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'''''Vigna subterranea''''' (common names: '''Bambara groundnut''', '''Bambara nut''',<ref name="GRIN2">{{GRIN|access-date=15 December 2017}}</ref> '''Bambara bean''',<ref name=":74">{{cite book |title=Lost Crops of Africa|publisher=The National Academies Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-309-10333-6 |volume=II: Vegetables |location=Washington, DC |page=53 |doi=10.17226/11763}}</ref> '''Congo goober''',<ref name="GRIN2" /> '''earth pea''',<ref>{{cite web |year=1994 |title=Definition And Classification Of Commodities (Draft): 4. Pulses And Derived Products |url=http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/faodef/fdef04e.htm#4.02 |access-date=21 June 2013 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization}}</ref> '''ground-bean''',<ref name="GRIN2" /> or '''hog-peanut'''<ref name="GRIN2" />) is a member of the family [[Fabaceae]]. Its name is derived from the [[Bambara people |
'''''Vigna subterranea''''' (common names: '''Bambara groundnut''', '''Bambara nut''',<ref name="GRIN2">{{GRIN|access-date=15 December 2017}}</ref> '''Bambara bean''',<ref name=":74">{{cite book |title=Lost Crops of Africa|publisher=The National Academies Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-309-10333-6 |volume=II: Vegetables |location=Washington, DC |page=53 |doi=10.17226/11763}}</ref> '''Congo goober''',<ref name="GRIN2" /> '''earth pea''',<ref>{{cite web |year=1994 |title=Definition And Classification Of Commodities (Draft): 4. Pulses And Derived Products |url=http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/faodef/fdef04e.htm#4.02 |access-date=21 June 2013 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |archive-date=17 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017140932/http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/faodef/fdef04e.htm#4.02 |url-status=dead }}</ref> '''ground-bean''',<ref name="GRIN2" /> or '''hog-peanut'''<ref name="GRIN2" />) is a member of the family [[Fabaceae]]. Its name is derived from the [[Bambara people|Bambara ethnic group]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mubaiwa |first1=Juliet |last2=Fogliano |first2=Vincenzo |last3=Chidewe |first3=Cathrine |last4=Linnemann |first4=Anita R. |date=2017-03-04 |title=Hard-to-cook phenomenon in bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) processing: Options to improve its role in providing food security |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=167–194 |doi=10.1080/87559129.2016.1149864 |s2cid=87980894 |issn=8755-9129|doi-access=free }}</ref> The plant originated in [[West Africa]]. As a food and source of income, the Bambara groundnut is considered to be the third most important leguminous crop in those African countries where it is grown, after [[peanut]] and [[cowpea]]. The crop is mainly cultivated, sold and processed by women, and is, thus, particularly valuable for female subsistence farmers.<ref name=":74"/><ref name=":05">{{Cite journal |last1=Azman Halimi |first1=Razlin |last2=Barkla |first2=Bronwyn J. |last3=Mayes |first3=Sean |last4=King |first4=Graham J. |date=2019-04-01 |title=The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088915751830766X |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |language=en |volume=77 |pages=47–59 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.008 |s2cid=104447516 |issn=0889-1575}}</ref> |
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Bambara groundnut represents the third most important grain legume in semi-arid Africa.<ref name="Ocran2">{{cite book |last=Ocran |first=V. K |title=Seed Management Manual for Ghana |publisher=MOFA |year=1998 |location=Accra Ghana}}</ref> It is resistant to high temperatures and is suitable for marginal soils where other leguminous crops cannot be grown.<ref name="Yamaguchi2">{{cite book |last=Yamaguchi |first=M |title=World Vegetables |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |year=1983 |location=New York}}</ref> It is a low-impact crop.<ref name="Bareyh2">{{cite journal |last=Baryeh |first=E.A. |year=2001 |title=Physical properties of bambara groundnuts |journal=Journal of Food Engineering |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=321–326 |doi=10.1016/s0260-8774(00)00136-9}}</ref> The entire plant is known for soil improvement<ref name="ecocrop52">{{cite web |title=Data sheet Vigna subterranea |url=https://www.fao.org/land-water/land/land-governance/land-resources-planning-toolbox/category/details/en/c/1027491/ |access-date=16 March 2011 |work=Ecocrop |publisher=FAO}}</ref> because of nitrogen fixation. |
Bambara groundnut represents the third most important grain legume in semi-arid Africa.<ref name="Ocran2">{{cite book |last=Ocran |first=V. K |title=Seed Management Manual for Ghana |publisher=MOFA |year=1998 |location=Accra Ghana}}</ref> It is resistant to high temperatures and is suitable for marginal soils where other leguminous crops cannot be grown.<ref name="Yamaguchi2">{{cite book |last=Yamaguchi |first=M |title=World Vegetables |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |year=1983 |location=New York}}</ref> It is a low-impact crop.<ref name="Bareyh2">{{cite journal |last=Baryeh |first=E.A. |year=2001 |title=Physical properties of bambara groundnuts |journal=Journal of Food Engineering |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=321–326 |doi=10.1016/s0260-8774(00)00136-9}}</ref> The entire plant is known for soil improvement<ref name="ecocrop52">{{cite web |title=Data sheet Vigna subterranea |url=https://www.fao.org/land-water/land/land-governance/land-resources-planning-toolbox/category/details/en/c/1027491/ |access-date=16 March 2011 |work=Ecocrop |publisher=FAO}}</ref> because of nitrogen fixation. |
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''Vigna subterranea'' ripens its pods underground, much like the [[peanut]] (also called a ''groundnut''). They can be eaten fresh or boiled after drying, and can be ground either fresh or dry to make [[pudding]]s. |
''Vigna subterranea'' is [[geocarpy]] which ripens its pods underground, much like the [[peanut]] (also called a ''groundnut''). They can be eaten fresh or boiled after drying, and can be ground either fresh or dry to make [[pudding]]s. |
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== Origins and regions of cultivation == |
== Origins and regions of cultivation == |
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[[Image:Bambara nut unearthed..JPG|right|thumb|Freshly harvested Bambara nuts]] |
[[Image:Bambara nut unearthed..JPG|right|thumb|Freshly harvested Bambara nuts]] |
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[[Image:Bambara in the field.JPG|right|thumb|Bambara plants in the field]] |
[[Image:Bambara in the field.JPG|right|thumb|Bambara plants in the field]] |
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[[File:Vigna subterranea MHNT.BOT.2009.13.10.jpg|thumb|''Vigna subterranea'' - [[MHNT]]]]The origin of the Bambara groundnut is West Africa<ref name="Hepper2">{{cite journal |last=Hepper |first=FN |year=1963 |title=Plants of the 1957-58 West Africa Expedition II: The bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea) and Kersting's groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa) wild in West Africa |journal=Kew Bulletin |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=395–407 |doi=10.2307/4114681 |jstor=4114681}}</ref> and the region of cultivation is Sub-Saharan Africa's warm tropics.<ref name="ecoport22">{{cite web |last=Nichterlein |first=Karin |title=Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=10830&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full |access-date=16 March 2011 |publisher=Ecoport}}</ref> Bambara nut grows well anywhere groundnut (peanut) grows, and so is vastly present from [[Kwara state]], throughout the northern parts of Nigeria and Northern Ghana. |
[[File:Vigna subterranea MHNT.BOT.2009.13.10.jpg|thumb|''Vigna subterranea'' - [[MHNT]]]]The origin of the Bambara groundnut is West Africa<ref name="Hepper2">{{cite journal |last=Hepper |first=FN |year=1963 |title=Plants of the 1957-58 West Africa Expedition II: The bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea) and Kersting's groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa) wild in West Africa |journal=Kew Bulletin |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=395–407 |doi=10.2307/4114681 |jstor=4114681|bibcode=1963KewBu..16..395H }}</ref> and the region of cultivation is Sub-Saharan Africa's warm tropics.<ref name="ecoport22">{{cite web |last=Nichterlein |first=Karin |title=Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=10830&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full |access-date=16 March 2011 |publisher=Ecoport}}</ref> Bambara nut grows well anywhere groundnut (peanut) grows, and so is vastly present from [[Kwara state]], throughout the northern parts of Nigeria and Northern Ghana. |
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== Biology == |
== Biology == |
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=== Biological nitrogen fixation === |
=== Biological nitrogen fixation === |
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Like many other [[legume]]s, Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen through the process of [[biological nitrogen fixation]]. Its potential to be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizer in agriculture has been investigated for many years.<ref name=":42"/> The process is also very important to improve soil fertility and to supply other non-leguminous crops with the nitrogen left in the soil after the legume is harvested.{{ |
Like many other [[legume]]s, Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen through the process of [[biological nitrogen fixation]]. Its potential to be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizer in agriculture has been investigated for many years.<ref name=":42"/> The process is also very important to improve soil fertility and to supply other non-leguminous crops with the nitrogen left in the soil after the legume is harvested.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} |
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== Cultivation == |
== Cultivation == |
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=== Soil requirements === |
=== Soil requirements === |
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Optimal soils for Bambara groundnut production are sandy soils to prevent [[ |
Optimal soils for Bambara groundnut production are sandy soils to prevent [[Water logging (agriculture)|waterlogging]]. Well-drained soils make the harvest easier<ref name=":42" /> and prevent rotting of the pods.<ref name=":42"/> Stony areas are typically avoided to prevent damage of the pods.<ref name=":42"/> |
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Optimal soil depth is between 50 and 100 cm,<ref name="ecocrop52"/> with a light [[soil texture]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> [[Soil fertility]] should be low<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and [[soil pH]] is best suited between 5 and 6.5<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and should not be lower than 4.3<ref name="ecocrop52"/> or higher than 7.<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut is tolerant to [[Soil salinity|salinity]], but high sodium chloride concentration in the soil will result in yield losses. |
Optimal soil depth is between 50 and 100 cm,<ref name="ecocrop52"/> with a light [[soil texture]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> [[Soil fertility]] should be low<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and [[soil pH]] is best suited between 5 and 6.5<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and should not be lower than 4.3<ref name="ecocrop52"/> or higher than 7.<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut is tolerant to [[Soil salinity|salinity]], but high sodium chloride concentration in the soil will result in yield losses. |
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=== Climate requirements === |
=== Climate requirements === |
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The production is best suited between a latitude of 20° |
The production is best suited between a latitude of 20° and 30°,<ref name="ecocrop52"/> i.e. the tropical wet and dry ([[Köppen climate classification|Aw]])<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and the subtropical dry summer ([[Köppen climate classification|Cs]])<ref name="ecocrop52"/> climate zones. Optimal temperature is between 19 °C<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and 30 °C.<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Temperatures below 16 °C<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and above 38 °C<ref name="ecocrop52"/> are not suited for the production of Bambara groundnut. |
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The Bambara groundnut is very drought-resistant.<ref name="ecoport22"/> The minimal annual rainfall requirement is about 300 mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and optimal annual rainfall is between 750 mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and 1400 mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and should not exceed 3000 mm.<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut can tolerate heavy rainfall, but it will result in yield losses if they happen at harvest.<ref name=":42"/> |
The Bambara groundnut is very drought-resistant.<ref name="ecoport22"/> The minimal annual rainfall requirement is about 300 mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and optimal annual rainfall is between 750 mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and 1400 mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and should not exceed 3000 mm.<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut can tolerate heavy rainfall, but it will result in yield losses if they happen at harvest.<ref name=":42"/> |
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Sowing is usually performed manually by peasant farmers in tropical Africa, but it can also be done mechanically on industrial farms using modified soya bean planters. Manual sowing is generally done using a [[Hoe (tool)|hoe]] or a cutlass to open the soil. One seed is placed in each hole which are then closed.<ref name=":42" /> |
Sowing is usually performed manually by peasant farmers in tropical Africa, but it can also be done mechanically on industrial farms using modified soya bean planters. Manual sowing is generally done using a [[Hoe (tool)|hoe]] or a cutlass to open the soil. One seed is placed in each hole which are then closed.<ref name=":42" /> |
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Seedbed type |
Seedbed type doesn't seem to affect yield or biomass production of Bambara groundnut.<ref name="Kouassi2">{{cite journal |last=Kouassi |first=N’. J |author2=I. A. Zoro Bi |year=2010 |title=Effect Of Sowing Density And Seedbed Type On Yield And Yield Components In Bambara Groundnut (''Vigna subterranea'') In Woodland Savannas Of Cote D'ivoire |journal=Experimental Agriculture |volume=46 |pages=99–110 |doi=10.1017/S0014479709990494 |s2cid=86318620}}</ref> The crop can thus be planted on flat terrain, although it is also planted in ridges.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal |author1=Adzawla, W |author2=Donkoh, SA |author3=Nyarko, G |author4=O'Reilly, P |author5=Mayes, S |date=2016 |title=Use patterns and perceptions about the attributes of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) in Northern Ghana |journal=Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development |volume=4 |issue=2}}</ref> Studies show that increased sowing density has a positive effect on production calculated on a per-area basis, but has a negative effect on per-plant yield. It is assumed that at higher sowing densities, increased competition between plants is the cause of lower pod and seed number per plant.<ref name="Kouassi2" /> |
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=== Cropping system and fertilization === |
=== Cropping system and fertilization === |
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The cropping system is semi-permanent and the [[Bambara groundnut]] can be cultivated as single crop or as [[Intercropping|intercrop]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Best suited intercrops are [[Sorghum bicolor|sorghum]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[peanut]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] and [[cassava]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut is mainly cultivated as [[Intercropping|intercrop]], however the planting density varies between 6 and 29 plants per square meter.<ref name="Rassel2">{{cite journal |last=Rassel |first=A |year=1960 |title=Voandzou, Voandzeia subterranea Thouars, and its cultivation in Kwango |url=http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19601403615.html?freeview=true |journal=Bull. Agric. Congo Belge |volume=51 |pages=1–26 |access-date=16 March 2011}}</ref> For woodland savannas of Côte d'Ivoire, the highest yield is attainable with a plant density of 25<ref name="Kouassi2"/> plants per square meter. Despite its suitability for intercropping systems due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen,<ref>{{cite web |last1=FAO |title=Bambara groundnut |url=https://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/ |access-date=2022-11-10}}</ref> a non-negligible proportion of farmers grow the [[Bambara groundnut]] in monoculture and report that its performance is better as a single crop.<ref name=":14"/> Cultivation is mainly performed manually and is comparable to the production of [[peanut]].<ref name=":74"/> |
The cropping system is semi-permanent and the [[Bambara groundnut]] can be cultivated as single crop or as [[Intercropping|intercrop]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Best suited intercrops are [[Sorghum bicolor|sorghum]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[peanut]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] and [[cassava]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut is mainly cultivated as [[Intercropping|intercrop]], however the planting density varies between 6 and 29 plants per square meter.<ref name="Rassel2">{{cite journal |last=Rassel |first=A |year=1960 |title=Voandzou, Voandzeia subterranea Thouars, and its cultivation in Kwango |url=http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19601403615.html?freeview=true |journal=Bull. Agric. Congo Belge |volume=51 |pages=1–26 |access-date=16 March 2011}}</ref> For woodland savannas of Côte d'Ivoire, the highest yield is attainable with a plant density of 25<ref name="Kouassi2"/> plants per square meter. Despite its suitability for intercropping systems due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen,<ref>{{cite web |last1=FAO |title=Bambara groundnut |url=https://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/ |access-date=2022-11-10}}</ref> a non-negligible proportion of farmers grow the [[Bambara groundnut]] in monoculture and report that its performance is better as a single crop.<ref name=":14"/> Cultivation is mainly performed manually and is comparable to the production of [[peanut]].<ref name=":74"/> |
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The [[Bambara groundnut]] can grow on soils with low fertility and is even reported to do better on these soils than on fertile ones.<ref name=":74" /> Nevertheless, phosphate fertilization can have a beneficial effect. For example, the application of superphosphate can improve the yield of the Bambara groundnut.<ref name=":35">{{Cite journal |last1=Majola |first1=Nomathemba Gloria |last2=Gerrano |first2=Abe Shegro |last3=Shimelis |first3=Hussein |date=July 2021 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) Production, Utilisation and Genetic Improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=Agronomy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/agronomy11071345 |issn=2073-4395|doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, fertilization with phosphorus enhances the |
The [[Bambara groundnut]] can grow on soils with low fertility and is even reported to do better on these soils than on fertile ones.<ref name=":74" /> Nevertheless, phosphate fertilization can have a beneficial effect. For example, the application of superphosphate can improve the yield of the Bambara groundnut.<ref name=":35">{{Cite journal |last1=Majola |first1=Nomathemba Gloria |last2=Gerrano |first2=Abe Shegro |last3=Shimelis |first3=Hussein |date=July 2021 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) Production, Utilisation and Genetic Improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=Agronomy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/agronomy11071345 |issn=2073-4395|doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, fertilization with phosphorus enhances the crop's nitrogen fixation and increases its nitrogen content.<ref name="Yakubu">{{cite journal |author1=Yakubu, H. |author2=Kwari, J.D. |author3=Sandabe, M.K. |title=Effect of Phosphorus Fertilizer on Nitrogen Fixation by Some Grain Legume Varieties in Sudano – Sahelian Zone of North Eastern Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science |date=2010 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=19–26 |doi=10.4314/njbas.v18i1.56837 |issn=0794-5698|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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=== Harvest and postharvest treatment === |
=== Harvest and postharvest treatment === |
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=== Importance === |
=== Importance === |
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The annual production of Bambara groundnut is estimated to be 0.2 million tonnes from an area of 0.25 million hectares worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is the largest producer of Bambara groundnut, while a small quantity is produced in Southeast Asia (e.g., Thailand and Indonesia), the United States, and Australia. Additionally, the crop is cultivated in Brazil, where it was putatively introduced in the 1600s with the slave trade.<ref name=":74"/> West Africa is the main Bambara groundnut production region in SSA, where Burkina Faso, Niger, and Cameroon are the leading producers, contributing to 74% of global production.<ref name=":35"/> However, it was reported by Ghanaian farmers to contribute neither to a large part of the subsistence food nor of the income.<ref name=":14"/> |
The annual production of Bambara groundnut is estimated to be 0.2 million tonnes from an area of 0.25 million hectares worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is the largest producer of Bambara groundnut, while a small quantity is produced in [[Southeast Asia]] (e.g., [[Thailand]] and [[Indonesia]]), the United States, and [[Australia]]. Additionally, the crop is cultivated in [[Brazil]], where it was putatively introduced in the 1600s with the slave trade.<ref name=":74"/> West Africa is the main Bambara groundnut production region in SSA, where Burkina Faso, Niger, and Cameroon are the leading producers, contributing to 74% of global production.<ref name=":35"/> However, it was reported by Ghanaian farmers to contribute neither to a large part of the subsistence food nor of the income.<ref name=":14"/> |
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=== Worldwide production and yield === |
=== Worldwide production and yield === |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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!Production Year 2013 ''<small>(Source [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor FAOSTAT])<ref name="FAO2"/></small>'' |
!Production Year 2013 ''<small>(Source [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor FAOSTAT])<ref name="FAO2"/></small>'' |
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!Area Harvested ( |
!Area Harvested (ha) |
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!Yield (kg/ha) |
!Yield (kg/ha) |
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!Production (tonnes) |
!Production (tonnes) |
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|'''243,620''' |
|'''243,620''' |
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The top six Bambara groundnut producing countries in Africa in 2018 include Burkina Faso, Niger, Cameroon, Mali, Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a total production of 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, and 0.01 million tonnes, respectively.<ref name=":35"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=FAO {{!}} Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/fr/c/cb4831fr/ |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=www.fao.org |year=2021 |language=fr |doi=10.4060/cb4831fr|isbn=978-92-5-134633-4 |s2cid=241249323 }}</ref> |
The top six Bambara groundnut producing countries in Africa in 2018 include [[Burkina Faso]], Niger, [[Cameroon]], Mali, Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a total production of 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, and 0.01 million tonnes, respectively.<ref name=":35" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=FAO {{!}} Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/fr/c/cb4831fr/ |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=www.fao.org |year=2021 |language=fr |doi=10.4060/cb4831fr|isbn=978-92-5-134633-4 |s2cid=241249323 }}</ref> |
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The yield level of Bambara groundnut in Africa varies from 0. |
The yield level of Bambara groundnut in Africa varies from 0.6 to 1 tonne per hectare, depending on variety and production conditions. However, unshelled mean yields of up to 3 tonnes per hectare were reported when cultivating some landraces in the transition agro-ecological zone in Nigeria . A low mean yield of 0.85 tonnes per hectare was reported in Ghana under good management practices close to yield levels of other legumes such as cowpeas (0.80 tonnes per hecatare) and pigeon peas (0.78 tonnes per hectare).<ref name=":35"/> |
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== Nutrition == |
== Nutrition == |
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This nutrient-dense [[legume]] is sometimes termed a “complete food” due to its balanced macronutrient composition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tan |first1=Xin Lin |last2=Azam-Ali |first2=Susan |last3=Goh |first3=Ee Von |last4=Mustafa |first4=Maysoun |last5=Chai |first5=Hui Hui |last6=Ho |first6=Wai Kuan |last7=Mayes |first7=Sean |last8=Mabhaudhi |first8=Tafadzwanashe |last9=Azam-Ali |first9=Sayed |last10=Massawe |first10=Festo |date=2020 |title=Bambara Groundnut: An Underutilized Leguminous Crop for Global Food Security and Nutrition |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |volume=7 |page=601496 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2020.601496 |issn=2296-861X |pmc=7758284 |pmid=33363196|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is considered to be a [[Neglected and underutilized crop|neglected and underutilized food source]] in [[Benin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dansi |first=A. |author2=R. Vodouhe |author3=P. Azokpota |display-authors=etal |date=19 April 2012 |title=Diversity of the Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species of Importance in Benin |journal=The Scientific World Journal |volume=2012 |pages=932947 |doi=10.1100/2012/932947 |pmc=3349165 |pmid=22593712}}</ref> The brown hull showed the highest concentrations of [[rutin]] and [[myricetin]] among [[flavonoid]]s, while the red hull resulted in having with the highest concentrations of [[Chlorogenic acid|chlorogenic]] and [[ellagic acid]] among [[tannin]] compounds.<ref name="Harris3">{{cite journal |author=Taahir Harris |author2=Victoria Jideani |author3=MarilizeLe Roes-Hill |date=September 1, 2018 |title=Flavonoids and tannin composition of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) of Mpumalanga, South Africa |url=https://www.x-mol.com/paper/837047 |journal=Heliyon |volume=4 |issue=9 |page=e00833 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00833 |pmc=6168962 |pmid=30294697}}</ref> |
This nutrient-dense [[legume]] is sometimes termed a “complete food” due to its balanced macronutrient composition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tan |first1=Xin Lin |last2=Azam-Ali |first2=Susan |last3=Goh |first3=Ee Von |last4=Mustafa |first4=Maysoun |last5=Chai |first5=Hui Hui |last6=Ho |first6=Wai Kuan |last7=Mayes |first7=Sean |last8=Mabhaudhi |first8=Tafadzwanashe |last9=Azam-Ali |first9=Sayed |last10=Massawe |first10=Festo |date=2020 |title=Bambara Groundnut: An Underutilized Leguminous Crop for Global Food Security and Nutrition |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |volume=7 |page=601496 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2020.601496 |issn=2296-861X |pmc=7758284 |pmid=33363196|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is considered to be a [[Neglected and underutilized crop|neglected and underutilized food source]] in [[Benin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dansi |first=A. |author2=R. Vodouhe |author3=P. Azokpota |display-authors=etal |date=19 April 2012 |title=Diversity of the Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species of Importance in Benin |journal=The Scientific World Journal |volume=2012 |pages=932947 |doi=10.1100/2012/932947 |pmc=3349165 |pmid=22593712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The brown hull showed the highest concentrations of [[rutin]] and [[myricetin]] among [[flavonoid]]s, while the red hull resulted in having with the highest concentrations of [[Chlorogenic acid|chlorogenic]] and [[ellagic acid]] among [[tannin]] compounds.<ref name="Harris3">{{cite journal |author=Taahir Harris |author2=Victoria Jideani |author3=MarilizeLe Roes-Hill |date=September 1, 2018 |title=Flavonoids and tannin composition of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) of Mpumalanga, South Africa |url=https://www.x-mol.com/paper/837047 |journal=Heliyon |volume=4 |issue=9 |page=e00833 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00833 |doi-access=free |pmc=6168962 |pmid=30294697|bibcode=2018Heliy...400833H }}</ref> |
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=== Macronutrient content === |
=== Macronutrient content === |
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== Culinary use == |
== Culinary use == |
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The seeds are used for food, beverages because of their high protein content<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and for digestive system applications.<ref name="ecocrop52" /> In West Africa, the nuts are eaten as a snack, roasted and salted, processed into cake, or as a meal, boiled |
The seeds are used for food, beverages because of their high protein content<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and for digestive system applications.<ref name="ecocrop52" /> In West Africa, the nuts are eaten as a snack, roasted and salted, processed into cake, or as a meal, boiled similarly to other beans. |
||
The Bambara groundnut needs to be cooked for a relatively long time, which means that more fuel is needed than for cooking other legumes. The cooking time |
The Bambara groundnut needs to be cooked for a relatively long time, which means that more fuel is needed than for cooking other legumes. The cooking time for fresh beans is 45–60 minutes, and dry beans may even take 3–4 hours.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hillocks, R.J. |author2=Bennett, C. |author3=Mponda, O.M. |date=2012 |title=Bambara Nut: A Review of Utilisation, Market Potential and Crop Improvement |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/78601 |journal=African Crop Science Journal |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |issn=1021-9730}}</ref> This presents an obstacle to a more widespread use of this crop. Moreover, if the bean is not cooked enough, it can cause bloating of the stomach, constipation and flatulence.<ref name=":14"/> |
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=== Traditional culinary use of Bambara groundnut in Nigeria === |
=== Traditional culinary use of Bambara groundnut in Nigeria === |
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In South Eastern Nigeria, particularly in Enugu, the dried Bambara beans are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with palm oil, water and |
In South Eastern Nigeria, particularly in Enugu, the dried Bambara beans are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with palm oil, water and, more rarely, vegetables (e.g., utazi), then poured into banana leaf wraps or one-liter cellophane bags before being boiled into a pudding to make ''[[okpa]]'', a common breakfast food. During the rainy season in many parts of central Nigeria, the fresh Bambara beans are cooked with their shells still on them, then eaten as a snack. |
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=== Potential use in probiotic beverage === |
=== Potential use in probiotic beverage === |
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=== Use as livestock feed === |
=== Use as livestock feed === |
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The Bambara groundnut plays an important role in the diet and culture of populations. The leaves, rich in phosphorus, are used for livestock feed. Seeds are given to pigs and poultry |
The Bambara groundnut plays an important role in the diet and culture of populations. The leaves, rich in phosphorus, are used for livestock feed. Seeds are given to pigs and poultry.<ref name=":35"/> |
||
==Traditional African medicine == |
==Traditional African medicine == |
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==Crop development== |
==Crop development== |
||
There are genetic resources available for breeding since around 6145 germplasms of the Bambara groundnut have been collected and are stored ex situ.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=M. M. H. |last2=Rafii |first2=M. Y. |last3=Ramlee |first3=S. I. |last4=Jusoh |first4=M. |last5=Al-Mamun |first5=M. |date=2021 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc): A Crop for the New Millennium, Its Genetic Diversity, and Improvements to Mitigate Future Food and Nutritional Challenges |journal=Sustainability |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=5530|doi=10.3390/su13105530 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
There are [[genetic resources]] available for breeding since around 6145 germplasms of the Bambara groundnut have been collected and are stored ex situ.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=M. M. H. |last2=Rafii |first2=M. Y. |last3=Ramlee |first3=S. I. |last4=Jusoh |first4=M. |last5=Al-Mamun |first5=M. |date=2021 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc): A Crop for the New Millennium, Its Genetic Diversity, and Improvements to Mitigate Future Food and Nutritional Challenges |journal=Sustainability |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=5530|doi=10.3390/su13105530 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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The primary goal of Bambara improvement programs is to focus on seed yield and nutritional quality traits. There is a notable gap between the potential yield of 4 t/ha and the average yield of 0.85 t/ha reported for African countries. Thus, breeding should aim at improving the yield. Results of studies exhibited high protein content among the test genotypes. Similarly, high levels of essential fatty acids, thiamine, ribovin, and vitamin K were recorded. Moreover, scientists examined the chemical properties of starches in Bambara groundnut. The results revealed that seed source and crop management practices affected chemical composition.<ref name=":05"/> Food fortification, the use of artificial supplements, and food imports are among the strategies used to overcome the problem of malnutrition in Africa. The adoption of traditional plant breeding methods to enhance nutritional benefits of orphan food crops such as Bambara groundnut is an economic and affordable strategy to decrease malnutrition in Africa.<ref name=":35"/> |
The primary goal of Bambara improvement programs is to focus on seed yield and nutritional quality traits. There is a notable gap between the potential yield of 4 t/ha and the average yield of 0.85 t/ha reported for African countries. Thus, breeding should aim at improving the yield. Results of studies exhibited high protein content among the test genotypes. Similarly, high levels of essential [[fatty acids]], [[thiamine]], ribovin, and [[vitamin K]] were recorded. Moreover, scientists examined the chemical properties of starches in Bambara groundnut. The results revealed that seed source and crop management practices affected chemical composition.<ref name=":05"/> Food fortification, the use of artificial supplements, and food imports are among the strategies used to overcome the problem of malnutrition in Africa. The adoption of traditional plant breeding methods to enhance nutritional benefits of orphan food crops such as Bambara groundnut is an economic and affordable strategy to decrease malnutrition in Africa.<ref name=":35"/> |
||
The form and colour of Bambara groundnut were all important factors to optimize the best extraction yield of phytochemicals. Overall, the hulls of the crop were the optimum source of flavonoids and tannins: the brown and red hulls had the highest concentration of flavonoids compared to whole and dehulled, with the highest flavonoid concentration being rutin at 24.46 mg g−1 found in brown hulls and myricetin at 1.80 mg g−1 found in red hulls. Lastly, formulating products with higher concentration of Bambara groundnut hulls could potentially result in a product with higher phytochemical content.<ref name="Harris3"/> |
The form and colour of Bambara groundnut were all important factors to optimize the best extraction yield of [[phytochemicals]]. Overall, the hulls of the crop were the optimum source of flavonoids and tannins: the brown and red hulls had the highest concentration of flavonoids compared to whole and dehulled, with the highest flavonoid concentration being rutin at 24.46 mg g−1 found in brown hulls and myricetin at 1.80 mg g−1 found in red hulls. Lastly, formulating products with higher concentration of Bambara groundnut hulls could potentially result in a product with higher phytochemical content.<ref name="Harris3"/> |
||
==References== |
==References== |
Vigna subterranea | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Fabales |
Family: | Fabaceae |
Subfamily: | Faboideae |
Genus: | Vigna |
Species: |
V. subterranea
|
Binomial name | |
Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. | |
Synonyms[1] | |
|
Vigna subterranea (common names: Bambara groundnut, Bambara nut,[2] Bambara bean,[3] Congo goober,[2] earth pea,[4] ground-bean,[2]orhog-peanut[2]) is a member of the family Fabaceae. Its name is derived from the Bambara ethnic group.[5] The plant originated in West Africa. As a food and source of income, the Bambara groundnut is considered to be the third most important leguminous crop in those African countries where it is grown, after peanut and cowpea. The crop is mainly cultivated, sold and processed by women, and is, thus, particularly valuable for female subsistence farmers.[3][6]
Bambara groundnut represents the third most important grain legume in semi-arid Africa.[7] It is resistant to high temperatures and is suitable for marginal soils where other leguminous crops cannot be grown.[8] It is a low-impact crop.[9] The entire plant is known for soil improvement[10] because of nitrogen fixation.
Vigna subterraneaisgeocarpy which ripens its pods underground, much like the peanut (also called a groundnut). They can be eaten fresh or boiled after drying, and can be ground either fresh or dry to make puddings.
The origin of the Bambara groundnut is West Africa[11] and the region of cultivation is Sub-Saharan Africa's warm tropics.[12] Bambara nut grows well anywhere groundnut (peanut) grows, and so is vastly present from Kwara state, throughout the northern parts of Nigeria and Northern Ghana.
Bambara groundnut is a herbaceous, intermediate, annual plant, with creeping stems at ground level. It is a small legume plant that grows to a height of 0.25–0.37m with compound leaves of three leaflets having stipules about 3 mm long.[13] The flowers have a tube calyx about 1 mm long and 5 lobes about 1 mm long as well as a whitish yellow corolla, 4–7 mm long.[14] The fruit is an indehiscent pod almost globose about 2.5 cm in diameter.[14] The plant generally looks like bunched leaves arising from branched stems, which form a crown on the soil surface.
Bambara is considered as a fast-growing crop. The growth cycle is between (min-max) 90–170 days[10] and under optimal conditions the cycle is about 120–150 days[12] to pod maturity. Flowers appear 40–60 days[12] after planting. 30 days[12] after pollination the pod reaches maturity and during another 55 days[12] the seeds fully develop. Every 30 days they are produced again.
Generative reproduction is for the Bambara groundnut autogamous[12] (self-fertilization) and cleistogamous[12] (self-pollinating). After self-fertilization, pale yellow flowers are borne on the freely growing branching stems; these stems then grow downwards into the soil, taking the developing seed within the pods, which makes breeding and development of new cultivars for the traits of interest difficult.[15] The seeds will form pods encasing seeds just below the soil. The pods are round, wrinkled and each contains one or two seeds that are round, smooth and very hard when dried.The seeds may be cream colored, brown, red, mottled or black eyed and their size is about 8.5–15 mm × 6.5–10 mm × 5.5–9 mm.[13]
Several factors are essential for promoting cross-pollination in Bambara and these include a proper nursery habitat, short day lengths (<12h), an average temperature of 26 °C, which is necessary for optimum flowering and pod formation and a relative humidity of 90%.[13] The strict photoperiod requirement of Bambara also limits its productivity in countries further away from the equator. In some accessions, long days (>12h) negatively affect pod-setting, resulting in crop failure.[13]
The genus Vigna, which includes about 80 species, is found throughout the tropics.[14] There are considerable morphological differences between wild and domesticated types of Bambara groundnuts. Long runners are produced by wild Bambara groundnut, and the seeds are smaller (9–11 mm long) and more uniform in size. The pods are thin and do not wrinkle when drying. Domesticated versions are more compact, have fleshy pods that wrinkle as they dry, with longer, less slender, and more erect petioles, and larger seeds (11–15 mm long). Wild and domesticated types are sometimes distinguished as var. spontanea (Harms) Hepper (wild) and var. subterranea (cultivated).[14]
Like many other legumes, Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen through the process of biological nitrogen fixation. Its potential to be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizer in agriculture has been investigated for many years.[13] The process is also very important to improve soil fertility and to supply other non-leguminous crops with the nitrogen left in the soil after the legume is harvested.[citation needed]
Optimal soils for Bambara groundnut production are sandy soils to prevent waterlogging. Well-drained soils make the harvest easier[13] and prevent rotting of the pods.[13] Stony areas are typically avoided to prevent damage of the pods.[13]
Optimal soil depth is between 50 and 100 cm,[10] with a light soil texture.[10] Soil fertility should be low[10] and soil pH is best suited between 5 and 6.5[10] and should not be lower than 4.3[10] or higher than 7.[10] Bambara groundnut is tolerant to salinity, but high sodium chloride concentration in the soil will result in yield losses.
The production is best suited between a latitude of 20° and 30°,[10] i.e. the tropical wet and dry (Aw)[10] and the subtropical dry summer (Cs)[10] climate zones. Optimal temperature is between 19 °C[10] and 30 °C.[10] Temperatures below 16 °C[10] and above 38 °C[10] are not suited for the production of Bambara groundnut.
The Bambara groundnut is very drought-resistant.[12] The minimal annual rainfall requirement is about 300 mm[10] and optimal annual rainfall is between 750 mm[10] and 1400 mm[10] and should not exceed 3000 mm.[10] Bambara groundnut can tolerate heavy rainfall, but it will result in yield losses if they happen at harvest.[13]
Before sowing, the seeds can be treated with pesticides to prevent insect and fungal attack, and being eaten by bush fowl (Numida meleagris). Priming the seeds with water by soaking them overnight and then drying them before sowing improves seedling emergence, vigour and yield.[13]
Sowing is usually performed manually by peasant farmers in tropical Africa, but it can also be done mechanically on industrial farms using modified soya bean planters. Manual sowing is generally done using a hoe or a cutlass to open the soil. One seed is placed in each hole which are then closed.[13]
Seedbed type doesn't seem to affect yield or biomass production of Bambara groundnut.[16] The crop can thus be planted on flat terrain, although it is also planted in ridges.[17] Studies show that increased sowing density has a positive effect on production calculated on a per-area basis, but has a negative effect on per-plant yield. It is assumed that at higher sowing densities, increased competition between plants is the cause of lower pod and seed number per plant.[16]
The cropping system is semi-permanent and the Bambara groundnut can be cultivated as single crop or as intercrop.[10] Best suited intercrops are sorghum, millet, maize, peanut, yams and cassava.[10] Bambara groundnut is mainly cultivated as intercrop, however the planting density varies between 6 and 29 plants per square meter.[18] For woodland savannas of Côte d'Ivoire, the highest yield is attainable with a plant density of 25[16] plants per square meter. Despite its suitability for intercropping systems due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen,[19] a non-negligible proportion of farmers grow the Bambara groundnut in monoculture and report that its performance is better as a single crop.[17] Cultivation is mainly performed manually and is comparable to the production of peanut.[3]
The Bambara groundnut can grow on soils with low fertility and is even reported to do better on these soils than on fertile ones.[3] Nevertheless, phosphate fertilization can have a beneficial effect. For example, the application of superphosphate can improve the yield of the Bambara groundnut.[20] Moreover, fertilization with phosphorus enhances the crop's nitrogen fixation and increases its nitrogen content.[21]
The Bambara bean typically takes about 130–150 days to mature, but early or late harvests only marginally reduce the yield.[3] The pods, which grow belowground, are harvested manually by pulling out the whole crop and picking the pods by hand.[17] Then, they are usually dried in the sun for some days.[3] Post-harvest losses are reported to be on a low level.[17] However, insect pests can cause damage to stored grains, most importantly Bruchids.[20]
It is widely regarded as a pest and disease resistant crop. However, there is a lack of evidence to support this claim, with reports of fungal attacks by Rhizoctonia solani in Southern Thailand, and Cercospora canescens and Colletotrichum capsici in Nigeria, causing brown blotch disease. The crop is also susceptible to attack by cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus).[6]
The annual production of Bambara groundnut is estimated to be 0.2 million tonnes from an area of 0.25 million hectares worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is the largest producer of Bambara groundnut, while a small quantity is produced in Southeast Asia (e.g., Thailand and Indonesia), the United States, and Australia. Additionally, the crop is cultivated in Brazil, where it was putatively introduced in the 1600s with the slave trade.[3] West Africa is the main Bambara groundnut production region in SSA, where Burkina Faso, Niger, and Cameroon are the leading producers, contributing to 74% of global production.[20] However, it was reported by Ghanaian farmers to contribute neither to a large part of the subsistence food nor of the income.[17]
World production of Vigna subterranea increased from 29,800 tonnes in 1972[22] to 79,155 tonnes[22] in 2015.
Production Year 2013 (Source FAOSTAT)[22] | Area Harvested (ha) | Yield (kg/ha) | Production (tonnes) |
---|---|---|---|
Mali | 120,000 | 9,498 | 113,981 |
Niger | 68,000 | 4,412 | 30,000 |
Burkina Faso | 55,000 | 8,909 | 49,000 |
Cameroon | 43,392 | 8,444 | 36,639 |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 4,828 | 750 | 14,000 |
World | 315,392 | 7,724 | 243,620 |
The top six Bambara groundnut producing countries in Africa in 2018 include Burkina Faso, Niger, Cameroon, Mali, Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a total production of 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, and 0.01 million tonnes, respectively.[20][23]
The yield level of Bambara groundnut in Africa varies from 0.6 to 1 tonne per hectare, depending on variety and production conditions. However, unshelled mean yields of up to 3 tonnes per hectare were reported when cultivating some landraces in the transition agro-ecological zone in Nigeria . A low mean yield of 0.85 tonnes per hectare was reported in Ghana under good management practices close to yield levels of other legumes such as cowpeas (0.80 tonnes per hecatare) and pigeon peas (0.78 tonnes per hectare).[20]
This nutrient-dense legume is sometimes termed a “complete food” due to its balanced macronutrient composition.[24] It is considered to be a neglected and underutilized food sourceinBenin.[25] The brown hull showed the highest concentrations of rutin and myricetin among flavonoids, while the red hull resulted in having with the highest concentrations of chlorogenic and ellagic acid among tannin compounds.[26]
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.
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Bambara groundnut has nutritive value ranging between 57.9% to 64% carbohydrate and 24.0% to 25.5% protein content.[27] In comparison, soybean (Glycine max) and chickpea (Cicer ariteneum) have 27% and 61% of carbohydrates.[6]
Micronutrient | Content | Comparison with chickpeas |
---|---|---|
Sodium (mg) | 0.90 – 25.20 | 6.7 – 111.57 |
Potassium (mg) | 308.40 – 2200.00 | 994. 5 – 1279.82 |
Phosphorus (mg) | 173.97 – 563.00 | 241. 92 – 571.00 |
Calcium (mg) | 0.39 – 76.01 | 81.70 – 222.65 |
Magnesium (mg) | 124.99 – 555.10 | 3.21 – 191.00 |
Iron (mg) | 11.38 – 149.50 | 4.49 – 53.43 |
Zinc (mg) | 2.14 – 19.73 | 2.45 – 6.33 |
The presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) in the Vigna subterranea can reduce protein digestibility, affecting bioavailabilityofamino acids by up to 50%, as well as lowering digestibility and bioavailability of other nutrients. ANFs include enzyme inhibitors, flatulence factors, tannins, phytic acid and saponins.[6] ANFs can be removed or lowered by a variety of treatments:
The seeds are used for food, beverages because of their high protein content[10] and for digestive system applications.[10] In West Africa, the nuts are eaten as a snack, roasted and salted, processed into cake, or as a meal, boiled similarly to other beans.
The Bambara groundnut needs to be cooked for a relatively long time, which means that more fuel is needed than for cooking other legumes. The cooking time for fresh beans is 45–60 minutes, and dry beans may even take 3–4 hours.[30] This presents an obstacle to a more widespread use of this crop. Moreover, if the bean is not cooked enough, it can cause bloating of the stomach, constipation and flatulence.[17]
In South Eastern Nigeria, particularly in Enugu, the dried Bambara beans are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with palm oil, water and, more rarely, vegetables (e.g., utazi), then poured into banana leaf wraps or one-liter cellophane bags before being boiled into a pudding to make okpa, a common breakfast food. During the rainy season in many parts of central Nigeria, the fresh Bambara beans are cooked with their shells still on them, then eaten as a snack.
Bambara groundnut milk can be fermented with lactic acid bacteria to make a probiotic beverage that not only increase the economic value of the nutritious legume but also help in addressing malnutrition.[31]
The Bambara groundnut plays an important role in the diet and culture of populations. The leaves, rich in phosphorus, are used for livestock feed. Seeds are given to pigs and poultry.[20]
The Bambara groundnut is used in some traditional African medicine.[32]
There are genetic resources available for breeding since around 6145 germplasms of the Bambara groundnut have been collected and are stored ex situ.[33]
The primary goal of Bambara improvement programs is to focus on seed yield and nutritional quality traits. There is a notable gap between the potential yield of 4 t/ha and the average yield of 0.85 t/ha reported for African countries. Thus, breeding should aim at improving the yield. Results of studies exhibited high protein content among the test genotypes. Similarly, high levels of essential fatty acids, thiamine, ribovin, and vitamin K were recorded. Moreover, scientists examined the chemical properties of starches in Bambara groundnut. The results revealed that seed source and crop management practices affected chemical composition.[6] Food fortification, the use of artificial supplements, and food imports are among the strategies used to overcome the problem of malnutrition in Africa. The adoption of traditional plant breeding methods to enhance nutritional benefits of orphan food crops such as Bambara groundnut is an economic and affordable strategy to decrease malnutrition in Africa.[20]
The form and colour of Bambara groundnut were all important factors to optimize the best extraction yield of phytochemicals. Overall, the hulls of the crop were the optimum source of flavonoids and tannins: the brown and red hulls had the highest concentration of flavonoids compared to whole and dehulled, with the highest flavonoid concentration being rutin at 24.46 mg g−1 found in brown hulls and myricetin at 1.80 mg g−1 found in red hulls. Lastly, formulating products with higher concentration of Bambara groundnut hulls could potentially result in a product with higher phytochemical content.[26]
{{cite book}}
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Vigna subterranea |
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Glycine subterranea |
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Authority control databases: National |
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