Sedentism

Non-agricultural sedentism can and still does occur in areas where the local conditions are capable of supplying sources of food throughout much of the year.

For small-scale nomadic societies it can be difficult to adopt a sedentary lifestyle in a landscape without on-site agriculturalorlivestock breeding resources, since sedentism often requires sufficient year-round, easily accessible local natural resources.

Sedentism in regions where enough food is not available throughout the entire year requires good food preservation and storage techniques and technologies, such as pickling, salting, smoking and curing, drying, and fermentation, as well as good containers such as pottery, baskets, or special pits in which to securely store food whilst making it available. However, this is not unique to sedentism as nomadic societies also practice various forms of food preservation.

In archaeology a number of criteria must hold for the recognition of either semi or full sedentism.

According to Israeli archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef, they are as follows:^[3][4]

1. Increasing presence of organisms that benefit from human sedentary activities, e.g.

• House mice
• Rats
• Sparrows

2. Cementum increments on mammal teeth

• Indications that hunting took place in both winter and summer

3. Energy expenditure

• Leveling slopes
• Building houses
• Production of plaster
• Transport of undressed stones
• Digging of graves
• Shaping of large mortars

In many mammals dark cementum is deposited during winter when food is scarce and light cementum is deposited in the summer when food is abundant, so the outermost cementum layer shows at which season the animal was killed. Thus if animals were killed the year around in some area it suggests that people were sedentary there.^[5]

The first sedentary sites were pre-agricultural, and they appeared during the Upper PaleolithicinMoravia and on the East European Plain between c. 25000–17000 BC.^[6] In the Levant, the Natufian culture was the first to become sedentary at around 12000 BC. The Natufians were sedentary for more than 2000 years before they, at some sites, started to cultivate plants around 10000 BC.^[7] A year-round sedentary site, with its larger population, generates a substantial demand on locally provided natural resources, a demand that may have triggered the development of deliberate agriculture.

The Jōmon cultureinJapan, which was primarily a coastal culture, was sedentary from c. 12000 to 10000 BC, before the cultivation of rice at some sites in northern Kyushu.^[8][9] In northernmost Scandinavia, there are several early sedentary sites without evidence of agriculture or cattle breeding. They appeared from c. 5300–4500 BC and are all located optimally in the landscape for extraction of major ecosystem resources;^[10] for example, the Lillberget Stone Age village site (c. 3900 BC), the Nyelv site (c. 5300 BC), and the Lake Inari site (c. 4500 BC).^[11] In northern Sweden the earliest indication of agriculture occurs at previously sedentary sites, and one example is the Bjurselet site used during the period c. 2700–1700 BC, famous for its large caches of long distance traded flint axes from Denmark and Scania (some 1300 km). The evidence of small-scale agriculture at that site can be seen from c. 2300 BC (burnt cereals of barley).

Sedentism increased contacts and trade, and the first Middle East cereals and cattle in Europe could have spread through a stepping stone process, where the productive gifts (cereals, cattle, sheep and goats) were exchanged through a network of large pre-agricultural sedentary sites, rather than a wave of advance spread of people with agricultural economy, and where the smaller sites found in between the bigger sedentary ones did not get any of the new products. Not all contemporary sites during a certain period (after the first sedentism occurred at one site) were sedentary. Evaluation of habitational sites in northern Sweden indicates that less than 10 percent of all the sites around 4000 BC were sedentary. At the same time, only 0.5–1 percent of these represented villages with more than 3–4 houses. This means that the old nomadic or migratory life style continued in a parallel fashion for several thousand years, until somewhat more sites turned to sedentism, and gradually switched over to agricultural sedentism.

The shift to sedentism is coupled with the adoption of new subsistence strategies, specifically from foraging (hunter-gatherer) to agricultural and animal domestication. The development of sedentism led to the rise of population aggregation and formation of villages, cities, and other community types.

InNorth America, evidence for sedentism emerges around 4500 BC.^{[citation needed]}

Forced sedentismorsedentarization occurs when a dominant group restricts the movements of a nomadic group. Nomadic populations have undergone such a process since the first cultivation of land; the organization of modern society has imposed demands that have pushed aboriginal populations to adopt a fixed habitat.

At the end of the 19th and throughout the 20th century many previously nomadic tribes turned to permanent settlement. It was a process initiated by local governments, and it was mainly a global trend forced by the changes in the attitude to the land and real property and also due to state policies that complicated border crossing. Among these nations are Negev BedouininJordan, Israel and Egypt,^[12] Bashkirs, Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Evenks, Evens, Sakha in the Soviet Union, Tibetan nomads in China,^[13] BabongoinGabon, BakainCameroon,^[14] InnuinCanada, RomaniinRomania and Czechoslovakia, etc.

As a result of forced sedentarization, many rich herdsmen in Siberia have been eliminated by deliberate overtaxation or imprisonment, year-round mobility has been discouraged, many smaller sites and family herd camps have been shut down, children have been separated from their parents and taken to boarding schools. This caused severe social, cultural and psychological issues to Indigenous peoples of Siberia.^[15][16]

• Nacirema people
• Western culture
• Indian reservation
• Negev Bedouin
• Nomad
• Seasonal human migration
• Timeline of agriculture and food technology
• Transhumance

•   The dictionary definition of sedentism at Wiktionary
• Emily A. Schultz, Robert H. Lavenda. The Consequences of Domestication and Sedentism. From a college textbook – Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition Second Edition. pp 196–200
• Keith Weber, Shannon Horst. 2011. Desertification and livestock grazing: The roles of sedentarization, mobility and rest
• David Western, Rosemary Grooma, Jeffrey Worden. 2009. The impact of subdivision and sedentarization of pastoral lands on wildlife in an African savanna ecosystem
• Shuji Sueyoshi, Ryutaro Ohtsuka. 2007. LONG-LASTING EFFECTS OF SEDENTARIZATION-INDUCED INCREASE OF FERTILITY ON LABOR FORCE PROPORTION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN AN ARAB SOCIEITY [sic]: A CASE STUDY IN SOUTH JORDAN
• Fagan, Brian. 2005. Ancient North America. Thames & Hudson, Ltd.: London.
• Halén, Ove. 1994. Sedentariness During the Stone Age of Northern Sweden Almkvist & Wiksell, Stockholm.
• Sofer, Olga. 1981 Sedentism During the Paleolithic
• Habu, Junku. 2004 Ancient Jomon of Japan Cambridge University Press
• Lands of the NegevonYouTube, a short film presented by Israel Land Administration describing the challenges Bedouins face in their sedentarization in Israel's southern Negev region
• Should Pastoralists be sedentarized?, Drylands Coordination Group