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Contents

   



(Top)
  


1 Overview  




2 Chronological list  




3 Appearance frequency clusters  




4 Elements regarded as metalloids  




5 Notes  




6 References  













Lists of metalloids






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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  

This is a list of 194 sources that list elements classified as metalloids. The sources are listed in chronological order. Lists of metalloids differ since there is no rigorous widely accepted definition of metalloid (or its occasional alias, 'semi-metal'). Individual lists share common ground, with variations occurring at the margins. The elements most often regarded as metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium.[n 1] Other sources may subtract from this list, add a varying number of other elements, or both.

Overview[edit]

Elements recognized as metalloids
  • t
  • e
    •
      13 14 15 16 17
    2 B
    Boron     		C
    Carbon     		N
    Nitrogen     		O
    Oxygen     		F
    Fluorine
    3 Al
    Aluminium     		Si
    Silicon     		P
    Phosphorus     		S
    Sulfur     		Cl
    Chlorine
    4 Ga
    Gallium     		Ge
    Germanium     		As
    Arsenic     		Se
    Selenium     		Br
    Bromine
    5 In
    Indium     		Sn
    Tin     		Sb
    Antimony     		Te
    Tellurium     		I
    Iodine
    6 Tl
    Thallium     		Pb
    Lead     		Bi
    Bismuth     		Po
    Polonium     		At
    Astatine
     
      Commonly recognized (86–99%): B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te
      Irregularly recognized (40–49%): Po, At
      Less commonly recognized (24%): Se
      Rarely recognized (8–10%): C, Al
      (All other elements cited in less than 6% of sources)
      Arbitrary metal-nonmetal dividing line: between Be and B, Al and Si, Ge and As, Sb and Te, Po and At

    Recognition status, as metalloids, of some elements in the p-block of the periodic table. Percentages are median appearance frequencies in the lists of metalloids.[n 2] The staircase-shaped line is a typical example of the arbitrary metal–nonmetal dividing line found on some periodic tables.

    Element Citations Frequency
      inn = 194
    publications     		194 = 100%
     
    Arsenic As 191.5 99%
    Tellurium Te 190.5 98%
    Germanium Ge 184.5 95%
    Silicon Si 183.5 95%
    Antimony Sb 169.5 87%
    Boron B 166 86%
    Polonium Po 94.5 49%
    Astatine At 77 40%
    Selenium Se 46 24%
    Aluminium Al 18 9.3%
    Carbon C 16.5 8.5%
    Bismuth Bi 11.5 5.9%
    Phosphorus P 10 5.2%
    Beryllium Be 7.5 3.9%
    Tin Sn 5.5 2.8%
    Sulfur S 3 1.5%
    Livermorium Lv 3 1.5%
    Iodine I 2.5 1.3%
    Flerovium Fl 1 0.5%
    Gallium Ga 1 0.5%
    Hydrogen H 1 0.5%
    Lead Pb 1 0.5%
    Moscovium Mc 1 0.5%
    Tennessine Ts 1 0.5%

    Chronological list[edit]

    This table shows which elements are included in each of 194 different lists of metalloids. A parenthesized symbol indicates an element whose inclusion in a particular metalloid list is qualified in some way by the author(s). The 'citations' rows show how many and what percentage of the authorities consider each element to be a metalloid, with qualified citations counted as one-half.

    Citations as metalloid by element
    Element Arsenic Tellu­rium Germa­nium Silicon Anti­mony Boron Polo­nium Asta­tine Sele­nium Alu­minium Carbon Bis­muth Phos­phorus Beryl­lium Tin Sulfur Liver­morium Iodine Other Count
    As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Se Al C Bi P Be Sn S Lv I avg
    Citations
    (with qualification)*     		191.5
    (1)     		190.5
    (1)     		184.5
    (3)     		183.5
    (1)     		169.5
    (3)     		166
    (2)     		94.5
    (5)     		77
    (6)     		46
    (4)     		18
    (2)     		16.5
    (3)     		11.5
    (1)     		10
    (2)     		7.5
    (1)     		5.5
    (1)     		3
    (0)     		3
    (0)     		2.5
    (1)     		6
    (0)''     		7.15
     
    (% out of 194) 99% 98% 95% 95% 87% 86% 49% 40% 24% 9.3% 8.5% 5.9% 5.2% 3.9% 2.8% 1.5% 1.5% 1.3% 3.1%
    Source Yr
    Simmons[1] 1947 As Te Sb Se   4
    Pauling[2] 1949 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Szabó & Lakatos[3] 1954 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al Be   10
    Dull, Metcalfe & Williams[4] 1958 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al   9
    Frey[5] 1958 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Johnstone & Miller[6] 1960 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se C P   9
    Edwards et al.[7] 1961 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se I   8
    Bond[8] 1962 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Swift & Schaefer[9] 1962 As Ge Si Sb B Bi   6
    Hoffman[10] 1963 As Te Ge Si Sb B Be   7
    Nathans[11] 1963 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Bailar, Moeller & Kleinberg[12] 1965 As Te Ge Se   4
    Selwood[13] 1965 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al Bi Sn Ga 12
    Bassett et al.[14] 1966 Te Ge Si Sb B Po Al Be   8
    Hultgren[15] 1966 As Te Ge Si Sb Se C   7
    Metcalfe, Williams & Castka[16] 1966 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po (Al)   7.5
    Rochow[17] 1966 As Te Ge Si Sb B (Po) (At) (Se) (C) (Bi) (P)   9
    Mahan[18] 1967 As Te Ge Si B   5
    Paul, King & Farinholt[19] 1967 As Te Ge Si Sb Se   6
    Siebring[20] 1967 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po Al   8
    Cotton & Lynch[21] 1968 As Te Ge Si Sb B At Se C   9
    Dunstan[22] 1968 As Te (Ge) Sb Po Al Bi Be Sn Pb 7.5
    Tyrell & Warren[23] 1968 As Te (Ge) Si (Sb) B (Po) At (Se) (Al) (C) (P) (I)   9.5
    Williams, Embree & DeBey[24] 1968 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po Al   8
    Chedd[25] 1969 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Hägg[26] 1969 As Te Ge Sb At Sn   6
    Holum[27] 1969 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al   9
    Hunter[28] 1969 As Te Si Sb Se   5
    Moody[29] 1969 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al Be   10
    Dickerson, Gray & Haight[30] 1970 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Hardwick & Knobler[31] 1970 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Williams, Embree & DeBay[32] 1970 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po Al Be   9
    Dickson[33] 1971 As Te Ge Si Sb Po   6
    Emsley[34] 1971 As Te Ge Sb   4
    Nitz & Dhonau[35] 1971 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Pimentel & Spratley[36] 1971 As Te Ge Si Sb B (Po) (At) Se C   9
    Barrow[37] 1972 As Te Ge Si B   5
    Choppin & Johnsen[38] 1972 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Horvath[39] 1973 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Pascoe[40] 1973 Te Ge Si B At Se C P   8
    Seager & Stoker[41] 1973 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al Be   10
    Allen & Keefer[42] 1974 As Te Ge Si Sb B At Se   8
    Andrews[43] 1974 As Te Si B At   5
    Day & Johnson[44] 1974 As Te Ge Si Sb Po At   7
    Dickson[45] 1974 As Te Ge Si Sb Po At   7
    Duffy[46] 1974 As Te Ge Sb Se   5
    Fuller[47] 1974 As Te Ge Si B Se C   7
    Nordmann[48] 1974 As Te Ge Si B Po At Se   8
    O'Connor[49] 1974 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Rock & Gerhold[50] 1974 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Pauling & Pauling[51] 1975 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Hearst & Ifft[52] 1976 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Tyler Miller[53] 1976 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al H 10
    Waser, Trueblood & Knobler[54] 1976 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Bloomfield[55] 1977 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al   9
    Ucko[56] 1977 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al   9
    Hill & Holman[57] 1978 As Te Ge Si B (C)   5.5
    Coxon, Fergusson & Phillips[58] 1980 As Te Ge Si (Sb) B At (Be)   7
    Warrena & Geballe[59] 1981 As Te Si B At Se C P S   9
    Walters[60] 1982 As Te Ge Si B   5
    Edwards & Sienko[61] 1983 As Te Ge Sb Po (At)   5.5
    Holtzclaw, Robinson & Nebergall[62] 1984 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Boikess & Edelson[63] 1985 As Te Ge Si B   5
    Peters[64] 1986 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Hibbert & James[65] 1987 As Te Ge Si Sb Po Bi   7
    Jones et al.[66] 1987 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    McQuarrie & Rock[67] 1987 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Wulfsberg[68] 1987 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Thayer[69] 1988 As Te Ge Si B P   6
    Whitten, Gailey & Davis[70] 1988 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al   9
    Bailar et al.[71] 1989 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Gill[72] 1989 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Malone[73] 1989 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Petrucci[74] 1989 As Te Ge Si Sb Po At   7
    Puddephatt & Monaghan[75] 1989 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Scott[76] 1989 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Segal[77] 1989 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Oxtoby, Nachtrieb & Freeman[78] 1990 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Atkins & Beran[79] 1990 As Te Ge Si Sb Po   6
    Ebbing & Wrighton[80] 1993 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Zumdahl[81] 1993 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Birk[82] 1994 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Smith[83] 1994 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    AAE[84] 1996 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Brady & Holum[85] 1996 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Harrison & de Mora[86] 1996 As Te Ge Si B   5
    Hook & Post[87] 1996 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Atkins & Jones[88] 1997 As Te Ge Si Sb Po   6
    Dayah[89] 1997 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Mingos[90] 1998 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Joesten & Wood[91] 1999 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Kremer[92] 1999 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Thompson[93] 1999 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Umland & Bellama[94] 1999 As Te Ge Si B At Se   7
    Callister[95] 2000 As Te Ge Si B Se C   7
    Enloe[96] 2000 As Te Si B At   5
    Mann, Meek & Allen[97] 2000 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po Bi   8
    Phillips, Stozak & Wistrom[98] 2000 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Ryan[99] 2000 As Te Ge Si B   5
    Hawkes[100] 2001 As Te Ge Sb Se Bi   6
    Lewis & Evans[101] 2001 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Masterton & Hurley[102] 2001 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Barrett[103] 2002 (As) (Te) (Ge) (Si) (Sb) (B) (Se)   3.5
    Chang[104] 2002 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Lv Ts 10
    Harding, Johnson & Janes[105] 2002 As Te Ge Si Sb   5
    Johnson[106] 2002 As Te Ge Si Sb At   6
    Rodgers[107] 2002 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Szefer[108] 2002 As Te Ge Si Sb Se   6
    Woodgate[109] 2002 As Te Ge Sb Al   5
    Wright & Welbourn[110] 2002 As Te Ge Si B   5
    e-encyclopedia[111] 2003 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Gupta[112] 2003 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Hunt[113] 2003 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Myers[114] 2003 As Te Ge Si Sb B At Se   8
    Williams[115] 2003 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Atkins[116] 2004 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Cox[117] 2004 As Te Ge Si Sb Se   6
    Gilbert, Kirss & Davies[118] 2004 As Te Ge Si Sb B At Se   8
    Reilly[119] 2004 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Se   9
    Ebbing & Gammon[120] 2005 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Fry & Page[121] 2005 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Halliday, Resnick & Walker[122] 2005 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Holler & Selegue[123] 2005 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po (At)   7.5
    Kotz, Treichel & Weaver[124] 2005 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Meyer[125] 2005 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Orchin[126] 2005 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Swenson[127] 2005 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Se C Bi   11
    Baird[128] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Blei & Odian[129] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb Po At Lv   8
    Brown & Holme[130] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Dashek & Harrison[131] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Finch et al.[132] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Goldfrank & Flomenbaum[133] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Hatt[134] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Hérold[135] 2006 As Ge Si B Po (At) Se C Bi P   9.5
    McMonagle[136] 2006 As Te Ge Si B Lv Fl
    Mc    		 8
    Rayner-Canham & Overton[137] 2006 As Te Ge Si B   5
    Silberberg[138] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Slade[139] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Wertheim, Oxlade & Stockley[140] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B At Se   8
    Whitley[141] 2006 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    American Chemical Society[142] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Astruc[143] 2007 As Si B Se P S   6
    Casper[144] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Crystal[145] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    DeGraff[146] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Joesten, Hogg & Castellion[147] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Lewis[148] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po Se C P S   11
    Petty[149] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Se C Bi P Sn   13
    Rösler, Harders & Bäker[150] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B (Sn)   6.5
    Saunders[151] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Saunders[152] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Shipman, Wilson & Tood[153] 2007 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Bauer, Birk & Sawyer[154] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Clugston & Flemming[155] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb Se   6
    Encyclopedia Columbia[156] 2008 As Te Sb Se   4
    Ham[157] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Kelter, Mosher & Scott[158] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Masterton & Hurley[159] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Merck[160] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Nicolaou & Montagnon[161] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At C   9
    Řezanka & Sigler[162] 2008 As Te Si B At Se   6
    Tro & Neu[163] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Vallero[164] 2008 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Brown et al.[165] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Burrows et al.[166] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Castor-Perry[167] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At I   9
    Cracolice & Peters[168] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Economou[169] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Al   9
    Habashi[170] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po Se Bi   9
    Hein & Arena[171] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Leach[172] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Manning[173] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    McMurray & Fay[174] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Reger, Goode & Ball[175] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Schnepp[176] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Shubert & Leyba[177] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Whitten et al.[178] 2009 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    Aldinger & Weberruss[179] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Banks et al.[180] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B   6
    Fayer[181] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    Gray[182] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Groysman[183] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb Po   6
    Halka & Nordstrom[184] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Lombi E & Holm PE[185] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At   8
    NEST Association[186] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    RCCS[187] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po At Se C Bi P Sn   13
    Senese[188] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb (B) Po At (Se) C   9
    Weiner[189] 2010 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Barbalace[190] 2011 As Te Ge Si Sb B Po   7
    Encyclopædia Britannica Online[191] 2011 As Te Ge Si Sb B (Po) (At)   7
    Helmenstine[192] 2011 As Te Ge Si Sb B (Po)   6.5
    Moore[193] 2011 As Te Ge Si Sb B At   7
    QA International[194] 2011 As Te Ge Si Sb B Se   7
    Element Arsenic Tellu­rium Germa­nium Silicon Anti­mony Boron Polo­nium Asta­tine Sele­nium Alu­minium Carbon Bis­muth Phos­phorus Beryl­lium Tin Sulfur Liver­morium Iodine Other

    There is an average of 7.15 elements per metalloid list.

    Appearance frequency clusters[edit]

    Clusters of elements and their appearance in the sources

    Elements cited in the listed sources (as of August 2011; n = 194) have appearance frequencies that occur in clusters of comparable values. The diamonds in the graph mark the mean appearance frequency of each cluster.

    The resulting geometric trend line has the formula y = 199.47e−0.7423x and an R2 value of 0.9962.[n 3]

    Elements regarded as metalloids[edit]

    The elements commonly classified as metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium.[n 4] The status of polonium and astatine is not settled. Most authors recognise one or the other, or both, as metalloids; Herman, Hoffmann and Ashcroft, on the basis of relativistic modelling, predict astatine will be a monatomic metal.[n 5] One or more of carbon, aluminium, phosphorus, selenium, tin or bismuth, these being periodic table neighbours of the elements commonly classified as metalloids, are sometimes recognised as metalloids.[n 6] Selenium, in particular, is commonly designated as a metalloid in environmental chemistry[n 7] on account of similarities in its aquatic chemistry with that of arsenic and antimony.[n 8] There are fewer references to beryllium, in spite of its periodic table position adjoining the dividing line between metals and nonmetals. Isolated references in the literature can also be found to the categorisation of other elements as metalloids. These elements include: hydrogen, nitrogen,[n 9] sulfur,[n 10] zinc,[n 11] gallium,[n 12] iodine,[n 13] lead,[n 14] and radon[n 15] (citations are for references other than those listed above).

    Notes[edit]

    1. ^ Lack of a rigorous definition:
      • Goldsmith RH 1982, 'Metalloids', Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 526–527, doi:10.1021/ed059p526
  • Hawkes SJ 2001, 'Semimetallicity', Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 78, no. 12, pp. 1686–87, doi:10.1021/ed078p1686
  • ^ For a related commentary see also: Vernon RE 2013, 'Which Elements Are Metalloids?', Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 90, no. 12, pp. 1703–1707, doi:10.1021/ed3008457
  • ^ The R2 value is a measure of how close a formula fits a set of data points. Values fall between 0.0 and 1.0, with those near 1.0 indicating a good fit.
  • ^ Elements commonly classified as metalloids:
    • Goldsmith RH 1982, 'Metalloids', Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 526–7 (526), doi:10.1021/ed059p526
    • Mann JB, Meek TL & Allen LC 2000, 'Configuration energies of the main group elements', Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 122, no. 12, pp. 2780–3 (2783), doi:10.1021ja992866e: Mann et al. refer to these elements as 'the recognized metalloids'.
    • Kotz JC, Treichel P & Weaver GC 2009, Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, 7th ed., Brooks/Cole, Belmont, California, ISBN 1439041318
  • ^ Polonium and astatine:
  • ^ Carbon, aluminium, phosphorus, selenium, tin, bismuth:
    • Rochow EG 1966, The metalloids, DC Heath and Company, Boston, pp. 7–8
    • Cobb HM 2012, Dictionary of Metals, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, p. 145, ISBN 9781615039784
    • Walker CH 2012, Organic Pollutants: An Ecotoxicological Perspective, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, p. 163, ISBN 9781420062588
    • Whiten K, Davis R, Peck L & Stanley G 2014, Chemistry, 10th ed., Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA, p. 134, ISBN 9781133610663
  • ^ Selenium as a metalloid in environmental chemistry:
    • Meyer JS, Adams WJ, Brix KV, Luoma SM, Mount DR, Stubblefield WA & Wood CM (eds) 2005, Toxicity of dietborne metals to aquatic organisms, Proceedings from the Pellston Workshop on Toxicity of Dietborne Metals to Aquatic Organisms, 27 July – 1 August 2002, Fairmont Hot Springs, British Columbia, Canada, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Pensacola, Florida, p. 284, ISBN 1880611708
    • Weiner ER 2013, Applications of Environmental Aquatic Chemistry: A Practical Guide, 3rd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, p. 181, ISBN 9781439853320
  • ^ Similarities in the aquatic chemistry of selenium, arsenic, and antimony:
    • US Environmental Protection Agency 1988, Ambient aquatic life water quality criteria for antimony (III), draft, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Research Laboratories, Washington, p. 1
    • De Zuane J 1997, Handbook of drinking water quality, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 93, ISBN 047128789X
    • Uden PC 2005, 'Speciation of selenium,' in R Cornelis, J Caruso, H Crews & K Heumann (eds), Handbook of elemental speciation II: Species in the environment, food, medicine and occupational health, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp. 346–65 (347–8), ISBN 0470855983
    • Dev N 2008, 'Modelling selenium fate and transport in Great Salt Lake Wetlands' PhD dissertation, University of Utah, ProQuest, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 2–3, ISBN 054986542X
  • ^ Nitrogen: Rausch MD 1960, 'Cyclopentadienyl compounds of metals and metalloids', Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 568–78, doi:10.1021/ed037p568
  • ^ Sulfur:
    • Chalmers B 1959, Physical metallurgy, John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 72
    • US Bureau of Naval Personnel 1965, Shipfitter 3 & 2, US Government Printing Office, Washington, p. 26
  • ^ Zinc: Siebring BR 1967, Chemistry, MacMillan, New York, p. 613
  • ^ Gallium: Wiberg N 2001, Inorganic chemistry, Academic Press, San Diego, p. 282, ISBN 0123526515
  • ^ Iodine:
    • Friend JN 1953, Man and the chemical elements, 1st ed., Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, p. 68
    • Rausch MD 1960, 'Cyclopentadienyl compounds of metals and metalloids', Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 568–78, doi:10.1021/ed037p568
  • ^ Lead: Murray JF 1928, 'Cable-sheath corrosion', Electrical World, vol. 92, Dec 29, pp. 1295–7 (1295)
  • ^ Radon:
    • Hampel CA & Hawley GG 1966, The encyclopedia of chemistry, 3rd ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,p. 950
    • Stein L 1985, 'New evidence that radon is a metalloid element: ion-exchange reactions of cationic radon', Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, vol. 22, pp. 1631–2, doi:10.1039/C39850001631
    • Stein L 1987, 'Chemical properties of radon' in PK Hopke (ed.) 1987, Radon and its decay products: Occurrence, properties, and health effects, American Chemical Society, Washington DC, pp. 240–51 (240, 247–8), ISBN 0841210152

    • References[edit]

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