation, as it might prove productive to the man of
symptoms similar to those of syphilis, but more probably to the woman of a
weakening disease called fluor albus. In case of pregnancy a
temperate gratification for the first two or three months may be of no
injury to the woman or the coming offspring. But it ought to be known that
the growth of the foetus in utero may be impaired, and the seeds of future
bodily infirmity and mental imbecility of the offspring may be sown by
much indulgence during utero-gestation or pregnancy, especially when the
woman experiences much pleasure in such indulgences.
Having already glanced at some of the bad effects of an undue
gratification of this instinct, I have but little more to offer under the
head of Intemperate Degree. It will be borne in mind that intemperance in
this thing is not to be decided by numbers, but that it depends on
circumstances; and what would be temperance in one, may be intemperance in
another. And with respect to an individual, too, what he might enjoy with
impunity, were he a laboring man, or a man whose business requires but
little mental exercise, would, were he a student, unfit him for the
successful prosecution of his studies. Intemperance in the gratification
of this instinct has a tendency to lead to intemperance in the use of
ardent spirits. The languor, depression of spirits, in some instances
faintness and want of appetite, induced by intemperate gratification, call
loudly for some stimulus, and give a relish to spirits. Thus the
individual is led to drink. This inflames the blood, the passions, and
leads to further indulgence. This again calls for more spirits; and thus
two vicious habits are commenced, which mutually increase each other.
Strange as it may appear to those unacquainted with the animal economy, an
intemperate indulgence sometimes gives rise to the same disease—so
far as the name makes it so—that is frequently cured by a temperate
indulgence; viz, nocturnal emissions.
Every young married woman ought to know that the male system is exhausted
in a far greater degree than the female by gratification. It seems,
indeed, to have but little effect, comparatively, upon some females. But
with respect to the male, it has been estimated by Tissot that the loss of
one ounce of semen is equal in its effects upon the system of forty ounces
of blood. As it respects the immediate effects, this estimation, generally
speaking, may not be too great. But a man living on a full meat diet
might, doubtless, part with fifty ounces of semen in the course of a year,
with far less detriment to the system than with 2,000 ounces of blood. It
is a fact, that mode of living, independent of occupation, makes a great
difference with respect to what the system will bear. A full meat diet,
turtles, oysters, eggs, spirits, wine, etc., certainly promote the
secretion of semen, and enable the system to bear its emission. But a cool
vegetable and milk diet calms all the passions, the venereal especially.
Most men adopting such a diet as this will suffer no inconvenience in
extending the intervals of their gratification to three or four weeks; on
the contrary, they will enjoy clear intellect, and a fine flow of spirits.
This is the diet for men of literary pursuits, especially the unmarried.
As to the mischievous manner, it consists in the unnatural habit of
onanism, or solitary gratification; it is an antisocial and demoralizing
habit, which, while it proves no quietus to the mind, impairs the bodily
powers as well as mental, and not infrequently leads to insanity.
While the gratification of the reproductive instinct in such manner as
mentioned leads to bad consequences, a temperate and natural
gratification, under proper circumstances, is attended with good, besides
the mere attendant pleasure, which alone is enough to recommend such
gratification. I admit that human beings might be so constituted that if
they had no reproductive instinct to gratify, they might enjoy health; but
being constituted as they are, this instinct cannot be mortified with
impunity. It is a fact universally admitted, that unmarried females do not
enjoy so much good health and attain to so great an age as the married;
notwithstanding that the latter are subject to the diseases and pains
incident to child-bearing. A temperate gratification promotes the
secretions, and the appetite for food; calms the restless passions;
induces pleasant sleep; awakens social feeling; and adds a zest to life
which makes one conscious that life is worth preserving.
APPENDIX
[I here connect with this work, by way of Appendix, the
following extract from an article which appeared in the
Boston Investigator, a paper which, mirabile dictu, is so
"crazy" as to be open to the investigation of all subjects
which mightily concern mankind.]
The only seeming objection of much weight that can be brought against
diffusing a knowledge of checks is, that it will serve to increase illegal
connections. Now, this is exactly the contrary effect of that which those
who have diffused such knowledge most confidently believe will arise from
it. To diminish such connections is indeed one of the grand objects of
this publication,—an object which laws and prisons cannot, or, at
least, do not, accomplish. Why is there so much prostitution in the land?
The true answer to the question is not, and never will be, Because the
people have become acquainted with certain facts in physiology; it is
because there are so many unmarried men and women,—men of
dissipation and profligacy, owing to their not having married in their
younger days and settled down in life. But why are there so many unmarried
people in the country? Not because young hearts when they arrive at the
age of maturity do not desire to marry; but because prudential
considerations interfere. The young man thinks: I cannot marry yet; I
cannot support a family; I must make money first, and think of a
matrimonial settlement afterward. And so it is, that through fear of
having a family, before they have made a little headway in the world, and
of being thereby compelled to﹃tug at the oar of incessant labor
throughout their lives,﹄thousands of young men do not marry, but go
abroad into the world and form vicious acquaintances and practices. The
truth, then, is this,—there is so much illegal connection in the
land, because the people had not, twenty years ago, that very information
which, it would seem, some, doubtless through want of due reflection, are
apprehensive will increase this evil. I might quote pages to the point
from "Every Woman's Book," but I fear my communication would be too
lengthy. I content myself with a few lines. "But when it has become the
custom here as elsewhere to limit the number of children, so that none
need have more than they wish, no man will fear to take a wife; all will
marry while young; debauchery will diminish; while good morals and
religious duties will be promoted."
It has been asked if a general knowledge of checks would not diminish the
general increase of population? I think that such would not be the result
in this country until such result would be desirable. In my opinion the
effect would be a good many more families (and, on the whole, as many
births), but not so many overgrown and poverty-stricken ones. It has been
said, It is better to let Nature take her course. Now, in the broadest
sense of the word "Nature," I say so too. In this sense there is nothing
unnatural in the universe. But if we limit the sense of the word Nature so
as not to include what we mean by art, then is civilized life one
continued warfare against Nature. It is by art that we subdue the forest;
by art we contend against the elements; by art we combat the natural
tendency of disease, etc.
As to the outrageous slander which here and there one has been heard to
utter against the fair sex, in saying that fear of conception is the
foundation of their chastity, it must be the sentiment of a﹃carnal
heart,﹄which has been peculiarly unfortunate in its acquaintances.﹃To
the pure, all things are pure.﹄Chastity, as well as its opposite, is in a
great degree constitutional; and ought, in a like degree, to be regarded
as a physical property, if I may so say, rather than a moral quality.
Where the constitution is favorable a very indifferent degree of moral
training is sufficient to secure the virgin without the influence of the
above-mentioned fear; but where it is the reverse you may coop up the
individual in the narrow dark cage of ignorance and fear, as you will, but
still you must watch. An eminent moralist has said,﹃That chastity which
will not bear the light [of physiology] is scarcely worth preserving.﹄But
verily, I believe there is very little such in the market. What there be
is naturally short-lived, and, after its demise, the unhappily constituted
individual stands in great need of this light to save her from ignominy.
What might it not have prevented in the Fall River affair? And if one of
two things must happen—either the destruction of fecundity or the
destruction of life—which of the two is the greater evil? In these
cases alone this light is calculated to do sufficient good to
counterbalance all the evil that would arise from it; so that we should
have its important advantages to the married in a political, a domestic
and a medical point of view, as so much clear gain. This, of course, is my
opinion; but since I have probably reflected more upon the subject than
all the persons concerned in my imprisonment put together, until it can be
shown that I have not as clear a head and as pure a heart as any of them,
I think it entitled to some weight.
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