Ahousehold consists of one or more persons who live in the same dwelling. It may be of a single family or another type of person group.[1] The household is the basic unit of analysis in many social, microeconomic and government models, and is important to economics and inheritance.[2]
Household models include families, blended families, shared housing, group homes, boarding houses, houses of multiple occupancy (UK), and single room occupancy (US). In feudal societies, the royal household and medieval households of the wealthy included servants and other retainers.
For statistical purposes in the United Kingdom, a household is defined as "one person or a group of people who have the accommodation as their only or main residence and for a group, either share at least one meal a day or share the living accommodation, that is, a living room or sitting room".[3] The introduction of legislation to control houses of multiple occupations in the UK Housing Act (2004)[4] required a tighter definition of a single household. People can be considered a household if they are related: full- or half-blood, foster, step-parent/child, in-laws (and equivalent for unmarried couples), a married couple or unmarried but "living as ..." (same- or different-sex couples).[5]
The United States Census definition also hinges on "separate living quarters": "those in which the occupants live and eat separately from any other persons in the building."[6] According to the U.S. census, a householder is the "person (or one of the people) in whose name the housing unit is owned or rented (maintained)"; if no person qualifies, any adult resident of a housing unit is considered a householder. The U.S. government formerly used "head of the household" and "head of the family", but those terms were replaced with "householder" in 1980.[7] In the census definition of a household, it
... includes all the persons who occupy a housing unit. A housing unit is a house, an apartment, a mobile home, a group of rooms, or a single room that is occupied (or if vacant, is intended for occupancy) as separate living quarters. Separate living quarters are those in which the occupants live and eat separately from any other persons in the building and which have direct access from the outside of the building or through a common hall. The occupants may be a single family, one person living alone, two or more families living together, or any other group of related or unrelated persons who share living arrangements. (People not living in households are classified as living in group quarters.)[8]
On July 15, 1998, Statistics Canada said: "A household is generally defined as being composed of a person or group of persons who co-reside in, or occupy, a dwelling."[9]
Although a one-income-stream economic theory simplifies modeling, it does not necessarily reflect reality. Many, if not most, households have several income-earning members. Most economic models do not equate households and traditional families, and there is not always a one-to-one relationship between households and families.
Insocial work, a household is defined similarly: a residential group in which housework is divided and performed by householders. Care may be delivered by one householder to another, depending upon their respective needs, abilities, and (perhaps) disabilities. Household composition may affect life and health expectations and outcomes for its members.[10][11] Eligibility for community services and welfare benefits may depend upon household composition.[12]
Insociology, household work strategy (a term coined by Ray Pahl in his 1984 book, Divisions of Labour)[13][14] is the division of labour among members of a household. Household work strategies vary over the life cycle as household members age, or with the economic environment; they may be imposed by one person, or be decided collectively.[15]
Feminism examines how gender roles affect the division of labour in households. In The Second Shift and The Time Bind, sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild presents evidence that in two-career couples men and women spend about equal amounts of time working; however, women spend more time on housework.[16][17] Cathy Young (another feminist writer) says that in some cases, women may prevent the equal participation of men in housework and parenting.[18]
Household models in the English-speaking world include traditional and blended families, shared housing, and group homes for people with support needs. Other models which may meet definitions of a household include boarding houses, houses in multiple occupation (UK), and single room occupancy (US).
Infeudaloraristocratic societies, a household may include servants or retainers who derive their income from the household's principal income.
Dwellings with bathrooms[19]
Country
1960
1970
1980
23.6%
49.1%
73.9%
39.4%
73.1%
85.4%
28.0%
48.9%
85.2%
51.9%
71.5%
92.3%
10.4%
-
69.3%
33.0%
55.3%
82.0%
10.7%
64.5%
86.4%
45.7%
69.4%
86.2%
30.3%
75.5%
95.9%
18.6%
-
58%
24.0%
77.8%
85.3%
78.3%
90.9%
98.0%
Indoor WC, bath/shower and hot running water (1988)[20]
Country
Indoor WC
Bath/shower
Hot running water
Belgium
94%
92%
87%
Denmark
97%
94%
N/A
France
94%
93%
95%
Germany
99%
97%
98%
Greece
85%
85%
84%
94%
92%
91%
99%
95%
93%
99%
97%
97%
N/A
99%
100%
80%
N/A
N/A
97%
96%
N/A
UK
99%
100%
N/A
1981–82 censuses[19]
Country
Bath/shower
Indoor WC
Central heating
Belgium
73.9%
79.0%
-
Denmark
85.1%
95.8%
54.6%
France
85.2%
85.4%
67.6%
Germany
92.3%
96.0%
70.0%
Greece
69.3%
70.9%
-
Ireland
82.0%
84.5%
39.2%
Italy
86.4%
87.7%
56.5%
Luxembourg
86.2%
97.3%
73.9%
Netherlands
95.9%
-
66.1%
Portugal
58.0%
58.7%
-
Spain
85.3%
-
22.5%
United Kingdom
98.0%
97.3%
-
Average usable floor space, 1976[21]
Country
Area
86 m2 (930 sq ft)
Belgium
97 m2 (1,040 sq ft)
63 m2 (680 sq ft)
89 m2 (960 sq ft)
69 m2 (740 sq ft)
Denmark
122 m2 (1,310 sq ft)
71 m2 (760 sq ft)
France
82 m2 (880 sq ft)
60 m2 (650 sq ft)
95 m2 (1,020 sq ft)
Greece
80 m2 (860 sq ft)
65 m2 (700 sq ft)
Ireland
88 m2 (950 sq ft)
Luxembourg
107 m2 (1,150 sq ft)
Netherlands
71 m2 (760 sq ft)
89 m2 (960 sq ft)
58 m2 (620 sq ft)
104 m2 (1,120 sq ft)
54 m2 (580 sq ft)
49 m2 (530 sq ft)
Spain
82 m2 (880 sq ft)
109 m2 (1,170 sq ft)
98 m2 (1,050 sq ft)
United Kingdom
70 m2 (750 sq ft)
120 m2 (1,300 sq ft)
65 m2 (700 sq ft)
Average usable floor space, 1994[22]
Country
Area
Austria
85.3 m2 (918 sq ft)
Belgium
86.3 m2 (929 sq ft)
Denmark
107 m2 (1,150 sq ft)
Finland
74.8 m2 (805 sq ft)
France
85.4 m2 (919 sq ft)
East Germany
64.4 m2 (693 sq ft)
West Germany
86.7 m2 (933 sq ft)
Greece
79.6 m2 (857 sq ft)
Ireland
88 m2 (950 sq ft)
Italy
92.3 m2 (994 sq ft)
Luxembourg
107 m2 (1,150 sq ft)
Netherlands
98.6 m2 (1,061 sq ft)
Spain
86.6 m2 (932 sq ft)
Sweden
92 m2 (990 sq ft)
United Kingdom
79.7 m2 (858 sq ft)
Floor space, 1992–1993[23]
Country
Year
Area
Australia
1993
191 m2 (2,060 sq ft)
United States
1992
153.2 m2 (1,649 sq ft)
1993
119.3 m2 (1,284 sq ft)
United Kingdom
1992
95 m2 (1,020 sq ft)
1993
90.8 m2 (977 sq ft)
Japan
1993
88.6 m2 (954 sq ft)
Households without an indoor WC, 1980[24]
Country
%
Belgium
19%
France
17%
West Germany
7%
Greece
29%
Ireland
22%
Italy
11%
54%
Norway
17%
43%
Spain
12%
United Kingdom
6%
Households without a bath or shower
Country
%
Belgium
24%
France
17%
West Germany
11%
Italy
11%
Japan
17%
Norway
18%
Spain
39%
United Kingdom
4%
Households with an indoor WC[25]
Country
1960–61
1970–71
1978–79
Britain
87%
88%
95%
Germany
64%
85%
92.5%
Households with a bath or shower[25]
Country
1960–61
1970–71
1978–79
Britain
72%
91%
94.3%
Germany
51%
82%
89.1%
Principal residences in France lacking amenities:[21]
Year
Running water
WC
Bath or shower
Central heating
1962
21.6%
59.5%
71.1%
80.7%
1968
9.2%
45.2%
52.5%
65.1%
1975
2.8%
26.2%
29.8%
46.9%
1978
1.3%
20.9%
22.9%
39.7%
Households with central heating[citation needed]
Country
1970
1978
Great Britain
34%
53%
Germany
44%
64%
US dwellings with bathroom amenities, 1970[26]
Amenity
%
Bath/shower
95%
Flush toilet
96%
East German amenities[21]
Amenity
1961
1971
1979
Running water
66%
82.2%
89%
WC
33%
41.8%
50%
Bath/shower
22.4%
38.7%
50%
Central heating
2.5%
10.6%
22%
Amenities in European dwellings, 1970–71[27]
Country
Running water
WC
Bath/shower
Austria
84.2%
69.8%
52.9%
Belgium
88.0%
50.4%
47.8%
Czechoslovakia
75.3%
49.0%
58.6%
Denmark
98.7%
90.3%
76.5%
Finland
72.0%
61.4%
-
Greece
64.9%
41.2%
35.6%
Hungary
36.1%
27.2%
31.7%
Ireland
78.2%
69.2%
55.4%
Italy
86.1%
79.0%
64.5%
Netherlands
-
80.8%
81.4%
Norway
97.5%
69.0%
66.1%
Portugal
47.8%
33.7%
32.6%
Spain
70.9%
70.9%
46.4%
Sweden
97.4%
90.1%
78.3%
Switzerland
-
93.3%
80.9%
United Kingdom
-
86.3%
90.7%
33.6%
26.2%
24.6%
British households lacking amenities[28]
Year
Bath
Indoor/outdoor WC
Hot running water
Indoor WC
1951
37.6%
7.7%
-
1961
22.4%
6.5%
21.8%
1966
15.4%
1.7%
12.5%
18.3%
1971
9.1%
1.1%
6.5%
11.5%
British households sharing amenities[28]
Year
Bath
Indoor/outdoor WC
Hot running water
Indoor WC
1951
7.5%
14.9%
-
1961
4.4%
6.7%
1.8%
-
1966
4.1%
6.4%
2.0%
4.4%
1971
3.2%
4.1%
1.9%
3.1%
Households with durable goods, 1964–1971[29]
Country
Year
Washing machine
Refrigerator
Television
Telephone
1971
45.4%
40.1%
87.5%
27.0%
1971
65.0%
53.2%
92.1%
36.1%
United Kingdom
1964
53.0%
34.0%
80.0%
2.2%
United Kingdom
1971
64.3%
68.8%
91.4%
37.8%
United States
1965
87.4%
99.5%
97.1%
85.0%
United States
1970
92.1%
99.85
98.7%
92.0%
EEC manual workers with durable goods, 1963–1964[29]
Country
Washing machine
Refrigerator
Television
Telephone
Belgium
74.7%
24.9%
47.6%
8.2%
France
39.6%
47.0%
34.4%
1.4%
West Germany
66.2%
62.1%
51.3%
1.8%
Italy
13.6%
50.2%
47.9%
20.0%
Luxembourg
82.3%
64.7%
27.9%
23.0%
Netherlands
80.4%
25.5%
58.0%
9.4%
EEC white-collar workers with durable goods, 1963–1964[29]
Country
Washing machine
Refrigerator
Television
Telephone
Belgium
68.5%
57.3%
48.3%
40.0%
France
48.2%
71.3%
43.3%
15.2%
West Germany
62.2%
79.1%
51.8%
19.6%
Italy
38.3%
81.9%
79.3%
57.9%
Luxembourg
82.3%
79.2%
25.2%
67.3%
Netherlands
73.9%
51.6%
56.2%
57.4%
Dwellings with amenities, 1960–71[29]
Country
Year
Running water
Indoor running water
Toilet
Flush toilet
Bath/shower
Austria
1961
100.0%
63.6%
-
-
29.6%
1970
-
85.3%
69.7%
-
54.5%
Belgium
1961
76.9%
-
99.9%
47.6%
24.3%
Bulgaria
1965
28.5%
28.2%
100.0%
11.8%
8.7%
1961
89.1%
-
-
85.2%
80.3%
1967
-
95.2%
93.5%
92.5%
89.8%
1971
-
-
-
95.4%
93.4%
Czechoslovakia
1961
60.5%
49.1%
-
39.5%
33.3%
Denmark
1960
-
92.9%
100.0%
83.6%
48.3%
1965
96.7%
96.7%
100.0%
90.9%
63.4%
England and Wales
1961
-
98.7%
93.4%
-
78.7%
1966
-
-
-
98.2%
85.1%
1960
47.1%
47.1%
-
35.4%
14.6%
France
1962
-
77.5%
43.1%
39.3%
28.0%
1968
92.8%
91.5%
56.2%
53.2%
48.9%
East Germany
1961
-
65.7%
33.7%
-
22.1%
West Germany
1965
-
98.2%
-
83.3%
64.3%
1968
99.0%
-
-
86.5%
66.8%
Hungary
1960
-
-
100.0%
22.5%
-
1963
32.5%
25.9%
-
-
18.5%
1970
58.6%
36.4%
100.0%
32.7%
32.2%
Ireland
1961
57.2%
51.0%
64.9%
53.5%
33.2%
Italy
1961
71.6%
62.3%
89.5%
-
28.9%
Luxembourg
1960
98.8%
-
100.0%
81.6%
45.7%
Netherlands
1956
89.6%
-
99.9%
67.5%
26.8%
1960
-
90.0%
-
-
-
1961
99.6%
87.8%
-
88.5%
-
1966
99.7%
90.3%
-
94.0%
98.1%
Norway
1960
94.0%
92.8%
100.0%
57.9%
45.2%
1960
39.1%
29.9%
26.9%
18.9%
13.9%
1966
-
46.8%
-
33.3%
-
1966
48.4%
12.3%
100.0%
12.2%
9.6%
Scotland
1961
-
94.0%
-
92.8%
69.9%
1966
-
-
-
95.7%
77.4%
Sweden
1960
-
90.0%
-
76.2%
61.0%
1965
95.2%
94.3%
99.7%
85.3%
72.9%
Switzerland
1960
-
96.1%
99.7%
-
68.8%
United States
1960
94.0%
92.9%
-
89.7%
88.1%
Yugoslavia (urban)
1961
-
42.4%
34.5%
-
22.5%
European households with at least one car, 1978[30]
Country
%
Belgium
69.9%
Denmark
57.0%
France
66.9%
West Germany
62.6%
Ireland
65.1%
Italy
69.1%
Netherlands
67.2%
United Kingdom
54.4%
Housing tenure, 1980–1990[31]
Country
Year
Public rental
Private rental
Owner-occupied
Australia
1988
5%
25%
70%
Belgium
1986
6%
30%
62%
Denmark
1990
21%
21%
58%
France
1990
17%
30%
53%
Germany
1990
25%
38%
37%
Ireland
1990
14%
9%
78%
Italy
1990
5%
24%
64%
Netherlands
1988
43%
13%
44%
Spain
1989
1%
11%
88%
United Kingdom
1990
27%
7%
66%
United States
1980
2%
32%
66%
Country
%
Belgium
58%
France
47%
Italy
17%
Netherlands
21%
Germany
45%
Luxembourg
81%
Households with durable goods, 1962[33]
Country
Television
Vacuum cleaner
Washing machine
Refrigerator
Car
France
25%
32%
31%
37%
33%
Great Britain
78%
71%
43%
22%
30%
United States
87%
75%
95%
98%
75%
A 1961–62 National Housing Institute survey estimated that 13.8 percent of Belgian dwellings were unfit and incapable of improvement. A further 19.5 percent were unfit but had the potential to be improved, and 54 percent were considered suitable (without alteration or improvement) for modern living standards. Seventy-four percent of dwellings lacked a shower or bath, 19 percent had inadequate sewage disposal, and 3.6 percent lacked a drinking-water supply; 36.8 percent had an indoor water closet.[34] According to a 1964 study, 13 percent of Belgium's housing consisted of slums.[35] In 1974 an estimated 17% of the Belgian population lived in a detached house, while 23% lived in an attached house, 56% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 1% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 37% without a fixed bath or shower and 7% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 28% of the Austrian population lived in a detached house, while 5% lived in an attached house, 64% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 10% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 34% without a fixed bath or shower and 8% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 27% of the Irish population lived in a detached house, while 55% lived in an attached house, 11% in an apartment or flat, and 8% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 21% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 2% without electric lighting, 20% without a fixed bath or shower and 14% without piped water.[37]
In 1973 an estimated 65% of the Japanese population lived in a detached house, while 12% lived in an attached house, and 23% in an apartment or flat.[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 65% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 3% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 18% of the Dutch population lived in a detached house, while 40% lived in an attached house, 36% in an apartment or flat, and 6% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 1% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 2% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 18% of the Italian population lived in a detached house, while 9% lived in an attached house, 65% in an apartment or flat, and 8% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 4% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 2% without electric lighting, 27% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 45% of the Norwegian population lived in a detached house, while 7% lived in an attached house, 46% in an apartment or flat, and 2% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 13% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 25% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 36% of the Swedish population lived in a detached house, while 8% lived in an attached house, and 56% in an apartment or flat.[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 2% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 2% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 50% of the Danish population lived in a detached house, while 11% lived in an attached house, 31% in an apartment or flat, and 8% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 1% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 10% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 33% of the Swiss population lived in a detached house, while 5% lived in an attached house, and 62% in an apartment or flat.[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 3% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 15% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 12% of the Spanish population lived in a detached house, while 23% lived in an attached house, 61% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1970/75 an estimated 29% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 4% without electric lighting, 54% without a fixed bath or shower and 32% without piped water.[37]
In 1974 an estimated 22% of the West German population lived in a detached house, while 5% lived in an attached house, 69% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 4% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 6% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
Between 1954 and 1973, the percentage of French homes with a shower or bath increased from 10 to 65 percent. During that period, the percentage of homes without flush toilets fell from 73 to 30 percent; homes without running water fell from 42 to 3.4 percent. A 1948 law permitted gradual, long-term rent increases for existing flats on the condition that part of the money was spent on repairs. According to John Ardagh, the law, "vigorously applied, was partly successful in its twofold aim: to encourage both repairs and new building."[38] In 1974 an estimated 17% of the French population lived in a detached house, while 2% lived in an attached house, 78% in an apartment or flat, and 3% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 20% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 34% without a fixed bath or shower and 3% without piped water.[37]
After World War II, a large percentage of British housing was single-family housing. Seventy-eight percent of housing in 1961 consisted of single-family homes, compared to 56 percent in the Netherlands, 49 percent in West Germany and 32 percent in France.[39] In England and Wales in 1964, 6.6 percent of housing units had two or fewer rooms; 5.8 percent had seven or more rooms, 15.2 percent had six rooms, 35.1 percent had five rooms, 26.3 percent had four rooms, and 11.1 percent had three rooms. These figures included kitchens when they were used for eating meals. Fifty percent of 1964 housing had three bedrooms; 1.9 percent had five or more bedrooms, 6.2 percent had four bedrooms, 10.5 percent had one bedroom or none, and 31.3 percent had two bedrooms. A 1960 social survey estimated that 0.6 percent of households in England and Wales exceeded the statutory overcrowding standard; the 1964 percentage was 0.5 percent. In 1964, 6.9 of all households exceeded one person per room. The 1960 figure was 11 percent, with 1.75 percent having two or more bedrooms below the standard and 9.25 percent having one bedroom below the standard. This declined slightly by 1964 to 9.4 percent of households below the standard, with 8.1 percent having one bedroom below the standard and 1.3 percent having two bedrooms or more below the standard. According to local authorities in 1965, five percent of the housing stock in England and Wales was unfit for habitation.[40] In 1974 an estimated 23% of the population of the UK lived in a detached house, while 50% lived in an attached house, 23% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 1% of all houses were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 3% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
Housing conditions improved in Canada and the U.S. after World War II. In the U.S., 35.4 percent of all 1950 dwellings did not have complete plumbing facilities; the figure fell to 16.8 percent in 1960 and 8.4 percent in 1968. In Canada from 1951 to 1971, the percentage of dwellings with a bath or shower increased from 60.8 to 93.4 percent; the percentage of dwellings with hot and cold running water increased from 56.9 to 93.5 percent.[29] In the United States from 1950 to 1974, the percentage of housing without full plumbing fell from 34 to three percent; during that period, the percentage of housing stock considered dilapidated fell from nine percent to less than four.[41] In 1976, an estimated 64% of the population of the U.S. lived in a detached house, while 4% lived in an attached house, 28% in an apartment or flat, and 4% in other types of homes (trailers, mobile homes, etc.).[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975 an estimated 2% of all houses in the U.S. were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 3% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37] In 1977 an estimated 59% of the population of Canada lived in a detached house, while 8% lived in an attached house, and 33% in an apartment or flat.[36] In terms of amenities, in 1975/77 an estimated 3% of all houses in Canada were without a flush toilet, 1% without electric lighting, 2% without a fixed bath or shower and 1% without piped water.[37]
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link)
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
Second-degree relatives
Third-degree relatives
Relationships
Holidays
Related
the philosophy of and activism for consumer protection
Concepts
Activism
Fields of study
Key players
the philosophy of and activism for Euthenics
Concepts
Activism
Fields of study
Key players
Primary
Interdisciplinary
List
Other categorizations
National
Other