Home  

Random  

Nearby  



Log in  



Settings  



Donate  



About Wikipedia  

Disclaimers  



Wikipedia





Miss South Africa





Article  

Talk  



Language  

Watch  

View source  





Miss South Africa is a national beauty pageantinSouth Africa that selects South African representatives to compete in one of the Big Four international beauty pageants Miss Universe, and also selects another representative to participate in Sub-major international pageant Miss Supranational. The Miss South Africa organisation resorted to a contemporary format in selecting representatives which was inaugurated in 2018. Following their newer method, both a Miss World South Africa and a Miss Universe South Africa were selected as representatives. From 2021 onwards, the winner of Miss South Africa will be competing in Miss Universe, and Miss Supranational. The current Miss South Africa 2023 is Natasha Joubert. On May 11, 2023, the Miss South Africa Organisation has lost its license as a Miss World licensee holder to Carol Bouwer Productions, which has taken over the license of Miss World South Africa pageant.[1]

Miss South Africa Organization
Formation1943; 81 years ago (1943)
TypeBeauty pageant
HeadquartersJohannesburg
Location

Membership

  • Miss Supranational
  • Official language

    English

    Partners

    Sun International
    Websitewww.misssa.co.za

    History

    Established in 1956, the first official Miss South Africa pageant was organized to send a representative to London for the Miss World pageant. That year Norma Vorster was crowned Miss South Africa. Two years later, an 18-year-old secretary from Durban, Penny Coelen, was crowned and would later go on to make history and win Miss World. It was not until 1977 that all persons of all races were allowed to compete in the Miss SA competition. Prior to that, people of colour competed in the Miss Africa South pageant,[2] which was renamed Miss Black South Africa in 1977.

    This was just the beginning for the Miss South Africa organisation; of the 60 women who have worn the crown, only the last 27 winners have been chosen from the entire population of South Africa and not just white individuals. Since then, hundreds of young women have entered the pageant vying for the title.[3]

    Miss South Africa (or a runner-up in some instances) has always competed at Miss World, but the first Miss South Africa to compete at Miss Universe was Kerishnie Naickerin1998.

    Prior to 1998, South Africa's representatives at Miss Universe qualified via other national pageants.

    Three Miss South Africas, namely Rolene Strauss, Anneline Kriel and Penelope Coelen, have won the Miss World titles in 2014, 1974 and 1958 respectively. Three women from South Africa have won the title of Miss Universe - Margaret Gardiner in 1978, Demi-Leigh Nel-Peters in 2017 and Zozibini Tunzi in 2019.

    Prior to the establishment of the official Miss South Africa, South African Pictorial ("The Union's National Weekly") held annual Beauty Competitions starting in 1923. This evolved later into Miss South Africa. The first winner of this prize was Mrs. Doris Ferramosca (née Doris Gwendoline Helliwell).

    In 2020, Miss South Africa franchised the Miss Supranational license.[4][5]In2022, Miss South Africa 2021, Lalela Mswane became the first South African woman have won the title of Miss Supranational.[6]

    International crowns

    Titleholders

    Year Miss South Africa Runners Up Ref.[7]
    1st Princess 2nd Princess
    1923 Doris Ferramosca W. J. van Blommestein Marjorie Elizabeth Cowley
    1943 Susie Smuts Unknown Unknown
    1956 Norma Vorster Gloria Keeley Virginia Burman
    1957 Adele Kruger Jessie Waring Denise Nichols
    1958 Penelope Coelen Rosemary Whitlock Debbie du Toit
    1959 Moya Meaker Sophie Pieters Kitty Green
    1960 Denise Muir Dorothy Farquhar Stella Pithey
    1961 Yvonne Hulley Marlene Boyes Rita Rheeder
    1962 Yvonne Ficker Ellen Liebenberg Madeleine Usher
    1963 Louise Crous Jennifer Slater Maureen van Niekerk [8]
    1964 Vedra Karamitas Lorraine Mason Virginia Scott-King
    1965 Carol Davis Diane Webster Ann Barber
    1966 Johanna Carter Dawn Duff-Gray Margo Galbraith
    1967 Disa Duivestein Mary McDonald Tiny de Lange
    1968 Mitzianna Stander Linda Collett Patsy Goswell
    1969 Linda Collett Diana Newman Jackie Sayer
    1970 Jillian Jessup Wendith Brink Dorothea Scott
    1971 Monica Fairall Merle Worsley Maria Claassen
    1972 Stephanie Reinecke Robin-Gail Hargreaves Carolien van Niekerk
    1973 Shelley Latham Janet Sanderson Theresa Rood
    1974 Anneline Kriel Ruanne Louw Anita Michas
    1975 Helga Vera Johns Crystal Cooper Rhoda Rademeyer
    1976 Lynn Massyn Louise Withfield Jan Kiggan
    1977 Vanessa Wannenburg Elizabeth Bunting Marilyn Albutt
    1978 Yolanda Kloppers Monique Hare Dawn Chapman
    1979 Karen Sickel Gail Rocher Wendy Ross
    1980 Sandra McCrystal Kim Aston Fiona White
    1981 Linda Phillips Elmarie van Aswegen Susan Schuttler
    1982 Odette Scrooby Andrea Stelzer Gail Sylvester
    1983 Leanne Hosking Karen Maingard Cathy Steed
    1984 Lorna Potgieter Colleen Redman Patience Craig
    1985 Andrea Stelzer Sandy McCormack Lorna-Anne Findlay
    1986 Sandy McCormack Nancy Riach Marie-Louise le Roux
    1987 Wilma van der Bijl Robyn Poole Janine Botbyl
    1988 Janine Botbyl Roberta Alessandri Mache Booysen
    1989 Michelle Bruce Helen Lewis Deborah Good
    1990 Suzette van der Merwe Olivia Scrooby Cheryl Coombe-Davis
    1991 Diana Tilden-Davis Amy Kleinhans Sasha-Lee Walton
    1992 Amy Kleinhans Augustine Masilela Lisa King
    1993 Jacqui Mofokeng Corinne Durrheim Marelize Steyn
    1994 Basetsana Makgalemele Sonia Kempff Helen Macleod
    1995 Bernelee Daniell Vanashree Moodley Natalie Benard
    1996 Peggy-Sue Khumalo Babalwa Mneno Adele van Niekerk
    1997 Kerishnie Naicker Jessica Motaung Petro van Zyl
    1998 Sonia Raciti Heidi van Zyl Keziah Jooste
    1999 Heather Joy Hamilton Nadia Wyngaard Pulane Moraladi
    2000 Jo-Ann Strauss Layla Jeevananthum Claire Drew
    2001 Vanessa Do Céu Carreira Claire Sabbagha Bonneventia Pule
    2002 Cindy Nell Tammy-Anne Fortuin Bridget Masinga
    2003 Joan Ramagoshi Marissa Eggli Siza Majola
    2004 Claudia Henkel Dhiveja Sundrum Sharon Arigye-Mushabe
    2005 Nokuthula Sithole Avumile Qongqo Matapa Maila
    2006 Megan Coleman Brigid Osborne Tracey-Lee Flanders
    2007 Tansey Coetzee Avumile Qongqo Manisha Pillay
    2008 Tatum Keshwar Anja van Zyl Buyi Shongwe [9]
    2009 Nicole Flint Matapa Maila Lisa van Zyl
    2010 Bokang Montjane Dhesha Jeram Bianca Coutinho [10]
    2011 Melinda Bam Remona Moodley Thuli Sangweni
    2012 Marilyn Ramos Stacey Webb Pearl Nxele
    2014 Rolene Strauss Ziphozakhe Zokufa Matlala Mokoko
    Ziphozakhe Zokufa[a] Matlala Mokoko No Replacement
    2015 Liesl Laurie Refilwe Mthimunye Ntsiki Mkhize
    2016 Ntandoyenkosi Kunene Elizabeth Molapo Tayla Skye Robinson
    2017 Demi-Leigh Nel-Peters Adè van Heerden Boipelo Mabe [11]
    Adè van Heerden[a] Boipelo Mabe No Replacement
    Year Miss South Africa Miss Universe South Africa Miss World South Africa Ref.
    2018 Tamaryn Green Tamaryn Green Thulisa Keyi
    2019 Zozibini Tunzi Zozibini Tunzi Sasha-Lee Olivier
    Sasha-Lee Olivier[a]
    Year Miss South Africa Runners Up Ref.
    1st Runner Up 2nd Runner Up
    2020 Shudufhadzo Musida Thato Mosehle Natasha Joubert
    2021 Lalela Mswane Moratwe Masima Zimi Mabunzi [12]
    2022 Ndavi Nokeri Ayanda Thabethe Lebogang Mahlangu [13]
    2023 Natasha Joubert Bryoni Govender Nande Mabala [14]
    2024

    International Competitions

    List of Titleholders under Miss South Africa Organization

    The following women have represented South Africa in two of the Big Four major international beauty pageants for women.[15][16] These are Miss World and Miss Universe; Miss International and Miss Earth are held by separate national beauty pageants in South Africa.[17][18][19]

    Miss Universe South Africa

    On some occasions, the winner of Miss South Africa represents her country at the Miss Universe pageant. Prior to 1982, the winner of the Miss RSA pageant represented South Africa at Miss Universe. Prior to 1998, the winner of the individual Miss Universe South Africa compete at Miss Universe. From 1981-1983 and in 1979, delegates from two of South Africa's Bantustans competed at Miss Universe.
    Year Province Miss Universe South Africa Placement at Miss Universe Special Awards Notes
    2024 TBA
    2023 Gauteng Bryoni Govender Top 20
    • Voice For Change (Top 10)
    2022 Limpopo Ndavi Nokeri Top 16
    2021 KwaZulu-Natal Lalela Mswane 2nd Runner-up
    2020 Gauteng Natasha Joubert Unplaced
    2019 Eastern Cape Zozibini Tunzi Miss Universe 2019
    2018 Western Cape Tamaryn Green 1st Runner-up
    2017 Western Cape Demi-Leigh Nel-Peters Miss Universe 2017
    2016 Mpumalanga Ntandoyenkosi Kunene Unplaced
    2015 Gauteng Refilwe Mthimunye Top 15
    2014 Eastern Cape Ziphozakhe Zokufa [20] Unplaced
    2013 North West Marilyn Ramos Unplaced
    2012 Gauteng Melinda Bam Top 10
    2011 Gauteng Bokang Montjane Unplaced
    2010 Gauteng Nicole Flint Top 10
    2009 KwaZulu-Natal Tatum Keshwar Top 10
    2008 Gauteng Tansey Coetzee Top 15
    • Best National Costume (Top 10)
    2007 KwaZulu-Natal Megan Coleman Unplaced
    2006 Gauteng Nokuthula "Thuli" Sithole Unplaced
    2005 Gauteng Claudia Henkel Top 15
    2004 Gauteng Joan Ramagoshi Unplaced
    2003 Gauteng Cindy Nell 2nd Runner-up
    2002 Gauteng Vanessa Do Ceu Carreira 3rd Runner-up
    2001 Western Cape Jo-Ann Strauss Unplaced
    2000 Gauteng Heather Joy Hamilton Top 10
    1999 Gauteng Sonia Raciti Top 5
    1998 KwaZulu-Natal Kerishnie Naicker Top 10
    Miss Universe South Africa
    1997 KwaZulu-Natal Mbali Gasa Unplaced
    1996 Gauteng Carol Becker Unplaced
    1995 Gauteng Augustine Masilela Top 10
    Did not compete between 1985—1994 as the country was barred from competing due to the country's practice of apartheid
    Miss South Africa and Miss Transkei
    1984 Transvaal (Gauteng) [b] Letitia "Tisha" Snyman 1st Runner-up
    1983 Natal (KwaZulu-Natal) [c] Leanne Beverly Hosking Unplaced
    Transkei (Eastern Cape) [d] Nomxousi Xokelelo Unplaced Competed as Transkei
    1982 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Odette Octavia Scrooby Top 12
    Transkei (Eastern Cape) [d] Noxolisi Mji Unplaced Competed as Transkei
    Miss Republic of South Africa / Miss RSA, Miss Transkei and Miss Bophuthatswana
    1981 Natal (KwaZulu-Natal)[c] Daniela di Paolo Unplaced
    Transkei (Eastern Cape)[d] Kedibone Tembisa Letlaka Unplaced Competed as Transkei
    1980 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Jenny Kay Did not compete
    1979 Transvaal (Gauteng) [b] Veronica Wilson Top 12
    Bophuthatswana
    (Mmabatho, North West) [e]
    Alina Moeketse Unplaced Competed as Bophuthatswana
    Transkei (Eastern Cape) [d] Lindiwe Bam Unplaced Competed as Transkei
    1978 Cape Province (Western Cape)[f] Margaret Gardiner Miss Universe 1978
    1977 Cape Province (Western Cape)[f] Glynis Fester Unplaced
    1976 Cape Province (Western Cape)[f] Cynthia Claasen Unplaced
    1975 Cape Province (Western Cape)[f] Gail Anthony Unplaced
    Did not compete between 1969—1974
    Miss Hibiscus Queen
    1968 Natal (KwaZulu-Natal)[c] Monica Fairall Unplaced
    1967 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Wendy Ballenden Unplaced
    1966 Natal (KwaZulu-Natal)[c] Lynn Carol de Jager Unplaced
    1965 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Veronika Edelgarda Hilda Prigge Top 15
    1964 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Gail Robinson Unplaced
    1963 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Ellen Liebenberg Top 15
    1962 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Lynette Gamble Unplaced
    1961 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Marina Christelis Unplaced
    1960 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Nicky Caras 3rd Runner-up
    Did not compete between 1954—1959
    Miss Golden Jubilee
    1953 Cape Province (Western Cape)[f] Ingrid Rita Mills Top 16
    1952 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Catherine Higgins Top 10

    Miss World South Africa

    On some occasions, the winner of Miss South Africa represents her country at the Miss World pageant. From 1970 to 1976, South Africa had one white and one black representative at Miss World. The white representative wore a sash that said "South Africa" and the black representative wore a sash that said "Africa South".
    Year Province Miss World South Africa Placement at Miss World Special Awards
    2023 Mpumalanga Claude Mashego[21] Top 40
    Miss World South Africa franchise under Carol Bouwer Productions directorship since May 2023
    2022 Miss World 2021 was rescheduled to 16 March 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in Puerto Rico, no edition started in 2022
    2021 Limpopo Shudufhadzo Musida[22] Top 40
    2020 Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, no competition held
    2019 Gauteng Sasha-Lee Olivier Top 40
    2018 Eastern Cape Thulisa Keyi Top 30
    2017 Western Cape Adè van Heerden Top 10
    2016 Mpumalanga Ntandoyenkosi Kunene Unplaced
    2015 Gauteng Liesl Laurie Top 11
    • Miss World Africa
    2014 Mpumalanga Rolene Strauss Miss World 2014
    • Miss World Africa
    2013 North West Marilyn Ramos Unplaced
    2012 Western Cape Remona Moodley Unplaced
    2011 Gauteng Bokang Montjane Top 7
    • Miss World Africa
    2010 Gauteng Nicole Flint Top 25
    2009 KwaZulu-Natal Tatum Keshwar 2nd Runner-up
    • Miss World Africa
    2008 Gauteng Tansey Coetzee Top 5
    2007 KwaZulu-Natal Megan Coleman Unplaced
    2006 Gauteng Nokuthula "Thuli" Sithole Unplaced
    2005 Dhiveja Sundrum Top 15
    2004 Gauteng Joan Ramagoshi Unplaced
    2003 Gauteng Cindy Nell Unplaced
    2002 Claire Sabbagha Unplaced
    2001 Western Cape Jo-Ann Strauss Top 10
    2000 Gauteng Heather Joy Hamilton Unplaced
    1999 Gauteng Sonia Raciti 2nd Runner-up
    • Miss World Africa
    1998 KwaZulu-Natal Kerishnie Naicker Top 5
    • Miss World Africa
    1997 Jessica Motaung 2nd Runner-up
    • Miss World Africa
    1996 Peggy-Sue Khumalo Top 10
    • Miss World Africa
    1995 Bernelee Daniell Top 10
    • Miss World Africa
    1994 Gauteng Basetsana Makgalemele 1st Runner-up
    • Miss World Africa
    1993 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Palesa Mofokeng 1st Runner-up
    • Miss World Africa
    1992 Cape Province (Western Cape)[f] Amy Kleinhans Top 5
    • Miss World Africa
    1991 Transvaal (Gauteng)[b] Diana Tilden-Davis 2nd Runner-up
    • Miss World Africa
    Did not compete between 1978—1990 as the country was barred from competing due to the country's practice of apartheid
    1977 Vanessa Wannenburg Unplaced
    Miss South Africa & Miss Africa South – Two Republic of South Africa Representatives at Miss World
    1976 Lynn Massyn Unplaced
    Veronica Mutsepe · Miss Africa South Unplaced
    1975 Rhoda Rademeyer Top 15
    Lydia Johnstone · Miss Africa South Unplaced
    1974 Transvaal (Gauteng) [b] Anneline Kriel
    • Appointed by 1st runner-up

    Appointment

    • Became Miss World 1974 four days after the competition when the original winner withdrew
    Evelyn Williams · Miss Africa South Top 15
    1973 Shelley Latham 4th Runner-up
    Ellen Peters · Miss Africa South Top 15
    1972 Stephanie Reinecke Top 15
    Cynthia Shange · Miss Africa South Unplaced
    1971 Natal (KwaZulu-Natal)[c] Monica Fairall Top 15
    Gaily Ryan · Miss Africa South Unplaced
    1970 Jillian Jessup 4th Runner-up
    Cape Province (Western Cape) [f] Pearl Jansen · Miss Africa South 1st Runner-up
    • Miss Congeniality[23]
    Miss South Africa
    1969 Linda Collett Top 7
    1968 Mitzianna Stander Unplaced
    1967 Disa Duivestein Top 15
    1966 Johanna Maud Carter Top 15
    1965 Carrol Davis Unplaced
    1964 Vedra Karamitas Unplaced
    1963 Louise Crous Unplaced
    1962 Yvonne Ficker 3rd Runner-up
    1961 Yvonne Hulley Top 15
    1960 Denise Muir 2nd Runner-up
    1959 Moya Meaker Top 11
    1958 Natal (KwaZulu-Natal) [c] Penelope Coelen Miss World 1958
    1957 Adele Kruger 2nd Runner-up
    1956 Norma Vorster Unplaced
    Did not compete between 1951—1955

    Miss Supranational South Africa

    Miss South Africa Organisation held the Miss Supranational franchise in 2020 and send 1st runner-up, Thato Mosehle. From 2021 onwards, the winner of Miss South Africa will be competing in Miss Universe, Miss World and Miss Supranational when her schedule permits or won any of the international title.
    Year Province Miss Supranational South Africa Placement Special Awards
    2024 Gauteng Bryoni Govender TBA
    2023 KwaZulu-Natal Ayanda Thabethe Top 24
    • Miss Congeniality
    • Supra Chat (Top 5)
    2022 Kwa Zulu-Natal Lalela Mswane Miss Supranational 2022
    2021 North West Thato Mosehle 2nd Runner-up
    • Supra Fan-vote (Top 10)
    2020 Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, no competition held
    2019 Gauteng Leyla van Greuning Unplaced
    2018 Gauteng Belinde Schreuder Unplaced
    2017 Gauteng Bianca Olivier Unplaced
    2016 Gauteng Talitha Bothma Unplaced
    Did not compete between 2014—2015
    2013 Western Cape Natasha Pretorius Unplaced
    2012 Western Cape Michelle Gildenhuys Top 20
    2011 Eastern Cape Dhesha Jeram Top 20

    See also

    References

    1. ^ "Carol Bouwer is the new Miss World South Africa licence holder". SApeople News. 12 May 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
  • ^ "Celebrating 60 years of Miss SA Celebrating Apartheid". 28 May 2018.
  • ^ "Everything to Know About Miss South Africa". Archived from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
  • ^ Morkel, Graye. "Here's everything we know about the Miss Supranational pageant". Channel. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
  • ^ "Miss South Africa 2020 top three will now represent SA at three international competitions". Channel. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
  • ^ Ngcobo, Khanyisile. "Lalela Mswane flies SA's flag high as she's crowned Miss Supranational 2022". DispatchLIVE. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
  • ^ "Full list of Miss South Africa winners". 18 October 2019.
  • ^ "Miss SA: Bloemfontein home to SA's most beautiful!". bloem.getitonline.co.za. 31 March 2014. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 15 July 2017.
  • ^ "Tatum Keshwar crowned Miss South Africa". The Times of India. 17 December 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  • ^ "Bokang Montjane Is Miss South Africa 2010". NewsTime. 12 December 2010. Archived from the original on 15 December 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
  • ^ "DEMI-LEIGH NEL-PETERS IS CROWNED MISS SOUTH AFRICA 2O17". Cell Contracts. CellC. Archived from the original on 5 August 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
  • ^ Morkel, Graye (16 October 2021). "Lalela Mswane crowned Miss South Africa 2021". News24. Retrieved 17 October 2021.
  • ^ "LOOK: Ndavi Nokeri crowned as Miss South Africa 2022". Jacaranda FM. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  • ^ Abrahams, Marcelle (14 August 2023). "Who is Bryoni Govender, Miss SA 2023 runner-up?". Independent Online.
  • ^ Jun, Kwanwoo (3 December 2003). "Lost in Storm's Debris: A Beauty Pageant". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  • ^ "Beauty with scandals". Standard Digital News. 15 July 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  • ^ "Những scandal của Miss World". Vietnam Express. 8 October 2008. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  • ^ Ibrahim, Lynda (13 September 2013). "The misses and missuses of the world". The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  • ^ Lowe, Aya (25 January 2016). "Philippines' Miss Universe returns home, ignites dreams". Channel NewsAsia. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
  • ^ "And Miss South Africa 2014". misssa.co.za. 30 March 2014. Archived from the original on 26 February 2014.
  • ^ "Miss World South Africa: Dr Claude Mashego to represent SA at Miss World". www.news24.com. 28 October 2023. Archived from the original on 29 October 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  • ^ "Shudufhadzo Musida to represent SA at Miss World". Channel 24. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
  • ^ Jansen, Pearl (2 February 2020). "Pearl is a queen again -- 50 years later". The A-Listers (Interview). Interviewed by Claire Keeton. South Africa: Sunday Times. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
  • Notes

    1. ^ a b c After the winner won an international pageant, the runner-up replaced her as Miss South Africa
  • ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o After the end of apartheid, the province of Transvaal was split into Gauteng, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and eastern part of North West Province.
  • ^ a b c d e f After the end of apartheid, the province of Natal was redesignated as the Province of KwaZulu-Natal after the KwaZulu bantustan was reintergrated into the province.
  • ^ a b c d Transkei became part of the Eastern Cape after the reintegration of the Bantustans at the end of apartheid in South Africa.
  • ^ Mmabatho, Bophuthatswana was later reintegrated into North West Province of South Africa.
  • ^ a b c d e f g Cape Town was part of the province of Cape of Good Hope before it was split into Western, Eastern, and Northern Cape Provinces in 1994.

  • Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miss_South_Africa&oldid=1231807253"
     



    Last edited on 30 June 2024, at 10:59  





    Languages

     


    Afrikaans
    Español
    Français
    Bahasa Indonesia
    Italiano
    Nederlands
    Português
    Română
    Svenska
    Tiếng Vit
     

    Wikipedia


    This page was last edited on 30 June 2024, at 10:59 (UTC).

    Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless otherwise noted.



    Privacy policy

    About Wikipedia

    Disclaimers

    Contact Wikipedia

    Code of Conduct

    Developers

    Statistics

    Cookie statement

    Terms of Use

    Desktop