Ethnic groups in Chinese history
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg/260px-Han_foreign_relations_CE_2.jpg)
Ethnic groups in Chinese history refer to various or presumed ethnicities of significance to the history of China, gathered through the study of Classical Chinese literature, Chinese and non-Chinese literary sources and inscriptions, historical linguistics, and archaeological research.
Among the difficulties in the study of ethnic groups in China are the relatively long periods of time involved, together with the large volume of literary and historical records which have accompanied the history of China. Classical Chinese ethnography (like much premodern ethnography) was often sketchy, leaving it unclear as to whether Chinese-depicted names referred to a true ethnic group or a possibly multiethnic political entity. Even then, ethnonyms were sometimes assigned by geographic location or surrounding features, rather than by any features of the people themselves, and often carried little distinction of who the Han Chinese authors considered Chinese and non-Chinese for differences such as lifestyle, language, or governance. Many of the ethnonyms were historically used in such a way as to invite comparison with the word barbarian.[1]
English names[edit]
The Chinese exonyms of various ethnic groups encountered in Chinese history can be rendered into English either by transliteration or translation; for instance, Dí 狄 is transliterated as Di (or Ti) or translated as "Northern Barbarians". In some cases authors prefer to transliterate specific exonyms as proper nouns,[2] and in other cases to translate generic ones as English "barbarian" (for instance, "Four Barbarians"). The American sinologist Marc S. Abramson explains why "barbarian" is the appropriate translation for general terms like fan 番 and hu 胡, but not specific ones like fancai 番菜 "foreign-style food".
Translations such as "foreigner" and "alien," though possessing an air of scholarly neutrality, are inappropriate as a general translation because they primarily connote geographic and political outsiderness, implying that individuals and groups so designated were external to the Tang Empire and ineligible to become subjects of the empire. This was frequently not the case with many uses of fan and related terms — most common among them were hu (often used in the Tang to denote Central Asians) and four ethnonyms of great antiquity that, by the Tang, were mostly used generically with implicit geographic connotations: yi (east), man (south), rong (west), and di (north) — that largely connoted cultural and ethnic otherness but did not exclude the designated persons or groups from membership in the empire. Although the term barbarian has undergone many transformations from its Greek origins to its current English usage, not all of which are relevant to the Tang (such as its use in medieval Europe to denote religious difference, marking non-Christians of various ethnic, geographic, and political affiliations), its consistent association with inferiority, lack of civilization, and externality in the broadest sense often make it the most appropriate choice, including some cases when it is placed in the mouths of non-Han referring to themselves or others. However, its pejorative connotations make it inappropriate as a general translation. Thus, I have chosen not to translate these terms when they designate particular groups, individuals, or phenomena and do not refer to a specific ethnic group, language, geographic place, or cultural complex.[3]
List of ethnic groups[edit]
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The following table summarizes the various ethnic groups and/or other social groups of known historical significance to the history of China (any non clear-cut connection is denoted by a question mark):
Pinyin Romanization | Names in Chinese characters and pronunciation | Approximate residence according to Chinese texts | Time of appearance in the history of China | Equivalence(s) of non-Chinese names | Time of appearance outside China | Possible descendant(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Miao | 苗 (Miáo) | Name applied to peoples in various areas stretching from provinces (Hebei, Shanxi) north of the Yellow River to Yunnan province | As early as 25th century BC to present[citation needed] | Hmong, Hmu, Xong, A Hmao | N/A | Modern Miao, Hmong |
Yuezhi | 月氏 (Yuèzhī) | Tarim basin | c. 6th century BC to 162 BC, then driven out by Xiongnu. | Kushans, Tocharians | Mid-2nd century BC in Central Asia | No known descendants, but possibly absorbed into the Uyghurs, who now show a large plurality of Indo-European DNA.[4] Maybe the descendants of the Kushan Empire are the Pashtuns.[5] |
Huaxia | 華夏 (Huáxià) 漢人 (Hànrén) |
Guanzhong and Yellow River basins in Northern China[6] | From earliest history or prehistorical (name comes from the Han dynasty) | Yanhuang, Zhonghua, Zhongguo, Huaxia, Hua, Xia, Han,[7][8] Han Chinese, Chinese[9][10][7] | Han dynasty | Modern Han Chinese |
Baiyue | 百越 (Bǎiyuè) | Name applied to various peoples residing in East China, South China, and North Vietnam | 8th century BC to 1st century AD, assimilated into Hans[11] | Bách Việt[11] | Early 6th Century BC to 3rd century AD[1] | Part of Cantonese, along with various ethnic minorities such as the Zhuang, Dai, Tai, Bouyei, Aisui, Kam, Hlai, Mulam, and Maonan.[12][13][14] |
Wu and Yue | 吴越 (Wúyuè) | Present-day Southern Jiangsu province, Northern Zhejiang province, Shanghai | 8th century BC to 5th century BC | Ngô Việt | N/A | Wu Chinese people |
Minyue | 閩越 (Mǐnyuè) | Present day Fujian province | 4th century BC to 2nd century BC | Mân Việt | N/A | Min Chinese people |
Luoyue | 雒越 (Luòyuè) | Present day Northern Vietnam,Southern Guangxi province | 8th century BC to 1st century AD | Lạc Việt | N/A | Zhuang people, Hlai people |
Ouyue | 甌越 (Ōuyuè) | Present day Northern Vietnam, western Guangdong, and northern Guangxi | 4th century BC | Âu Việt | N/A | Cantonese, Zhuang |
Yelang | 夜郎(Yèláng) | Guizhou | 3rd century BC to 1st century BC | Zangke, Dạ Lang | N/A | Possibly Yi[15] |
Wuhuan | 烏桓 (Wūhuán) | Western portions of Manchuria (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning provinces) and Inner Mongolia | 4th century BC to late 3rd century BC, assimilated into Hans | No known equivalence | N/A | Possibly Kumo Xi;[16] the rest were presumably assimilated into Hans. |
Xianbei | 鮮卑 (Xiānbēi) | Manchuria (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning provinces), Mongolia, and Inner Mongolia. Moved into areas north of the Yellow River and founded a dynasty there. | c. 4th century BC to mid-6th century, some Xianbeis assimilated into Hans | N/A | N/A | Possibly some of the Mongols, Tibetans, Monguor people, Sibe people, Evenks, and Chinese (some Chinese people today have the sinicised presumably Xianbei surnames such as Yuwen, Yuchi, Zhangsun, Tuoba, Murong and Huyan) |
Qiang | 羌 (Qiāng) | Gansu, Qinghai, western portion of Sichuan, eastern portion of Xinjiang, and northeastern portion of Tibet | Mentioned in oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang dynasty, c. 14th century BC to c. 1050 BC.
c. 4th century BC to late 5th century, assimilated into Hans |
No known equivalence | N/A | Modern Qiang, Tangut, Old Tibetan, Nakhi, Jingpho, and Lahu |
Di | 氐 (Dī) | Areas of neighboring borders of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Shaanxi | c. 8th century BC to mid-6th century, assimilated into Tibetans, Hans and other Sino-Tibetan - speaking ethnic groups | No known equivalence | N/A | Baima people |
Jie | 羯 (Jié) | Shanxi province | Late 2nd century to mid-4th century | No known equivalence | N/A | The majority died in the Ran Wei–Later Zhao war, the rest assimilated into Hans. Some Turkic people or Yeniseian people may be related to the Jie. |
Dian | 滇國 (diānguó) | Dian Lake, Yunnan | 4th century BC to 1st century BC, assimilated into Hans[17] | Điền | N/A | No known descendants.[17] |
Qiuci | 龜茲 (Qiūcí) | Tarim Basin, Xinjiang | 2nd century BC to 10th century AD, first encountered during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han; assimilated by Uyghurs and others | Tocharians | Date unknown, although they were part of the Bronze Age Indo-European migrations (see Tarim mummies) | During antiquity, Indo-European peoples inhabited the oasis city-state of Kucha (as well as Turfan) in the Tarim Basin region of Xinjiang. They fell under the Imperial Chinese orbit of control during the Han and Tang dynasties (see Protectorate of the Western Regions, Tang campaign against the oasis states, and Protectorate General to Pacify the West), but were eventually conquered by the Uyghur Khaganate and then assimilated by Qocho Uyghurs (856-1335 AD). |
Dingling | 丁零 (Dīnglíng), 高車 (Gāochē) | Banks of Lake Baikal and on the borders of present-day Mongolia and Russia, migrated to modern-day Shanxi and Xinjiang | 1st century BC to late 5th century | Gaoche, Chile | 1st century BC | Tiele |
Rouran | 柔然 (Róurán), 蠕蠕 (Rúrú), 茹茹 (Rúrú) | Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, and eastern portion of Xinjiang | Early 3rd century to early 6th century | Nirun/Mongols (possibly others falling under the label as well) | Late 6th century to early 9th century | Mongols |
Tujue | 突厥 (Tūjué) | Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Xinjiang, and eastern portion of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan | Late 5th century to mid-10th century | Göktürks | Mid-6th century to early 9th century | The eastern Turks assimilated mainly to the Orkhon Uyghurs who conquered them; as for several Western-Turkic-affiliated tribes: Karluks (standard Chinese: Géluólù 葛邏祿) became linguistic ancestors and partial genetic ancestors of modern Karluk Turkic speakers; Oghuz Turks possibly descend from the Western Turkic tribe Gūsū 姑蘇.[18]); the Khazars, whose political association with Göktürks was suggested by their Chinese name 突厥曷薩 Tūjué Hésà; 突厥可薩 Tūjué Kěsà, lit. 'Türk Khazar',[19][20] were possibly led by the Ashina clan.[21][22] The Shatuo Turks consisted of three tribes: the formerly Western Turkic-associated Chuyue tribe,[23][24][25] the formerly Türgesh-associated Suoge (娑葛),[26] and Anqing (安慶) of Sogdian origins.[24] |
Huihu | 回紇 (Huíhé) | Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern portions of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia | Early 7th century to mid-10th century | Toquz Oghuz, Uyghurs or Yugurs | Early 9th century to present | Yugur |
Tibetans | 吐蕃 (Tǔbō, also pronounced as Tǔfān) | Present-day Tibet, Qinghai, western areas of Sichuan and Yunnan, parts of Gansu, Southern border of Xinjiang | Mid-6th century to present | N/A | Early 6th century to present, a 2016 study reveals the date of divergence between Tibetans and Han Chinese was estimated to have taken place around 15,000 to 9,000 years ago.[27] | Modern Tibetans |
Khitans | 契丹 (Qìdān) | Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Liaoning, northern border of Shanxi and Hebei, and later in Xinjiang and eastern border of Kazakhstan | c. 4th century to 12th century | Khitan | 4th century to 12th century | Possibly Daur, and some Baarins, Chinese, Mongolians
(There exist descendants of war-scattered Khitan soldiers sent to Yunnan and Guangxi provinces during the Yuan dynasty in Baoshan, Yunnan) |
Xi or Kumo Xi | 庫莫奚 (Kùmòxī) | More or less the same residence of the Khitans, since regarded as two ethnic groups with one unique ancestry | Pre-4th century to mid-12th century | No known equivalence | N/A | No known descendants (possibly Mongols) |
Shiwei | 室韋 (Shìwéi) | Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, western Manchuria and southern Siberia | Late 6th century to late 10th century | No known equivalence | N/A | Conquered by Khitans, splinter groups and remnants re-emerged as Mongols and Tungusic peoples |
Menggu | 蒙古 (Ménggǔ) | Present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, western Manchuria, southern Siberia, and eastern and central Xinjiang before Genghis Khan | Since late c. 8th century | Mongols | Late 12th century to present | Mongols
There remain descendants of Mongol soldiers sent to Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guangxi provinces during the Yuan dynasty. |
Dangxiang | 党項 (Dǎngxiàng) | Ningxia, Gansu, northern portions of Shanxi, southwestern portion of Mongolia, Southeastern portion of Xinjiang | c. Mid-8th century to early 13th century, some Dangxiang assimilated into Hans | Tanguts | N/A | Part of the Hui community (Dungan), Ersu, part of Amdo Tibetans, part of Han Chinese in Mizhi, Shaanxi.) |
Sai | 塞 (Sāi) | Widespread throughout Central Asia | 2nd century BC to 1st century BC | Saka | 5th century BC | Maybe ancestral to the Pashtuns and the Wakhi. |
Sute | 粟特 (Sùtè) | Widespread throughout Central Asia; also lived in China proper | 1st century BC to 11th century AD | Sogdians | 6th century BC | Modern Yagnobi people. |
Manchus | 女真 (Nǚzhēn), 滿族 (Mǎnzú) | Manchuria and northern portion of Inner Mongolia | Early 10th century to present, established the Jin and Qing dynasties, many Manchus have lost their native Manchu language and only speak Mandarin Chinese | Mohe, Jurchens, Mancho, Manchurian, Manchurian Chinese | Since mid-17th century, first encountered by the Russians | Modern Manchus. Largest minority ethnic group in the Dongbei region. Modern Manchus have mostly lost their language and by and large have assimilated into Han Chinese culture, though there are some distinctive aspects that still remain. |
Jews | 猶太 (Yóutài) | Kaifeng | 7th century to present, many Jews have very much assimilated into Hui people after converting to Islam. The Nanjing and Beijing Jews became Muslims[28] At the start of the 20th century the Zhang Kaifeng Jewish family became Muslims.[29][30] Muslim men married Jewish women.[31] Some Jews adopted non-Jewish sons.[32][33] After the 1642 Yellow River flood some Muslim women were taken as wives by a Kaifeng Jew "the handsome" Zhang Mei (Chang Mei).[34] Kaifeng Jews became Muslims.[35] Islam was taken up after Kaifeng Jews married Muslims.[36][37] The converts to Islam retained Jewish characteristics after conversion.[38][39] | Jewish, Jewish Chinese, Hebrews, Israelites, Youtai | N/A | Modern Jews. Kaifeng is known for having the oldest extent Jewish community in China. Many Chinese Jews have very much assimilated into Hui Muslims, though a number of international Jewish groups have helped Chinese Jews rediscover their Jewish roots.[40][41] Kaifeng Jewish ancestry has been found among their descendants living among the Hui Muslims, such as during a hajj pilgrimage the Hui Muslim woman Jin Xiaojing (金效靜) found out about her Jewish ancestry and wrote about it in an article, "China's Jews" (中国的犹太人) published in "Points East" in 1981. Scholars have pointed out that Hui Muslims may have absorbed Kaifeng Jews instead of Han Confucians and Buddhists.[42][43] Jewish converts to Islam who became Hui Muslims in 16th century China were called the blue hat Hui (藍帽回回) since they converted to Islam due to similarities in their traditions.[44] One of the 7 prominent Hui Muslim clans of Kaifeng, the Zhang Jewish clan, became Muslim.[45] The Zhang family, among several Hui Muslims with Kaifeng Jewish ancestry call themselves "fake Muslims" since hey are openly proud of their ancestry[46] Instead of being absorbed into Han, a portion of the Jews of China of Kaifeng became Hui Muslims.[47] In 1948 Samuel Stupa Shih (Shi Hong Mo) (施洪模) said he saw a Hebrew language "Religion of Israel" Jewish inscription on a tombstone in a Qing dynasty Muslim cemetery to a place west of Hangzhou.[48] |
Joseonjok | 朝鮮族 (Cháoxiǎnzú) | Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, primarily Southeastern Manchuria | mid 7th century[49][50] to present, some Koreans assimilated into Hui people.[51][52] | Hanminjok, Joseonminjok, Goryeo, Hanguo, Chaoxian, Korean, Korean-Chinese | N/A | Modern Koreans |
See also[edit]
- Barbarian
- Ethnic minorities in China
- Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese
- History of China
- List of ethnic groups in China
- Secession in China
- Wu Hu
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
... the Jewish presen
ce in the city predates this ye
ar.242 According to the 1489 in
scription, the founders of the
Kaifeng ... while others state
that the Jews of Beijing and Na
njing converted to Islam.249 Th
e same Ricci was the first to ..
.(29)^ Ehrlich, M. Avrum; Liang, Pingan (2008). "Part V KAIFENG JEWISH DESCENDANTS 14 THE CONTEMPORARY CONDITION OF THE JEWISH DESCENDANTS OF KAIFENG". In Ehrlich, M. Avrum (ed.). The Jewish-Chinese Nexus: A Meeting of Civilizations. Routledge Jewish Studies Series (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 194. ISBN 978-1134105533.
Out of the seven orig
inal clans of Kaifeng Jews, the
Zhang clan was said to have co
nverted to Islam in the beginni
ng of the twentieth century wit
h the decline of the community
and the problems in that period
of China's history.(30)^ Dubov, Kalman. Journey to the People's Republic of China; Review & Analysis. Kalman Dubov.
Most of the Zhang converted to
Islam. Jews who managed the syn
agogues were called mullahs. A
high number of Kaifeng Jews pas
sed the difficult Chinese Civil
Service examination during the
Ming Dynasty. Four inscription
s from 1489, 1512, ...(31)^ Xu, Xin; Gonen, Rivka (2003). The Jews of Kaifeng, China: History, Culture, and Religion. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. p. 55. ISBN 0881257915.
Two familie
s intermarry with Chinese Moham
medans only . The Jews give the
ir daughters to the Mohammedans
; the Mohammedans do not give
their daughters to the Jews . T
he Jews do not know from whence
they came, or the period of th
eir ...(32)^ Goldstein, Jonathan, ed. (1998). The Jews of China. M.E. Sharpe. p. 119. ISBN 076563631X.
A
1757 regulation in the Parades
i record book stated : " If an
Israelite or a ger [ apparently,
a convert from outside Cochin ]
marries a woman from the daugh
ters ... of the mshuchrarim, th
e sons who are born to them go
after the ...(33)^ Goldstein, Jonathan; Schwartz, Benjamin I. (2015). The Jews of China: v. 1: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1317456049.
Some ancestor ritu
als may still be carried out by
Kaifeng Jewish descent groups
today; it is hoped that ongoing
... a convert from outside Coc
hin] marries a woman from the d
aughters ... of the mshuchrarim,
the sons who are born to them .
..(34)^ Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1952). A Social and Religious History of the Jews: Late Middle Ages and the era of European expansion, 1200-1650. Vol. 18. Columbia University Press. p. 617. ISBN 0231088558.
Characteristicall
y, however, the Jewish people d
id not observe special memorial
days for most of its ancient a
nd ... No one seems to have ser
iously questioned the permissib
ility of the Kaifeng Jews marry
ing more than one wife .(35)^ LESLIE, DONALD DANIEL (2017). "INTEGRATION, ASSIMILATION, AND SURVIVAL OF MINORITIES IN CHINA: THE CASE OF THE KAIFENG JEWS". In Malek, Roman (ed.). From Kaifeng to Shanghai: Jews in China. Routledge. p. 68. ISBN 978-1351566292.
In any case, the
Kaifeng Jews did not stand out
as an exotic community, for the
re were a large number of Musli
ms there, ... and they did not
intermarry.93 According to most
authorities, many Jews finally
assimilated to Islam.(36)^ Shapiro, Sidney (2001). Jews in Old China: Studies by Chinese Scholars. Hippocrene Books. p. 233. ISBN 0781808332.
Muslim r
eligious strictures required an
yone, whether man or woman, who
married a Muslim to convert to
Islam . ... An San, a Kaifeng
Jew, was awarded a rank of Thir
d Grade, because of services he
had rendered to the court ...
-followers were not assimilated
into the Han population. Jews
who married Muslims had to embr
ace Islam. This is one of the r
easons the Jews were assimilate
d.(37)^ Goldstein, Jonathan, ed. (1999). "Contributors Benjamin Isadore Schwartz, Frank Joseph Shulman". The Jews of China: Historical and comparative perspectives. East Gate book. Vol. 1 of The Jews of China. M.E. Sharpe. p. 119. ISBN 0765601036.
A 1757
regulation in the Paradesi rec
ord book stated : "If an Israel
ite or a ger (apparently, a con
vert from outside Cochin) marri
es a woman from the daughters ..
. of the mshuchrarim, the sons
who are born to them go after t
he ...(38)^ Points East, Volumes 1-7. Sino-Judaic Institute. 1986. p. 8.
Even the first generation of a
mixed marriage will often find
the offspring only too happy t
o escape into the non ... Thoug
h the Jews converted to Islam,
they apparently retained a Jewi
sh coloration, much like Jews t
o convert to ...(39)^ Contributors Michael Pollak, Bet ha-tefutsot (Tel Aviv, Israel) (1984). קהילת קאפינג: Chinese Jews on the Banks of the Yellow River. Bet Hatefutsoth, The Nahum Goldman Museum of the Jewish Diaspora.
The community wa
s also weakened by repeated nat
ural, military and economic cat
astrophes that Kaifeng experien
ced over the centuries. Fire an
d flood took their toll,
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(40)^ Walgrove, Amanda (25 March 2011). "Jewish History in China Boosting Sino-Israeli Relations". Moment.
(41)^ "Stopping the crackdown on China's Jews - Opinion - Jerusalem Post". Jpost.com. 8 September 2016. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
(42)^ Kupfer, Helmut Karl Peter (2008). Kupfer, Peter (ed.). Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China. Vol. 47 of FASK, Publikationen des Fachbereichs Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz in Germersheim: Abhandlungen und Sammelbände, Universität Mainz Fachbereich Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft. Peter Lang. p. 47. ISBN 978-3631575338. ISSN 0941-9543. Later, i
n the 19th and 20th centuries,
it is likely, as suggested by m
any scholars, that several of t
he Kaifeng Jews did convert to
Islam rather than simply being
swallowed up in the Buddhist or
Confucian multitude. Today, a
number of Muslims (and possibly
non-Muslims) have discovered t
hat their ancestors were Kaifen
g Jews.108... 108 Jin Xiaojing
金效靜, 1981, translated in Points
East 1.1 (Jan 1986), 1, 4-5 .
She discovered she was of Jewis
h descent when on the hajj to M
ecca !(43)^ 金效静;;中国的犹太人[J];社会科学战线;1981年04期 (44)^ Kupfer, Helmut Karl Peter (2008). Kupfer, Peter (ed.). Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China. Vol. 47 of FASK, Publikationen des Fachbereichs Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz in Germersheim: Abhandlungen und Sammelbände, Universität Mainz Fachbereich Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft. Peter Lang. p. 196. ISBN 978-3631575338. ISSN 0941-9543.
Islamic
works translated into Chinese
played a very important role in
the popularization of Islam .
At the same time, many Jews who
did not like to abandon their
tradition converted to Islam an
d were known as the﹃ Huihui wit
h blue hats A 藍帽回回﹄. The missio
nary work of Christians from th
e beginning of the 17th century
and the Chinese Bible did not
affect them .(45)^ Kupfer, Helmut Karl Peter (2008). Kupfer, Peter (ed.). Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China. Vol. 47 of FASK, Publikationen des Fachbereichs Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz in Germersheim: Abhandlungen und Sammelbände, Universität Mainz Fachbereich Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft. Peter Lang. p. 106. ISBN 978-3631575338. ISSN 0941-9543.
Others
said he may indeed be from the
Zhang clan, but that the clan (
one of the "Seven Surnames") ha
d apparently converted to Islam
over a century ago.(46)^ Kupfer, Helmut Karl Peter (2008). Kupfer, Peter (ed.). Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China. Vol. 47 of FASK, Publikationen des Fachbereichs Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz in Germersheim: Abhandlungen und Sammelbände, Universität Mainz Fachbereich Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft. Peter Lang. p. 18. ISBN 978-3631575338. ISSN 0941-9543.
26 Some
of those who converted to Islam,
like the Zhang family, still s
eem to cherish this past as wel
l and consider themselves as "f
ake Moslems". This has been con
firmed by Zhang Qianhong and Li
Jingwen in "Some Observations .
..," 2000, p. 165.(47)^ Kupfer, Helmut Karl Peter (2008). Kupfer, Peter (ed.). Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China. Vol. 47 of FASK, Publikationen des Fachbereichs Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz in Germersheim: Abhandlungen und Sammelbände, Universität Mainz Fachbereich Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft. Peter Lang. p. 48. ISBN 978-3631575338. ISSN 0941-9543.
"This al
so involves a difficult study o
f the relations that existed be
tween the Kaifeng Jews and Musl
ims there. A number of Jewish d
escendants converted to Islam r
ather than melting into the gen
eral populations. What is their
attitude to Judaism now?(48)^ Kupfer, Helmut Karl Peter (2008). Kupfer, Peter (ed.). Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China. Vol. 47 of FASK, Publikationen des Fachbereichs Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz in Germersheim: Abhandlungen und Sammelbände, Universität Mainz Fachbereich Angewandte Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft. Peter Lang. p. 50. ISBN 978-3631575338. ISSN 0941-9543.
It is cl
ear from Shi's later descriptio
ns that many of the tombstones
he saw were Muslim rather than
Jewish, though one, he claimed,
read "Religion of Israel" in H
ebrew. In Hangzhou, according t
o Ricci in 1608, there had been
a synagogue. We can only wonde
r whether the Jews there had a
separate cemetery of their own
or were accepted by the Muslims
in their special cemetery.(49)^ Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather (1955). Ennins Travels in Tang China. John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited. pp. 276–283. ISBN 9780471070535. (50)^ Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). China's cosmopolitan empire: The Tang dynasty. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 154. ISBN 9780674033061. (51)^ 黄有福 (2009). 中国朝鲜族史研究. 北京: 民族出版社. ISBN 978-7-105-10152-8. (52)^ 金炳镐, 肖锐 (2011). 中国民族政策与朝鲜族. 北京: 中央民族大学出版社. ISBN 978-7-5660-0096-5.
Sources[edit]
- Books
- Abramson, Marc S. (2008). Ethnic Identity in Tang China. University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009): Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2.
- Wu, K. C. (1982). The Chinese Heritage. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-517-54475-X.
External links[edit]
Media related to Ethnic groups in Chinese history at Wikimedia Commons