The Hathigumpha Inscription (pronounced: ɦɑːt̪ʰiːgumpʰɑː) is a seventeen line inscription in a Prakrit language incised in Brahmi script in a cavern called Hathigumpha in Udayagiri hills, near BhubaneswarinOdisha, India. Dated between the second century BCE and the first century CE,[2][3][4] it was inscribed by the Jain king Kharavela of the Kalinga kingdom.[5][note 1]
Hathigumpha inscription | |
---|---|
Material | Stone, rock-cut |
Writing | Prakrit |
Created | 2nd century BCE- 1st century CE[1] |
Period/culture | Kalinga |
Place | Udayagiri Hills, Bhubaneswar, Odisha |
Present location | 20°15′47″N 85°47′08″E / 20.26306°N 85.78556°E / 20.26306; 85.78556 |
Udayagiri Odisha (India)
8km
Hathigumpha |
The Hathigumpha Inscription presents, among other topics, a biographical sketch of a king in the eastern region of ancient India (now part of and near Odisha). It also includes information on religious values, public infrastructure projects, military expeditions and their purposes, society and culture. Paleographically, the inscription dates from the middle of the first century BCE to the early first century CE.[1][7]
The Hathigumpha inscription (transl. "Elephant Cave" inscription) of Kharavela is found at Udayagiri, about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) west of Bhubaneswar international airport. The Udayagiri hills host many ancient rock-cut caves such as the Rani Gumpha. Among these, to the west of Rani Gumpha, is a cavern called Hathigumpha on the southern face of Udayagiri hills.[note 2] The inscription is named after this cavern. It is found partly in front and partly the ceiling of the cave.[8] Though dated to between 2nd-century BCE and 1st-century CE, the inscription was unknown to the scholars till they were rediscovered by A. Sterling and published in Asiatic Researches XV in 1825. An eye-copy prepared by Kittoe was published by James Prinsep in 1837, followed by a trace by Alexander Cunningham in 1877.[8] R.L. Mitra published a modified version in his Antiquities of Orissa in 1880.
The first cast of this important inscription was published by Bhagwan Lal Indraji in 1884, followed by publication of an ink impression in 1906 by Bloch.[8] Indraji was the first scholar to declare that the king eulogised in the Hathigumpha inscription was named Kharavela,[9] but the cast impression, his translation and interpretation had many errors.[10]
The translations, disputes, problems with Hathigumpha inscription and various corrections have attracted the attention of scholars such as Kielhorn, Fleet, Luders, Banerji, Jayaswal, Konow, Thomas, Majumdar, Barua, Pandey, Sircar and many others.[8][11][12] According to Walter Spink, a historian known for his studies on Ajanta and other cave monuments of India, early misreadings and misinterpretations of the Hathigumpha inscription have led to errors and incorrect theories being widely held about the history of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Deccan region and early India.[13]
This inscription, consisting of seventeen lines has been incised in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. The inscription starts on the overhanging brow of Hathigumpha cavern and the first eight lines are visible at the front. The remaining nine lines continue on the same rock, but given the sloping shape of the cavern, it appears on the cavern's roof. The seventeen lines cover about 15 feet by 5.5 feet of the stone's surface.[14] Below this inscribed rock, the cavern's walls are rock-cut and some sections polished. These too have inscriptions, but these were added between the 10th and 11th-century, and are called minor Hathigumpha inscriptions. Closer to the floor, there are small rock cut partitions which do not form a wall between the cells.[8]
Composed as it is in a very obscure Prakrit, and its characters badly weathered by centuries of exposure to the elements and in places quite illegible, the Hathigumpha inscription has long been the subject of a great controversy among historians and paleographers.
A hand writing analysis suggests that three different ancient scribes likely worked together to produce this inscription.[8] The scribes likely chiseled the irregular overhanging rock and then deep incised the Brahmi text. Lines 1–6 of the main Hathigumpha inscription are well preserved, while last four Lines 16–17 show losses in the left part and the rest of these lines partially preserved. The other seven lines – Lines 7 through 15 – in the middle are problematic and can be read in many different ways.[16] According to Jayaswal, a scholar whose ink impressions and readings are among the most cited in the studies related to Hathigumpha inscription:[16]
These middle lines have been eroded and corrupted by natural processes over 2,000 some years. Processes such as rains, dripping water, dust, hornets and such causes have leveled or corrupted some Brahmi characters. In some cases so much that it is difficult to distinguish whether a cut is a chisel mark or a part of an aksara (letter). In other cases, the natural processes have added an angular-stroke or mark that can be included or rejected as an intended modification. The different hand writing styles found in the inscription further complicate what and how to read the letters. Thus, variant casts and ink impressions of the Hathigumpha inscriptions have been published, in part fueling the disagreements, interpretations and different scholarly translations.[8][16]
The mid and late-19th century scholarship suggested that this inscription may be from the 3rd or 2nd-century BCE. According to Buhler, the palaeographical analysis suggests this inscription cannot be earlier than the 2nd-century BCE, or later than 1st-century BCE.[17] In 1920, Jayaswal and Banerji stated that this inscription cannot be placed before the 2nd-century, and may be a bit later.[17] On palaeographic grounds and considering it with information in other ancient Indian inscriptions, Sircar places this in the second half of the 1st-century BCE, or possibly in the first decades of the 1st-century CE.[18]
The seventeen lines of the inscription has been variously translated by many. The translation published by Jayaswal and Banerji in Epigraphia Indica Volume 20 (public domain), with alternate readings by other scholars, is as follows: [19]
Lines | Translation (Jayaswal and Banerji)[19] |
Notes |
L1 |
Salutation to the Arhats [Jinas]. Salutation to all the Siddhas. |
The opening dedication (Namokar Mantra) and other lines confirm that Jainism was well established in Kalinga, and that this is a Jaina inscription. It mentions the ancient Chedi dynasty of Greater India.[19] Barua interprets the lengths of lines differently; to him, L1 and L2 are the first line.[20] |
L2 |
for fifteen years, with a body ruddy and handsome were played youthsome sport; |
This corresponds to the stages of life described in Brihaspati Sutra, where first 25 years are student's youthful life, thereafter comes manhood with household-social responsibilities.[19] Barua translates the five skills learnt by the crown prince as "writing, coinage, account, administration and procedures".[21] |
L3 |
then in the state of manhood, obtains the imperial (maharajya) coronation |
A list of public works and infrastructure projects completed at state's expense (see Line 4).[19] |
L4 |
done at (the cost of) thirty-five-hundred-thousands, |
The first war with Satakamni, with a list of military regiments in ancient India[22] |
L5 |
(he) versed in the science of the Gandharvas (i.e., music), |
A list of arts and culture in ancient India;[22] it is unclear what dapa was, but much later texts suggest a form of stage acting by small moving teams.[22] However, Barua reads "dampa", and translates it to "combat" (sort of wrestling).[21] |
L6 |
bhingaras cast away, deprived of their |
Another major public water infrastructure project, plus tax exemptions[22] According to Barua, this water canal project extended a previously dug canal; it brought water to Kalinga capital, and helps dates king Nanda to 103 years before the fifth year of Kharavela reign. He adds that it can also be read a bit differently and then it would be 300 years earlier.[23] Sircar agrees with Barua, then adds that it must be 300 years as the Nanda dynasty was overthrown by 326 BCE, and Kharavela is definitely not from the 3rd-century BCE.[24] |
L7 |
bestows many privileges (amounting to) hundreds of thousands |
a child is born to his wife and him;[22] According to Sircar, this ink impression and reading is doubtful and Kharavela's wife from Vajiragraha family is problematic and unlikely. Similarly the alleged achievements of Kharavela here are problematic and doubtful, states Sircar.[25] |
L8 |
causes pressure on Rajagaha (Rajagriha). On account of the loud |
a mention of Greek rule and claims of their retreat to Mathura;[22] Scholars debate on whether this refers to Demetrios of Bactria, though it most likely references another Indo-Greek ruler who had his base in Mathura.[26] |
L9 |
Kalpa (wish-fulfilling) trees, elephants, |
mention he performing a yajna ritual from the Vedas, in the context of Brahmins[22] Barua also reads Brahmins, and interprets this portion as Kharavela showing equal respect and favors to Jain monks and Brahmins.[27] According to Sircar, the word varna here was incorrectly translated as caste, because given the context, it is a form of description for recluses and teacher (Barua's monks and Brahmins). He also adds that a Jain king would not be expected to perform the Rajasuya sacrifice, and assumes that the scribe must have intended a different similar word with the meaning "royal fortune".[28] |
L10 |
(... lost ...)(He) causes to be built . . . . a royal |
another claim of war and conquest[22] However, Sircar doubts that this part is being accurately read.[29] |
L11 |
(... lost ...) And the market-town (?) Pithumda founded by |
breaks up the confederacy of Tamil kings, later a victory over Utarapatha (northwest);[22] |
L12 |
(... lost ...) And causing panic amongst the people of Magadha |
Victory over Magadha, sets up an image of Jina of Kalinga, previously taken away by King Nanda[30] Barua reads the "honored seat of Jina" which was taken away by king Nanda to be brought back to Kalinga in a royal procession.[31] According to Sircar, the readings here linking to Purhyamitra Sunga is doubtful and chronologically not possible.[32] |
L13 |
(... lost ...) (He) builds excellent towers with carved |
sets up a school of masons (artisans and architects) and builds carved towers, gains wealth from the Pandyas.[30] According to Barua, this portion states that Kharavela set up streets, gates and temples, and "one hundred Vasukis (dragon chiefs) sent him precious stones, rare and wonderful elephants, horses and such animals". Pandya king sent him gifts of clothes and ornaments.[33] |
L14 |
(... lost ...).(he) subjugates. In the thirteenth year, |
donations preachers in pursuit of soul and body[30] |
L15 |
(... lost ...)bringing about a Council of the wise ascetics and sages, |
sets up a council of advisors consisting of ascetics and sages from different parts of ancient India[30] |
L16 |
(... lost ...)Patalaka(?)………(he) sets up four columns |
mentions 7 angas and 64 lipis[30] |
L17 |
(... lost ...) accomplished in extraordinary virtues, |
mention of respect for all religions, patron of all temples, and the closing praise of the king.[30] |
The Hathigumpha Inscription is the main source of information about the Jain Kalinga ruler Kharavela. His year-by-year achievements in this inscription, states Richard Salomon, "approximates the character of a pure panegyric".[34] This is an early prototype of prashasti style of inscriptions.[35]
The disagreements between scholars is in reading with interpolations, interpreting, dating and then linking the names of places and people mentioned with other records and general chronology of ancient events assuming a particular reading is correct. Notable mentions in the Hathigumpha Inscription include:[36][37]
According to Salomon, the "readings, translations, and historical interpretations" of the Hathigumpha inscription "varies widely by different scholars", and it is not possible to establish its single standard version. These interpretations have created significantly different histories of ancient India, some with phantom eras, states Salomon. Newly discovered inscriptions at Guntupalli in Andhra Pradesh have shed further light on this inscription.[46]