Emergentism is the belief in emergence, particularly as it involves consciousness and the philosophy of mind. A property of a system is said to be emergent if it is a new outcome of some other properties of the system and their interaction, while it is itself different from them.[1] Within the philosophy of science, emergentism is analyzed both as it contrasts with and parallels reductionism.[1][2]
This philosophical theory suggests that higher-level properties and phenomena arise from the interactions and organization of lower-level entities yet are not reducible to these simpler components. It emphasizes the idea that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. Historically, emergentism has significantly influenced various scientific and philosophical ideas, highlighting the complexity and interconnectedness of natural systems.
The formation of complex symmetrical and fractalpatternsinsnowflakes exemplifies emergence in a physical system.
The concept of emergence can be traced back to ancient philosophical traditions. Aristotle, in particular, suggested that the whole could possess properties that its individual parts did not, laying an early foundation for emergentist thought. This idea persisted through the ages, influencing various schools of thought.[3]
The term "emergence" was formally introduced in the 19th century by the philosopher George Henry Lewes. He distinguished between "resultant" and "emergent" properties, where resultant properties could be predicted from the properties of the parts, whereas emergent properties could not. This distinction was crucial in differentiating emergent phenomena from simple aggregative effects.[4]
In the early 20th century, emergentism gained further traction through the works of British emergentists like C.D. Broad and Samuel Alexander. C.D. Broad, in his 1925 book The Mind and Its Place in Nature, argued that mental states were emergent properties of brain processes.[5] Samuel Alexander, in his work Space, Time, and Deity, suggested that emergent qualities like consciousness and life could not be fully explained by the underlying physical processes alone.[6]
These philosophers were reacting against the reductionist view that all phenomena could be fully explained by their constituent parts. They argued that emergent properties such as consciousness have their own causal powers and cannot be reduced to or predicted from their base components. This period also saw the influence of Gestalt psychology, which emphasized that psychological phenomena cannot be understood solely by analyzing their component parts, further supporting emergentist ideas.[3]
During the mid-20th century, emergentism was somewhat overshadowed by the rise of behaviorism and later the cognitive sciences, which often leaned towards more reductionist explanations. However, the concept of emergence found renewed interest towards the late 20th century with the advent of complex systems theory and non-linear dynamics.[4]
In this period, scientists and philosophers began to explore how complex behaviors and properties could arise from relatively simple interactions in systems as diverse as ant colonies, economic markets, and neural networks. This interdisciplinary approach highlighted the ubiquity and importance of emergent phenomena across different domains, from physicstobiologytosocial sciences.[3]
In recent years, emergentism has continued to evolve, integrating insights from various scientific fields. For example, in physics, the study of phenomena such as superconductivity and the behavior of complex quantum systems has provided empirical examples of emergent properties.[7] In biology, the study of complex biological networks and the dynamics of ecosystems has further illustrated how emergent properties play a crucial role in natural systems.[8]
The resurgence of interest in artificial intelligence and machine learning has also contributed to contemporary discussions on emergentism. Researchers in these fields are particularly interested in how intelligent behavior and consciousness might emerge from artificial systems, providing new perspectives and challenges for emergentist theories.[9]
Emergentism can be compatible with physicalism,[10] the theory that the universe is composed exclusively of physical entities, and in particular with the evidence relating changes in the brain with changes in mental functioning.
Some varieties of emergentism are not specifically concerned with the mind–body problem but constitute a theory of the nature of the universe comparable to pantheism.[11] They suggest a hierarchical or layered view of the whole of nature, with the layers arranged in terms of increasing complexity with each requiring its own special science.
Emergentism is underpinned by several core principles that define its theoretical framework and distinguish it from other philosophical doctrines such as reductionism and holism.
Emergence refers to the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns, and properties during the process of self-organization in complex systems. These emergent properties are not predictable from the properties of the individual components alone. Emergent properties are seen as a result of the interactions and relationships between the components of a system, which produce new behaviors and characteristics that are not present in the isolated parts. This concept is crucial in understanding why certain phenomena cannot be fully explained by analyzing their parts independently.[3]
Emergentism distinguishes between two main types of emergence: weak and strong.
Weak Emergence: This type of emergence involves properties that can in principle be derived from the interactions of lower-level entities but are not immediately obvious. These properties are emergent in the sense that they are the result of complex interactions but do not involve fundamentally new properties. For instance, the behavior of a computer program can be understood by examining its code, but the complexity of the program's behavior may not be immediately apparent from the code alone.[4]
Strong Emergence: This type of emergence involves properties that are fundamentally new and cannot be predicted or explained by the behavior of the lower-level components. Strong emergent properties are seen as novel qualities that arise from the complex interactions within a system. An example often cited in discussions of strong emergence is consciousness, which some argue cannot be fully explained by the physical processes of the brain alone.[3]
Emergent properties are characterized by several key features that distinguish them from simple aggregative properties:
Irreducibility: Emergent properties cannot be reduced to or fully explained by their constituent parts. This means that understanding the individual components of a system is not sufficient to understand the emergent properties that arise from their interactions. For example, the wetness of water is an emergent property that cannot be understood solely by examining individual water molecules.[7]
Novel Properties: Emergent systems exhibit new properties that are not present in their individual components. These properties arise from the complex interactions and relationships between the parts of the system. The novelty of emergent properties is a key aspect that distinguishes them from the properties of the individual parts.[12]
Non-linearity: The relationship between the parts of a system and its emergent properties is often non-linear, meaning that small changes in the components or their interactions can lead to large and unexpected changes in the emergent properties. This non-linearity is a hallmark of complex systems and is a crucial aspect of emergent phenomena.[3]
Context-dependence: Emergent properties are often context-dependent, meaning that they arise from the specific organization and interactions within a system. Changes in the context or organization of the system can lead to changes in the emergent properties. This context-dependence highlights the importance of considering the system as a whole when studying emergent phenomena.[4]
The theoretical foundations of emergentism are deeply intertwined with various philosophical theories and debates, particularly those concerning the nature of reality, the relationship between parts and wholes, and the nature of causality. Emergentism contrasts sharply with reductionism, which attempts to explain complex phenomena entirely in terms of their simpler components, and holism, which emphasizes the whole without necessarily addressing the emergence of properties.[3]
Relationship to Other Philosophical Theories[edit]
Emergentism stands in contrast to reductionism, which holds that all phenomena can be fully explained by their constituent parts. Reductionists argue that understanding the basic building blocks of a system provides a complete understanding of the system itself. However, emergentists contend that this approach overlooks the novel properties that arise from complex interactions within a system. For example, while the properties of water can be traced back to hydrogen and oxygen atoms, the wetness of water cannot be fully explained by examining these atoms in isolation.[4]
Holism, on the other hand, emphasizes the significance of the whole system, suggesting that the properties of the whole are more important than the properties of the parts. Emergentism agrees with holism to some extent but differs in that it specifically focuses on how new properties emerge from the interactions within the system. Holism often overlooks the dynamic processes that lead to the emergence of new properties, which are central to emergentism.[3]
Emmeche et al. (1998) state that "there is a very important difference between the vitalists and the emergentists: the vitalist's creative forces were relevant only in organic substances, not in inorganic matter. Emergence hence is creation of new properties regardless of the substance involved." "The assumption of an extra-physical vitalis (vital force, entelechy, élan vital, etc.), as formulated in most forms (old or new) of vitalism, is usually without any genuine explanatory power. It has served altogether too often as an intellectual tranquilizer or verbal sedative—stifling scientific inquiry rather than encouraging it to proceed in new directions."[13]
Emergentism can be divided into ontological and epistemological categories, each addressing different aspects of emergent properties.
Ontological Emergentism: This perspective asserts that emergent properties genuinely exist in the world. Ontological emergentists argue that emergent properties are real and have causal powers. For example, the consciousness that arises from neural processes in the brain is seen as a real, causally efficacious property that cannot be reduced to or predicted from the underlying physical processes alone.[14]
Epistemological Emergentism: This perspective suggests that emergent properties arise due to our limitations in knowledge and understanding. According to epistemological emergentists, what we perceive as emergent properties are actually the result of complex interactions that we do not yet fully understand. Therefore, these properties are not fundamentally new but appear so because of our current epistemic limitations.[3]
A crucial aspect of emergentism is its treatment of causality, particularly the concept of downward causation. Downward causation refers to the influence that higher-level properties can exert on the behavior of lower-level entities within a system. This idea challenges the traditional view that causation only works from the bottom up, from simpler to more complex levels.[4]
Downward Causation: Emergentists argue that emergent properties can have causal effects on the components of the system from which they arise. For instance, social structures and norms can influence individual behavior, even though these structures and norms themselves emerge from the interactions between individuals. This two-way causal relationship is a key feature of emergent systems.[3]
Two-way Causality: In emergent systems, causality is not unidirectional. While lower-level interactions give rise to emergent properties, these emergent properties can, in turn, affect the behavior and interactions at the lower level. This bidirectional causality highlights the complexity and interdependence of emergent systems, making them resistant to reductionist explanations.[4]
Emergentism finds its scientific support and application across various disciplines, illustrating how complex behaviors and properties arise from simpler interactions. These scientific perspectives demonstrate the practical significance of emergentist theories.
Inphysics, emergence is observed in phenomena where macroscopic properties arise from the interactions of microscopic components. A classic example is superconductivity, where the collective behavior of electrons in certain materials leads to the phenomenon of zero electrical resistance. This emergent property cannot be fully explained by the properties of individual electrons alone, but rather by their interactions within the lattice structure of the material.[7]
Another significant example is quantum entanglement, where particles become interconnected in such a way that the state of one particle instantly influences the state of another, regardless of the distance between them. This non-local property emerges from the quantum interactions and cannot be predicted merely by understanding the individual particles separately. Such emergent properties challenge classical notions of locality and causality, showcasing the profound implications of emergentism in modern physics.[3]
Emergent phenomena are prevalent in biology, particularly in the study of life and evolutionary processes. One of the most fundamental examples is the emergence of life from non-living chemical compounds. This process, often studied through the lens of abiogenesis, involves complex chemical reactions that lead to self-replicating molecules and eventually living organisms. The properties of life — such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction — emerge from these molecular interactions and cannot be fully understood by examining individual molecules in isolation.[15]
In evolutionary biology, the diversity of life forms arises from genetic mutations, natural selection, and environmental interactions. Complex traits such as the eye or the brain emerge over time through evolutionary processes. These traits exhibit novel properties that are not predictable from the genetic components alone but result from the dynamic interplay between genes and the environment.[3]
Systems biology further illustrates emergent properties in biological networks. For example, metabolic networks where enzymes and substrates interact exhibit emergent behaviors like robustness and adaptability. These properties are crucial for the survival of organisms in changing environments and arise from the complex interconnections within the network.[4]
Incognitive science, emergentism plays a crucial role in understanding consciousness and cognitive processes. Consciousness is often cited as a paradigmatic example of an emergent property. While neural processes in the brain involve electrochemical interactions among neurons, the subjective experience of consciousness arises from these processes in a way that is not directly reducible to them. This emergence of conscious experience from neural substrates is a central topic in the philosophy of mind and cognitive science.[16]
Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning provide contemporary examples of emergent behavior in artificial systems. Complex algorithms and neural networks can learn, adapt, and exhibit intelligent behavior that is not explicitly programmed. For instance, deep learning models can recognize patterns and make decisions based on vast amounts of data, demonstrating emergent intelligence from simpler computational rules. This emergent behavior in AI systems reflects the principles of emergentism, where higher-level functions arise from the interaction of lower-level components.[9]
Emergentism and language are intricately connected through the concept that linguistic properties and structures arise from simpler interactions among cognitive, communicative and social processes. This perspective provides a dynamic view of language development, structure, and evolution, emphasizing the role of interaction and adaptation over innate or static principles. This connection can be explored from several angles:
Language Development: Emergentism posits that language structures and rules emerge from the interaction of simpler neural and cognitive processes rather than being innate or pre-programmed. This idea contrasts with Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar, which suggests that the ability to acquire language is hard-wired into the brain. Emergentists argue that language arises from general cognitive capabilities such as pattern recognition and memory interacting with environmental input.[3]
Syntax and Grammar: Syntax and grammatical rules are seen as emergent properties resulting from the usage patterns of speakers within a language community. As individuals communicate, certain patterns become regularized and form the basis of syntactic rules. These rules are not explicitly taught but emerge naturally from the communicative practices of the community.[4]
Connectionist Models: In computational linguistics, connectionist or neural network models provide a framework for understanding how language properties can emerge from simpler processes. These models simulate how neural connections in the brain can give rise to complex behaviors like language comprehension and production through learning and interaction. For instance, a neural network might learn to generate grammatically correct sentences by being exposed to large datasets of language, demonstrating emergent properties from the training data.[3]
Language Evolution: From a sociolinguistic perspective, the evolution of language itself can be viewed through an emergentist lens. Languages change and develop new properties over time as speakers interact, adapt, and innovate. These changes are emergent phenomena resulting from social interaction, cultural exchange, and cognitive adaptation.[4]
Pragmatics and Semantics: Emergentism also applies to the way meaning (semantics) and context (pragmatics) are derived in language. Meaning is not fixed but emerges from the use of words in specific contexts. Pragmatic rules such as implicatures and speech acts arise from the conventions and expectations of communication within a community. These rules are not pre-determined but develop dynamically as speakers interact.[3]
Child Language Development: In the context of language acquisition, emergentism suggests that children learn language through interaction with their environment and the gradual build-up of linguistic structures. Children are exposed to language data and through cognitive processes such as pattern recognition and hypothesis testing develop an understanding of linguistic rules. This process is emergent because it arises from the interaction of the child's cognitive capabilities with the linguistic input they receive.[3]
Literary emergentism is a trend in literary theory. It arises as a reaction against traditional interpretive approaches – hermeneutics, structuralism, semiotics, etc., accusing them of analytical reductionism and lack of hierarchy. Literary emergentism claims to describe the emergence of a text as contemplative logic consisting of seven degrees, similar to the epistemological doctrine of Rudolf Steiner in his Philosophy of Freedom. [17] There are also references to Terrence Deacon, author of the theory of Incomplete nature, according to whom the emergent perspective is metaphysical, whereas the human consciousness emerges as an incessant creation of something from nothing. [18] According to Dimitar Kalev, in all modern literary-theoretical discourses, there is an epistemological "gap" present between the sensory-imagery phenomena of reading and their proto-phenomena from the text. [19] Therefore, in any attempt at literary reconstructions, certain "destruction" is reached, which, from an epistemological point of view, is a designation of the existing transcendence as some "interruption" of the divine "top-down". The emergentist approach does not interpret the text but rather reconstructs its becoming, identifying itself with the contemplative logic of the writer, claiming that it possesses a being of ideal objectivity and universal accessibility.
Emergentism, like any philosophical theory, has been subject to various criticisms and debates. These discussions revolve around the validity of emergent properties, the explanatory power of emergentism, and its implications for other areas of philosophy and science.
Lack of Empirical Evidence: One of the primary criticisms of emergentism is the perceived lack of empirical evidence supporting the existence of emergent properties. Critics argue that many so-called emergent properties can eventually be explained by more detailed examination of lower-level processes. For instance, while consciousness is often cited as an emergent property, some scientists believe that advances in neuroscience may eventually explain it in purely physical terms.[20]
Conceptual Ambiguity: The term "emergence" is sometimes criticized for being vague and inconsistently defined. Critics argue that without a clear and precise definition, the concept of emergence can be too flexible, leading to its overuse or misuse in various contexts. This ambiguity can make it difficult to distinguish genuine emergent properties from those that are merely complex.[3]
Reductionist Arguments: Reductionists argue that all phenomena, including those considered emergent, can ultimately be explained by their constituent parts and the laws governing them. They contend that emergentism often underestimates the explanatory power of reductionist approaches and overestimates the novelty of emergent properties. According to reductionists, what appears to be emergent might simply be the result of incomplete understanding of the underlying processes.[4]
Philosophical Counterarguments: Proponents of emergentism argue that emergent properties are necessary to explain the complexity of certain phenomena. They maintain that some properties cannot be reduced to or predicted from their constituent parts, emphasizing the importance of considering the system as a whole. For example, the wetness of water or the behavior of a market cannot be fully understood by analyzing individual molecules or transactions alone.[3]
Scientific Evidence Supporting Emergence: Emergentists point to various examples in physics, biology, and cognitive science where emergent properties provide the best explanations for observed phenomena. In physics, phenomena such as superconductivity and quantum entanglement are often cited as cases where emergent properties are crucial for understanding the behavior of systems. In biology, the emergence of life from non-living matter and the complex behavior of ecosystems are seen as evidence supporting emergentist views.[7]
Clarifying Definitions and Criteria: In response to the criticism of conceptual ambiguity, some philosophers and scientists have worked on providing clearer definitions and criteria for emergence. They aim to distinguish between weak and strong emergence more precisely and to specify the conditions under which properties can be considered genuinely emergent. This effort helps to reduce the flexibility and potential misuse of the concept.[4]
These criticisms and debates highlight the dynamic and evolving nature of emergentism, reflecting its impact and relevance across various fields of inquiry. By addressing these challenges, proponents of emergentism continue to refine and strengthen their theoretical framework.
Emergentism finds applications across various scientific and philosophical domains, illustrating how complex behaviors and properties can arise from simpler interactions. These applications underscore the practical relevance of emergentist theories and their impact on understanding complex systems.
Complex Systems: Emergentism provides a framework for understanding complex systems in various scientific fields. In physics, emergent properties such as superconductivity arise from the collective behavior of electrons, which cannot be fully explained by examining individual electrons alone. This collective behavior demonstrates how new properties emerge from the interactions within the system, offering insights into phenomena that are otherwise difficult to explain through reductionist approaches.[7]
Network Theory: Network theory applies emergentist principles to study how interactions within networks lead to emergent properties. In biology, for example, metabolic networks exhibit robustness and adaptability as emergent behaviors arising from the interactions of enzymes and substrates. These properties are crucial for the survival of organisms in changing environments and provide a deeper understanding of biological resilience and adaptation.[4]
Quantum Mechanics: In quantum mechanics, phenomena such as quantum entanglement and superposition illustrate emergent properties that challenge classical notions of causality and locality. These properties emerge from the complex interactions of quantum particles, providing a richer understanding of the fundamental nature of matter and energy. Emergentist approaches in quantum mechanics help bridge the gap between microscopic and macroscopic descriptions of physical systems.[3]
Philosophy of Mind: Emergentism plays a significant role in the philosophy of mind, particularly in discussions about consciousness and mental states. It offers an alternative to reductionist views by suggesting that mental properties emerge from neural processes but possess their own causal powers. This perspective helps address the mind-body problem by proposing that consciousness is an emergent property that cannot be fully explained by physical processes alone, thus enriching our understanding of the nature of mind and cognition.[21]
Ethics and Morality: Emergentist theories are applied in ethics to explain how moral values and ethical principles can emerge from social and cultural interactions. According to emergentism, ethical norms and values are not pre-existing entities but arise from the complex interactions and agreements within a society. This view helps to understand the dynamic and evolving nature of morality, providing a framework for addressing ethical issues in a rapidly changing world.[3]
Epistemology: In epistemology, emergentism is used to explore how knowledge and understanding arise from simpler cognitive processes. Emergentist theories suggest that our ability to form concepts, reason, and understand complex phenomena results from the interactions of more basic cognitive functions. This approach provides insights into the nature of knowledge and the processes underlying learning and comprehension.[4]
Artificial Intelligence: In artificial intelligence (AI), emergentist principles are used to develop systems that exhibit intelligent behavior through the interaction of simpler algorithms. Machine learning models, such as neural networks, demonstrate how complex behaviors can emerge from the training and adaptation processes. These models learn to recognize patterns and make decisions based on large datasets, reflecting the principles of emergentism in their design and functionality.[9]
Sociology and Economics: Emergentism is applied in sociology and economics to understand how complex social behaviors and economic trends arise from individual actions and interactions. In sociology, emergentist theories help explain how social norms, institutions, and collective behaviors develop from the interactions of individuals within a society. In economics, emergent properties such as market trends and economic cycles are seen as the result of numerous individual decisions and actions, providing a comprehensive framework for analyzing economic phenomena.[3]
Linguistics: Emergentist approaches in linguistics study how language structures and rules emerge from the interactions and usage patterns of speakers. Syntax, grammar, and meaning are seen as emergent properties resulting from social interactions and cognitive processes. This perspective provides a dynamic understanding of language development and evolution, highlighting the role of interaction and adaptation in linguistic phenomena.[4]
These applications of emergentism illustrate its broad relevance and utility in explaining and understanding complex systems across various domains, highlighting the interdisciplinary impact of emergentist theories.
Notable Philosophers and Scientists in Emergentism[edit]
Emergentism has been significantly shaped and debated by numerous philosophers and scientists over the years. Here are notable figures who have contributed to the development and discourse of emergentism, providing a rich tapestry of ideas and empirical evidence that support the theory's application across various domains:
Aristotle
Contribution: One of the earliest thinkers to suggest that the whole could possess properties that its individual parts did not. This idea laid the foundational groundwork for emergentist thought by emphasizing that certain phenomena cannot be fully explained by their individual components alone. Major Work: Metaphysics[22]
George Henry Lewes
Contribution: Formally introduced the term "emergence" in the 19th century. He distinguished between "resultant" and "emergent" properties where emergent properties could not be predicted from the properties of the parts, a critical distinction in emergentist theory. Major Work: Problems of Life and Mind[23]
John Stuart Mill
Contribution: Early proponent of emergentism in social and political contexts. Mill's work emphasized the importance of understanding social phenomena as more than the sum of individual actions, highlighting the emergent properties in societal systems. Major Work: A System of Logic[24]
C.D. Broad
Contribution: In his 1925 book The Mind and Its Place in Nature, Broad argued that mental states were emergent properties of brain processes. He developed a comprehensive philosophical framework for emergentism, advocating for the irreducibility of higher-level properties. Major Work: The Mind and Its Place in Nature[5]
Samuel Alexander
Contribution: In his work Space, Time, and Deity, Alexander suggested that emergent qualities like consciousness and life could not be fully explained by underlying physical processes alone, emphasizing the novelty and unpredictability of emergent properties. Major Work: Space, Time, and Deity[6]
Jaegwon Kim
Contribution: A prominent critic and commentator on emergentism. Kim extensively analyzed the limits and scope of emergent properties, particularly in the context of mental causation and the philosophy of mind, questioning the coherence and causal efficacy of emergent properties. Major Work: Mind in a Physical World[14]
Michael Polanyi
Contribution: Advanced the idea that emergent properties are irreducible and possess their own causal powers. Polanyi's work in chemistry and philosophy of science provided empirical and theoretical support for emergentist concepts, especially in complex systems and hierarchical structures. Major Work: Personal Knowledge[25]
Philip Anderson
Contribution: Nobel laureate in physics, Anderson's work on condensed matter physics and the theory of superconductivity provided significant empirical examples of emergent phenomena. His famous essay "More is Different" argued for the necessity of emergentist explanations in physics. Major Work: More is Different[26]
Stuart Kauffman
Contribution: A theoretical biologist whose work in complex systems and self-organization highlighted the role of emergence in biological evolution and the origin of life. Kauffman emphasized the unpredictability and novelty of emergent biological properties. Major Work: The Origins of Order[8]
Roger Sperry
Contribution: Neuropsychologist and Nobel laureate, Sperry's split-brain research contributed to the understanding of consciousness as an emergent property of brain processes. He argued that emergent mental properties have causal efficacy, influencing the lower-level neural processes. Major Work: Science and Moral Priority[27]
Terrence Deacon
Contribution: Anthropologist and neuroscientist, Deacon's work on the evolution of language and human cognition explored how emergent properties arise from neural and social interactions. His book Incomplete Nature delves into the emergentist explanation of life and mind. Major Work: Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter[28]
Steven Johnson
Contribution: An author and theorist whose popular science books, such as Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software, have brought the concept of emergentism to a broader audience. Johnson illustrates how complex systems in nature and society exhibit emergent properties. Major Work: Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software[9]
Emergentism offers a valuable framework for understanding complex systems and phenomena that cannot be fully explained by their constituent parts. Its interdisciplinary nature and broad applicability make it a significant area of study in both philosophy and science. Future research will continue to explore the implications and potential of emergent properties, contributing to our understanding of the natural world.
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O'Connor, Timothy and Wong, Hong Yu (eds.), "Emergent Properties", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
^Steiner, Rudolf. (2010). Die Philosophie der Freiheit. Rudolf Steiner online archiv. 4. Auflage., The philosophy of freedom. Rudolf Steiner’s online archive. (4th edition.), German. [2]
^Deacon, Terrence W. (2003). The hierarchic logic of emergence: Untangling the interdependence of evolution and self-organization. In B. Weber and D. Depen (Eds.), Evolution and learning: The Baldwin effect reconsidered (pp. 273–308). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
^Aristotle, Metaphysics (Aristotle), Book VIII (Eta) 1045a 8–10: "... the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts ...", i.e., the whole is other than the sum of the parts.
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