The style was pioneered by Carroll John Daly in the mid-1920s,[2] popularized by Dashiell Hammett over the course of the decade, and refined by James M. Cain and by Raymond Chandler beginning in the late 1930s.[3] English writer Gerald Butler was referred to as the "English James M. Cain", and his characters were noted as hardboiled.[4][5] Its heyday was in 1930s–50s America.[6]
From its earliest days, hardboiled fiction was published in and closely associated with so-called pulp magazines. Pulp historian Robert Sampson argues that Gordon Young's "Don Everhard" stories (which appeared in Adventure magazine from 1917 onwards), about an "extremely tough, unsentimental, and lethal" gun-toting urban gambler, anticipated the hardboiled detective stories.[7] In its earliest uses in the late 1920s, "hardboiled" did not refer to a type of crime fiction; it meant the tough (cynical) attitude towards emotions triggered by violence.[citation needed]
The hardboiled crime story became a staple of several pulp magazines in the 1930s; most famously Black Mask under the editorship of Joseph T. Shaw,[3][8] but also in other pulps such as Dime Detective and Detective Fiction Weekly.[9][10] Consequently, "pulp fiction" is often used as a synonym for hardboiled crime fiction or gangster fiction;[11] some would distinguish within it the private-eye story from the crime novel itself.[12] In the United States, the original hardboiled style has been emulated by innumerable writers, including James Ellroy, Paul Cain, Sue Grafton, Chester Himes, Paul Levine, John D. MacDonald, Ross Macdonald, Walter Mosley, Sara Paretsky, Robert B. Parker, and Mickey Spillane. Later, many hardboiled novels were published by houses specializing in paperback originals, most notably Gold Medal, and in later decades republished by houses such as Black Lizard.
Hardboiled writing is also associated with "noir fiction". Eddie Duggan discusses the similarities and differences between the two related forms in his 1999 article on pulp writer Cornell Woolrich.[13] In his full-length study of David Goodis, Jay Gertzman notes: "The best definition of hard boiled I know is that of critic Eddie Duggan. In noir, the primary focus is interior: psychic imbalance leading to self-hatred, aggression, sociopathy, or a compulsion to control those with whom one shares experiences. By contrast, hard boiled 'paints a backdrop of institutionalized social corruption'".[14]
^Sampson, Robert (1994). "Pulps". In Deandrea, William L. (ed.). Encyclopedia Mysteriosa: A Comprehensive Guide to the Art of Detection in Print, Film, Radio, and Television. Encyclopedia Mysteriosa. MacMillan. pp. 287–289. ISBN978-0-02-861678-0. "Extremely tough, unsentimental and lethal, Everhard foreshadowed the hard-boiled characters of the following decade".
^Sampson, Robert (1994). "Pulps". In Deandrea, William L. (ed.). Encyclopedia Mysteriosa: A Comprehensive Guide to the Art of Detection in Print, Film, Radio, and Television. Encyclopedia Mysteriosa. MacMillan. pp. 287–289. ISBN978-0-02-861678-0.
Irwin, John T. (2006). Unless the Threat of Death Is Behind Them: Hard-Boiled Fiction and Film Noir. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN0-8018-8435-7.
Kemp, Simon (2006). Defective Inspectors: Crime-fiction Pastiche in Late Twentieth-century. Maney Publishing. ISBN1-904350-51-8.
Marling, Professor William (Case Western Reserve University). "Detective Novels: An Overview". detnovel.com. Archived from the original on 2008-09-18. Retrieved 2007-10-06. History of the genre.
Mizejewski, Linda (2004). Hardboiled and High Heeled: The Woman Detective in Popular Culture. Routledge Chapman Hall. ISBN0-415-96970-0.
O'Brien, Geoffrey (2005-08-27). "The Hardboiled Era: A Checklist, 1929–1958". miskatonic.org/rara-avis. A chronology of significant hardboiled novels, compiled by critic Geoffrey O'Brien for the 1981 edition of his Hardboiled America.
