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{{creationism2}} |
{{creationism2}} |
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{{Evolutionary biology}} |
{{Evolutionary biology}} |
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The [[creation–evolution controversy]] has a long history.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=David R. |authorlink=David R. Montgomery |date=November 2012 |title=The evolution of creationism |url=http://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/11/pdf/i1052-5173-22-11-4.pdf |
The [[creation–evolution controversy]] has a long history.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=David R. |authorlink=David R. Montgomery |date=November 2012 |title=The evolution of creationism |url=http://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/11/pdf/i1052-5173-22-11-4.pdf |journal=GSA Today |publisher=[[Geological Society of America]] |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=4–9 |doi=10.1130/GSATG158A.1 |accessdate=2016-01-28}}</ref> In response to theories developed by [[scientist]]s, some religious individuals and organizations questioned the legitimacy of scientific ideas that contradicted the literal interpretation of the [[Genesis creation narrative|creation account]] in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]. Interpretation of the [[Judeo-Christian]] [[Bible]] had long been the prerogative of an orthodox priesthood able to understand [[Latin]] who traditionally held that Genesis was not meant to be read literally and taught it as an allegory.<ref name="Compass">{{cite episode |title=Did Darwin Kill God? |url=http://www.abc.net.au/compass/s2730920.htm |accessdate=2013-09-04 |series=[[Compass (TV program)|Compass]] |first=Geraldine (host) |last=Doogue |authorlink=Geraldine Doogue |network=[[ABC Television]] |airdate=November 22, 2009}}</ref> With the advent of the printing press, the translation of the Bible into other languages, and wider literacy, sundry and more literal understandings of scripture flourished.<ref name="moore06">{{cite episode |title=Evolution and Wonder: Understanding Charles Darwin |url=http://www.onbeing.org/program/evolution-and-wonder-understanding-charles-darwin/transcript/899#main_content |accessdate=2014-07-25 |series=[[On Being|Speaking of Faith with Krista Tippett]] |first1=Krista (host) |last1=Tippett |authorlink1=Krista Tippett |first2=James |last2=Moore |authorlink2=James Moore (biographer) |network=[[NPR]] |type=Transcript |airdate=February 5, 2009}}</ref> This allowed some religious persons and groups to challenge scientists who supported [[evolution]], such as [[biologist]]s [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] and [[Ernst Haeckel]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|1997|p=17}}</ref> |
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==Creation–evolution controversy in the age of Darwin== |
==Creation–evolution controversy in the age of Darwin== |
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More recently, the [[intelligent design movement]] has taken an anti-evolution position which avoids any direct appeal to religion. However, Leonard Krishtalka, a paleontologist and an opponent of the movement, has called intelligent design "nothing more than creationism in a cheap tuxedo,"<ref>{{cite news |last=Slevin |first=Peter |date=May 5, 2005 |title=Teachers, Scientists Vow to Fight Challenge to Evolution |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/04/AR2005050402022_pf.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |accessdate=2014-07-22}}</ref> and, in ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' (2005) [[United States district court|United States District Judge]] [[John E. Jones III]] ruled that "intelligent design is not science," but is "grounded in theology" and "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents."<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District |vol=04 |reporter=cv |opinion=2688 |date=December 20, 2005}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 89 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 89]], and [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#H. Conclusion|Conclusion]].</ref> Before the trial began, U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] commented<!--reference for this? on the case and endorsed--> endorsing the teaching of intelligent design alongside evolution "I felt like both sides ought to be properly taught ... so people can understand what the debate is about."<ref>{{cite news |last=Bumiller |first=Elisabeth |authorlink=Elisabeth Bumiller |date=August 3, 2005 |title=Bush Remarks Roil Debate on Teaching of Evolution |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/03/politics/03bush.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=2007-02-03 }} |
More recently, the [[intelligent design movement]] has taken an anti-evolution position which avoids any direct appeal to religion. However, Leonard Krishtalka, a paleontologist and an opponent of the movement, has called intelligent design "nothing more than creationism in a cheap tuxedo,"<ref>{{cite news |last=Slevin |first=Peter |date=May 5, 2005 |title=Teachers, Scientists Vow to Fight Challenge to Evolution |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/04/AR2005050402022_pf.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |accessdate=2014-07-22}}</ref> and, in ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' (2005) [[United States district court|United States District Judge]] [[John E. Jones III]] ruled that "intelligent design is not science," but is "grounded in theology" and "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents."<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District |vol=04 |reporter=cv |opinion=2688 |date=December 20, 2005}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 89 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 89]], and [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#H. Conclusion|Conclusion]].</ref> Before the trial began, U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] commented<!--reference for this? on the case and endorsed--> endorsing the teaching of intelligent design alongside evolution "I felt like both sides ought to be properly taught ... so people can understand what the debate is about."<ref>{{cite news |last=Bumiller |first=Elisabeth |authorlink=Elisabeth Bumiller |date=August 3, 2005 |title=Bush Remarks Roil Debate on Teaching of Evolution |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/03/politics/03bush.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=2007-02-03 }} |
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*{{cite web |url=http://www.plts.edu/docs/ite_evol_fighting.pdf |title=The Evolution Controversy: Who's Fighting with Whom about What? |last1=Peters |first1=Ted |authorlink1=Ted Peters (theologian) |last2=Hewlett |first2=Martinez |authorlink2=Martinez Hewlett |date=December 22, 2005 |website=Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary |publisher=[[Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary]] |location=Berkeley, CA |
*{{cite web |url=http://www.plts.edu/docs/ite_evol_fighting.pdf |title=The Evolution Controversy: Who's Fighting with Whom about What? |last1=Peters |first1=Ted |authorlink1=Ted Peters (theologian) |last2=Hewlett |first2=Martinez |authorlink2=Martinez Hewlett |date=December 22, 2005 |website=Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary |publisher=[[Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary]] |location=Berkeley, CA |page=3 |id=Evolution Brief E2 |accessdate=2014-07-22 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129202440/http://plts.edu/docs/ite_evol_fighting.pdf |archivedate=November 29, 2010 |df= }}</ref> Scientists argue that intelligent design does not represent any research program within the scientific community, and is opposed by most of the same groups who oppose creationism.<ref>{{harvnb|Larson|2004|p=258}}, "Virtually no secular scientists accepted the doctrines of creation science; but that did not deter creation scientists from advancing scientific arguments for their position." |
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*{{cite journal |last1=Martz |first1=Larry |last2=McDaniel |first2=Ann |date=June 29, 1987 |title=Keeping God Out of the Classroom |url=http://kgov.com/files/docs/Newsweek-1987-God-Classroom.pdf |
*{{cite journal |last1=Martz |first1=Larry |last2=McDaniel |first2=Ann |date=June 29, 1987 |title=Keeping God Out of the Classroom |url=http://kgov.com/files/docs/Newsweek-1987-God-Classroom.pdf |journal=[[Newsweek]] |location=New York |publisher=Newsweek LLC |pages=23–24 |issn=0028-9604 |accessdate=2014-07-22 |quote=By one count there are some 700 scientists with respectable academic credentials (out of a total of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientist) who give credence to creation-science, the general theory that complex life forms did not evolve but appeared 'abruptly.'}}</ref> |
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==Timeline of the controversy== |
==Timeline of the controversy== |
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* 2002 - After much debate, the [[Ohio Department of Education|Ohio State Board of Education]] partially adopted the new "[[Teach the Controversy]]" initiative of intelligent design activists. In 2004, the board created a "Critical Analysis of Evolution" lesson plan for teachers. |
* 2002 - After much debate, the [[Ohio Department of Education|Ohio State Board of Education]] partially adopted the new "[[Teach the Controversy]]" initiative of intelligent design activists. In 2004, the board created a "Critical Analysis of Evolution" lesson plan for teachers. |
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* 2004 - On January 30, former U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] released a statement condemning the suggestion that the word "evolution" be banned from textbooks used in schools in the state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=January 30, 2004 |title=Carter slams Georgia's 'evolution' proposal |url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/EDUCATION/01/30/georgia.evolution/index.html |work=[[CNN]] |accessdate=2014-07-22}}</ref> |
* 2004 - On January 30, former U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] released a statement condemning the suggestion that the word "evolution" be banned from textbooks used in schools in the state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=January 30, 2004 |title=Carter slams Georgia's 'evolution' proposal |url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/EDUCATION/01/30/georgia.evolution/index.html |work=[[CNN]] |accessdate=2014-07-22}}</ref> |
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* 2004 - On February 19, Italian Education Minister [[Letizia Moratti]] issued a legislative decree that Italian children will learn about creationism. On April 23, top Italian scientists responded with an open letter and a petition, signed by more than 50,000 citizens, claiming that her proposal would sacrifice the "scientific curiosity of youth."<ref>{{cite journal |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Darwin in Italy |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol304/issue5671/r-samples.dtl#304/5671/677a |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=304 |issue=5671 |page=677 |doi=10.1126/science.304.5671.677a |issn=0036-8075 |accessdate=2014-07-22}}</ref> Moratti clarified that her proposal did not ban the teaching of evolution, but rescinded the decree nonetheless and even acted to bolster the presence of evolution in Italian academic curricula.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lorenzi |first=Rossella |date=April 29, 2004 |title=Darwin back in Italy's schools |url=http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/22818/title/Darwin-back-in-Italy-s-schools/ |journal=[[The Scientist (magazine)|The Scientist]] |location=Midland, Ontario |publisher=LabX Media Group |accessdate=2014-07-22}}</ref> |
* 2004 - On February 19, Italian Education Minister [[Letizia Moratti]] issued a legislative decree that Italian children will learn about creationism. On April 23, top Italian scientists responded with an open letter and a petition, signed by more than 50,000 citizens, claiming that her proposal would sacrifice the "scientific curiosity of youth."<ref>{{cite journal |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Darwin in Italy |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol304/issue5671/r-samples.dtl#304/5671/677a |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=304 |issue=5671 |page=677 |doi=10.1126/science.304.5671.677a |issn=0036-8075 |accessdate=2014-07-22|year=2004 }}</ref> Moratti clarified that her proposal did not ban the teaching of evolution, but rescinded the decree nonetheless and even acted to bolster the presence of evolution in Italian academic curricula.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lorenzi |first=Rossella |date=April 29, 2004 |title=Darwin back in Italy's schools |url=http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/22818/title/Darwin-back-in-Italy-s-schools/ |journal=[[The Scientist (magazine)|The Scientist]] |location=Midland, Ontario |publisher=LabX Media Group |accessdate=2014-07-22}}</ref> |
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* 2004 - On July 23, the [[International Theological Commission]] issued a document, ''Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God''.<ref name="communion" /> |
* 2004 - On July 23, the [[International Theological Commission]] issued a document, ''Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God''.<ref name="communion" /> |
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* 2005 - The Kansas State Board of Education "scheduled six days of courtroom-style hearings" concerning the teaching of evolution.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Evolution on trial in Kansas |url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/EDUCATION/05/02/life.evolution.reut/index.html |work=CNN |agency=[[Reuters]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050503015144/http://www.cnn.com/2005/EDUCATION/05/02/life.evolution.reut/index.html |archivedate=2005-05-03 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=2013-09-04}}</ref> |
* 2005 - The Kansas State Board of Education "scheduled six days of courtroom-style hearings" concerning the teaching of evolution.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Evolution on trial in Kansas |url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/EDUCATION/05/02/life.evolution.reut/index.html |work=CNN |agency=[[Reuters]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050503015144/http://www.cnn.com/2005/EDUCATION/05/02/life.evolution.reut/index.html |archivedate=2005-05-03 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=2013-09-04}}</ref> |
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==Citations== |
==Citations== |
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{{Refbegin|30em}} |
{{Refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Edward M. |last2=Ralph |first2=Philip Lee |last3=Lerner |first3=Robert E. |authorlink3=Robert E. Lerner |last4=Standish |first4=Meacham |year=1982 |title=World Civilizations: Their History and Their Culture |edition=Sixth |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=0-393-95077- |
* {{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Edward M. |last2=Ralph |first2=Philip Lee |last3=Lerner |first3=Robert E. |authorlink3=Robert E. Lerner |last4=Standish |first4=Meacham |year=1982 |title=World Civilizations: Their History and Their Culture |edition=Sixth |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0-393-95077-9 |lccn=81018858 |oclc=7998534 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Desmond |first1=Adrian |authorlink=Adrian Desmond |last2=Moore |first2=James |authorlink2=James Moore (biographer) |year=1991 |title=Darwin |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Michael Joseph (publisher)|Michael Joseph]]; [[Viking Press|Viking Penguin]] |isbn=0-7181-3430-3 |lccn=92196964 |oclc=26502431 |ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Desmond |first1=Adrian |authorlink=Adrian Desmond |last2=Moore |first2=James |authorlink2=James Moore (biographer) |year=1991 |title=Darwin |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Michael Joseph (publisher)|Michael Joseph]]; [[Viking Press|Viking Penguin]] |isbn=978-0-7181-3430-3 |lccn=92196964 |oclc=26502431 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |year=1973 |chapter=The Oratory Bm May 22/68 |chapterurl=http://inters.org/Newman-Scarborough-Darwin-Evolution |editor1-last=Dessain |editor1-first=Charles Stephen |editor2-last=Gornall |editor2-first=Thomas |title=The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman |type=Letter to J. Walker of Scarborough on Darwin's theory of evolution, May 22, 1868 |volume=XXIV |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]] |pages=77–78 |oclc=59190720 |ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book |year=1973 |chapter=The Oratory Bm May 22/68 |chapterurl=http://inters.org/Newman-Scarborough-Darwin-Evolution |editor1-last=Dessain |editor1-first=Charles Stephen |editor2-last=Gornall |editor2-first=Thomas |title=The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman |type=Letter to J. Walker of Scarborough on Darwin's theory of evolution, May 22, 1868 |volume=XXIV |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]] |pages=77–78 |oclc=59190720 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Dewey |first=John |authorlink=John Dewey |year=1994 |chapter=The Influence of Darwinism on Philosophy |editor=Martin Gardner |editor-link=Martin Gardner |title=Great Essays in Science |location=Buffalo, NY |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=0-87975-853- |
* {{cite book |last=Dewey |first=John |authorlink=John Dewey |year=1994 |chapter=The Influence of Darwinism on Philosophy |editor=Martin Gardner |editor-link=Martin Gardner |title=Great Essays in Science |location=Buffalo, NY |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=978-0-87975-853-0 |lccn=93035453 |oclc=28846489 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Hayward |first=James L. |year=1998 |title=The Creation/Evolution Controversy: An Annotated Bibliography |series=Magill Bibliographies |location=Lanham, MD; Pasadena, CA |publisher=Scarecrow Press; Salem Press |isbn=0-8108-3386- |
* {{cite book |last=Hayward |first=James L. |year=1998 |title=The Creation/Evolution Controversy: An Annotated Bibliography |series=Magill Bibliographies |location=Lanham, MD; Pasadena, CA |publisher=Scarecrow Press; Salem Press |isbn=978-0-8108-3386-9 |lccn=98003138 |oclc=38496519 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite web |last=Hodge |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Hodge |year=1874 |title=What is Darwinism? |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19192 |location=New York |publisher=[[Charles Scribner I|Scribner, Armstrong, and Company]] |lccn=06012878 |oclc=1004320 |accessdate=2014-07-26 |ref=harv}} |
* {{cite web |last=Hodge |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Hodge |year=1874 |title=What is Darwinism? |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19192 |location=New York |publisher=[[Charles Scribner I|Scribner, Armstrong, and Company]] |lccn=06012878 |oclc=1004320 |accessdate=2014-07-26 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Julian |authorlink=Julian Huxley |year=1957 |chapter=Transhumanism |chapterurl=http://www.transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/more/huxley |title=New Bottles for New Wine |location=New York |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)#Harper & Brothers (1833–1962)|Harper & Brothers]] |oclc=550463 |accessdate=2014-07-22 |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522082157/http://www.transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/more/huxley |archivedate=2011-05-22 |df= }} |
* {{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Julian |authorlink=Julian Huxley |year=1957 |chapter=Transhumanism |chapterurl=http://www.transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/more/huxley |title=New Bottles for New Wine |location=New York |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)#Harper & Brothers (1833–1962)|Harper & Brothers]] |oclc=550463 |accessdate=2014-07-22 |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522082157/http://www.transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/more/huxley |archivedate=2011-05-22 |df= }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Julian |year=1964 |chapter=The New Divinity |chapterurl=http://www.update.uu.se/~fbendz/library/jh_divin.htm |title=Essays of a Humanist |location=New York |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)#Harper & Row (1962–1990)|Harper & Row]] |oclc=550466 |accessdate=2014-07-22 |ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Julian |year=1964 |chapter=The New Divinity |chapterurl=http://www.update.uu.se/~fbendz/library/jh_divin.htm |title=Essays of a Humanist |location=New York |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)#Harper & Row (1962–1990)|Harper & Row]] |oclc=550466 |accessdate=2014-07-22 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Thomas Henry |authorlink=Thomas Henry Huxley |year=1902 |origyear=Originally published 1894 |chapter=An Episcopal Trilogy [1887] |chapterurl=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15905/15905-8.txt |title=Science and Christian Tradition: Essays |volume=V |location=New York |publisher=[[D. Appleton & Company]] |pages=126–159 |isbn=978-1-4179-7372-9 |lccn=41030619 |oclc=634917253 |accessdate=2007-01-14 |ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book |last=Huxley |first=Thomas Henry |authorlink=Thomas Henry Huxley |year=1902 |origyear=Originally published 1894 |chapter=An Episcopal Trilogy [1887] |chapterurl=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15905/15905-8.txt |title=Science and Christian Tradition: Essays |volume=V |location=New York |publisher=[[D. Appleton & Company]] |pages=126–159 |isbn=978-1-4179-7372-9 |lccn=41030619 |oclc=634917253 |accessdate=2007-01-14 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |authorlink=Edward J. Larson |year=1997 |title=Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion |location=New York |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=0-465-07509-6 |lccn=97009648 |oclc=36430743 |ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |authorlink=Edward J. Larson |year=1997 |title=Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion |location=New York |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=978-0-465-07509-6 |lccn=97009648 |oclc=36430743 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |year=2004 |title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory |location=New York |publisher=[[Modern Library]] |isbn=0-679-64288- |
* {{cite book |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |year=2004 |title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory |location=New York |publisher=[[Modern Library]] |isbn=978-0-679-64288-6 |lccn=2003064888 |oclc=53483597 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald L. |authorlink=Ronald L. Numbers |year=2006 |origyear=Originally published 1992 as ''The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism''; New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]] |title= |
* {{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald L. |authorlink=Ronald L. Numbers |year=2006 |origyear=Originally published 1992 as ''The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism''; New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]] |title=The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design |edition=Expanded ed., 1st Harvard University Press pbk. |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-02339-0 |lccn=2006043675 |oclc=69734583 |ref=harv|title-link=The Creationists }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald L. |year=1998 |title=Darwinism Comes to America |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-674-19312- |
* {{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald L. |year=1998 |title=Darwinism Comes to America |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-674-19312-3 |lccn=98016212 |oclc=38747194 |ref=harv}} |
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* {{Cite conference |title=Creation and Evolution: A Conference with Pope Benedict XVI in Castel Gandolfo |first1=Peter |last1=Schuster |authorlink1=Peter Schuster |first2=Robert |last2=Spaemann |authorlink2=Robert Spaemann |first3=Paul |last3=Erbrich |author4=Christoph Cardinal Schönborn |authorlink4=Christoph Schönborn |first5=Siegfried |last5=Wiedenhofer |year=2008 |origyear=Originally published 2007; Augsburg: Sankt Ulrich Verlag GmbH |editor1-last=Horn |editor1-first=Stephan Otto |editor2-last=Wiedenhofer |editor2-first=Siegfried |others=Foreword by Christoph Cardinal Schönborn; translation from German by Michael J. Miller |publisher=[[Ignatius Press]] |location=San Francisco, CA |isbn=978-1-58617-234-3 |lccn=2007938139 |oclc=228425433 |ref=harv}} "Papers from a conference held at Castel Gandolfo, Italy, Sept. 2006." |
* {{Cite conference |title=Creation and Evolution: A Conference with Pope Benedict XVI in Castel Gandolfo |first1=Peter |last1=Schuster |authorlink1=Peter Schuster |first2=Robert |last2=Spaemann |authorlink2=Robert Spaemann |first3=Paul |last3=Erbrich |author4=Christoph Cardinal Schönborn |authorlink4=Christoph Schönborn |first5=Siegfried |last5=Wiedenhofer |year=2008 |origyear=Originally published 2007; Augsburg: Sankt Ulrich Verlag GmbH |editor1-last=Horn |editor1-first=Stephan Otto |editor2-last=Wiedenhofer |editor2-first=Siegfried |others=Foreword by Christoph Cardinal Schönborn; translation from German by Michael J. Miller |publisher=[[Ignatius Press]] |location=San Francisco, CA |isbn=978-1-58617-234-3 |lccn=2007938139 |oclc=228425433 |ref=harv}} "Papers from a conference held at Castel Gandolfo, Italy, Sept. 2006." |
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{{Refend}} |
{{Refend}} |
Part of a series on |
Evolutionary biology |
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Processes and outcomes |
Natural history |
History of evolutionary theory |
Fields and applications |
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The creation–evolution controversy has a long history.[1] In response to theories developed by scientists, some religious individuals and organizations questioned the legitimacy of scientific ideas that contradicted the literal interpretation of the creation accountinGenesis. Interpretation of the Judeo-Christian Bible had long been the prerogative of an orthodox priesthood able to understand Latin who traditionally held that Genesis was not meant to be read literally and taught it as an allegory.[2] With the advent of the printing press, the translation of the Bible into other languages, and wider literacy, sundry and more literal understandings of scripture flourished.[3] This allowed some religious persons and groups to challenge scientists who supported evolution, such as biologists Thomas Henry Huxley and Ernst Haeckel.[4]
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Although the history of evolutionary thought dates back to Empedocles and other Greek philosophers in Europe (5th century BCE), and Taoism in Asia, and the history of evolutionary thought in Christian theology dates back to Augustine of Hippo (4th century) and Thomas Aquinas (13th century), the current creation–evolution controversy originated in Europe and North America in the late 18th century. Discoveries in geology led to various theories of an ancient earth, and fossils showing past extinctions prompted early ideas of evolution, which were particularly controversial in England, where both the natural world and the hierarchical social order were thought to be fixed by God's will. As the terrors of the French Revolution developed into the Napoleonic Wars, followed by economic depression threatening revolution in Great Britain itself, such subversive ideas were rejected, associated only with radical agitators.[5]
Conditions eased with economic recovery, and when Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation was anonymously published in 1844 its ideas of transmutation of species attracted wide public interest despite being attacked by the scientific establishment and many theologians who believed it to be in conflict with their interpretations of the biblical account of life's, especially humanity's, origin and development.[6] However, radical Quakers, Unitarians and Baptists welcomed the book's ideas of "natural law" as supporting their struggle to overthrow the privileges of the Church of England.[7]
Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation remained a best-seller, and paved the way for widespread interest in the theory of natural selection as introduced and published by English naturalist Charles Darwin in his 1859 book, On the Origin of Species. Darwin's book was praised by Unitarians as well as by liberal Anglican theologians whose Essays and Reviews (1860) sparked considerably more religious controversy in Britain than Darwin's publication, as its support of higher criticism questioned the historical accuracy of literal interpretations of the Bible and added declarations that miracles were irrational.[8]
Darwin's book revolutionized the way naturalists viewed the world. The book and its promotion attracted attention and controversy, and many theologians reacted to Darwin's theories. For example, in his 1874 work What is Darwinism? the theologian Charles Hodge argued that Darwin's theories were tantamount to atheism.[9] The controversy was fueled in part by one of Darwin's most vigorous promoters, Thomas Henry Huxley, who opined that Christianity is a "...compound of some of the best and some of the worst elements of Paganism and Judaism, moulded in practice by the innate character of certain people of the Western world..."[10] Perhaps the most uncompromising of the evolutionary philosophers was Ernst Haeckel, who dogmatically affirmed that nothing spiritual exists.[11]
A watershed in the Protestant objections to evolution occurred after about 1875.[12] Previously, citing Louis Agassiz and other scientific luminaries, Protestant contributors to religious quarterlies dismissed Darwin's theories as unscientific.[12] After 1875, it became clear that the majority of naturalists embraced evolution, and a sizable minority of these Protestant contributors rejected Darwin's theory because it called into question the veracity of Scriptures.[12] Even so, virtually none of these dissenters insisted on a young Earth.[13]
The greatest concern for creationists in the late 19th century was the issue of human ancestry. In the words of an 1896 religious tract:
I do not wish to meddle with any man's family matters, or quarrel with any one about his relatives. If a man prefers to look for his kindred in the zoological gardens, it is no concern of mine; if he wants to believe that the founder of his family was an ape, a gorilla, a mud-turtle, or a monar, he may do so; but when he insists that I shall trace my lineage in that direction, I say No sir!...I prefer that my genealogical table shall end as it now does, with 'Cainan, which was the son of Seth, which was the son of Adam, which was the son of God,' rather than invent one which reads, 'Which was the son of skeptic, which was the son of monkey, which was the son of oyster, which was the son of monar, which was the son of mud!'—a genealogical table which begins in the mud and ends in the gravel, which has a monar at the head, a monkey in the middle, and an infidel at the tail.[14]
Creationists during this period were largely premillennialists, whose belief in Christ's return depended on a quasi-literal reading of the Bible.[13] However, they were not as concerned about geology, freely granting scientists any time they needed before the Edenic creation to account for scientific observations, such as fossils and geological findings.[15] In the immediate post-Darwinian era, few scientists or clerics rejected the antiquity of the earth, the progressive nature of the fossil record.[16] Likewise, few attached geological significance to the Biblical flood, unlike subsequent creationists.[16] Evolutionary skeptics, creationist leaders and skeptical scientists were usually either willing to adopt a figurative reading of the first chapter of Genesis, or allowed that the six days of creation were not necessarily 24-hour days.[17]
Initial reactions in the United States matched the developments in Britain, and when Alfred Russel Wallace went there for a lecture tour in 1886–1887 his explanations of "Darwinism" were welcomed without any problems, but attitudes changed after the First World War.[3] The controversy became political when public schools began teaching that man evolved from earlier forms of life per Darwin's theory of natural selection. In response, the U.S. stateofTennessee passed the Butler Act of 1925 prohibiting the teaching of any theory of the origins of humans that contradicted the teachings of the Bible. This law was tested in the highly publicized Scopes Trial of 1925. The law was upheld by the Tennessee Supreme Court, and remained on the books until 1967 when it was repealed. In 1968, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Epperson v. Arkansas that banning the teaching of specific theories contravened the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution because their primary purpose was religious.
Work in genetics culminating in the 1937 publication of Genetics and the Origin of SpeciesbyTheodosius Dobzhansky, combining Mendelian inheritance with Darwinian natural selection, and explaining, through neutral mutations, the source of the variation upon which evolution acted, led to a synthesis that brought together disparate fields of biology and other sciences into a strong, coherent explanation of evolution.[18] A campaign ensued, urging schools to teach the "fact" of evolution,[19] and in the 1960s, the federally supported Biological Sciences Curriculum Study[20] biology text books were introduced, promoting evolution as the organizing principle of biology.[21] The belief in the power of science amongst biologists was running especially high: One of the prominent creators of the modern evolutionary synthesis, Julian Huxley, made a religion of humanism, saying that a "drastic reorganization of our pattern of religious thought is now becoming necessary, from a god-centered to an evolutionary-centered pattern,"[22] and advocating the use of science to further expand human capacities.[23] Meanwhile, public opinion polls suggested that most Americans either believed that God specially created human beings or guided evolution.[24] Membership in churches favoring increasingly literal interpretations of Scripture continued to rise, with the Southern Baptist Convention and Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod outpacing all other denominations.[24] With growth, these churches became better equipped to promulgate a creationist message, with their own colleges, schools, publishing houses, and broadcast media.[21]
With decreasing church membership among evolutionary scientists, the role of opposing the anti-BSCS textbook movement passed from prominent scientists in liberal churches to secular scientists less equipped to reach Christian audiences.[21] Anti-evolutionary forces were able to reduce the number of school districts utilizing BSCS biology text books, but courts continued to prevent religious instruction in public schools.[25]
John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris' influential The Genesis Flood: The Biblical Record and Its Scientific Implications was published in 1961.[26] The authors argued that creation was literally 6 days long, that humans lived concurrently with dinosaurs, and that God created each kind of life. With publication, Morris became a popular speaker, spreading anti-evolutionary ideas at fundamentalist churches, colleges, and conferences.[27] Morris set up the Creation Science Research Center (CSRC), an organization dominated by Baptists, as an adjunct to the Christian Heritage College.[28] The CSRC rushed publication of biology text books that promoted creationism.[28] These efforts were against the recommendations of Morris, who urged a more cautious and scientific approach.[28] Ultimately, the CSRC broke up, and Morris founded the Institute for Creation Research in 1970.[29] Morris promised that the ICR, unlike the CSRC, would be controlled and operated by scientists.[30] During this time, Morris and others who supported flood geology, adopted the scientific sounding terms scientific creationism and creation science.[31] The flood geologists effectively co-opted "the generic creationist label for their hyperliteralist views."[32] Previously, creationism was a generic term describing a philosophical perspective that presupposes the existence of a supernatural creator.[33]
Among the first recorded responses of a prominent Roman Catholic clergyman to Darwin's theory was that of the Blessed John Henry Newman, who in 1868, in a letter to a fellow priest, made the following comments:
As to the Divine Design, is it not an instance of incomprehensibly and infinitely marvellous Wisdom and Design to have given certain laws to matter millions of ages ago, which have surely and precisely worked out, in the long course of those ages, those effects which He from the first proposed. Mr Darwin's theory need not then to be atheistical, be it true or not; it may simply be suggesting a larger idea of Divine Prescience and Skill. Perhaps your friend has got a surer clue to guide him than I have, who have never studied the question, and I do not [see] that 'the accidental evolution of organic beings' is inconsistent with divine design — It is accidental to us, not to God.[34]
Some point to the fact that before ordination all Catholic priests have to study the teachings of Thomas Aquinas, who subscribed to an Aristotelian view of evolution, in which he posits that animal species evolve by means of mutations and natural law.
More recent statements have been made by Pope John Paul II[35] and Pope Benedict XVI[36] that also support a theistic understanding of evolution.
The controversy continues to this day, with the scientific consensus on the origins and evolution of life actively attacked by creationist organizations and religious groups who desire to uphold other forms of creationism (usually young Earth creationism (YEC), creation science, old Earth creationismorintelligent design (ID)) as an alternative. Most of these groups are explicitly Christian, and more than one sees the debate as part of the Christian mandate to evangelize.[37]
Some see science and religion as being diametrically opposed views which cannot be reconciled. More accommodating viewpoints, held by mainstream churches and some scientists, consider science and religion to be separate categories of thought, which ask fundamentally different questions about reality and posit different avenues for investigating it.[38]
More recently, the intelligent design movement has taken an anti-evolution position which avoids any direct appeal to religion. However, Leonard Krishtalka, a paleontologist and an opponent of the movement, has called intelligent design "nothing more than creationism in a cheap tuxedo,"[39] and, in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District (2005) United States District Judge John E. Jones III ruled that "intelligent design is not science," but is "grounded in theology" and "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents."[40] Before the trial began, U.S. President George W. Bush commented endorsing the teaching of intelligent design alongside evolution "I felt like both sides ought to be properly taught ... so people can understand what the debate is about."[41] Scientists argue that intelligent design does not represent any research program within the scientific community, and is opposed by most of the same groups who oppose creationism.[42]
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