Crystallography is a technique that characterizes the chemical structure of materials at the atomic level by analyzing the diffraction patterns of electromagnetic radiationorparticles that have been deflected by atoms in the material. X-rays are most commonly used. From the raw data, the relative placement of atoms in space may be determined.
Electroanalytical methods measure the electric potentialinvolts and/or the electric currentinamps in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte.[1][2] These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The three main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).
Combinations of the above techniques produce "hybrid" or "hyphenated" techniques.[3][4][5][6][7] Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development.
Hyphenated separation techniques refer to a combination of two or more techniques to separate chemicals from solutions and detect them. Most often, the other technique is some form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in chemistry and biochemistry. A slash is sometimes used instead of hyphen, especially if the name of one of the methods contains a hyphen itself.
Devices that integrate multiple laboratory functions on a single chip of only a few square millimeters or centimeters in size and that are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than picoliters.
^Ellis LA, Roberts DJ (1997). "Chromatographic and hyphenated methods for elemental speciation analysis in environmental media". Journal of Chromatography A. 774 (1–2): 3–19. doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(97)00325-7. PMID9253184.
^Guetens G, De Boeck G, Wood M, Maes RA, Eggermont AA, Highley MS, van Oosterom AT, de Bruijn EA, Tjaden UR (2002). "Hyphenated techniques in anticancer drug monitoring. I. Capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry". Journal of Chromatography A. 976 (1–2): 229–38. doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(02)01228-1. PMID12462614.
^Guetens G, De Boeck G, Highley MS, Wood M, Maes RA, Eggermont AA, Hanauske A, de Bruijn EA, Tjaden UR (2002). "Hyphenated techniques in anticancer drug monitoring. II. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry". Journal of Chromatography A. 976 (1–2): 239–47. doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(02)01227-X. PMID12462615.
