| Mangfu | |||||||
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A form of mangfu in the Ming dynasty
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A court robe with mang (python) pattern in the Qing dynasty, c. 1890s
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| Chinese name | |||||||
| Chinese | 蟒服 | ||||||
| Literal meaning | Python clothing/ Python robe | ||||||
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| Mangpao | |||||||
| Chinese | 蟒袍 | ||||||
| Literal meaning | Python robe | ||||||
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| Huayi | |||||||
| Chinese | 花衣 | ||||||
| Literal meaning | Flower clothing | ||||||
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| English name | |||||||
| English | Python robe/ Dragon robe | ||||||
Mangfu (Chinese: 蟒服; pinyin: mǎngfú; lit. 'python clothing/python garment'), also known as mangpao (Chinese: 蟒袍; pinyin: mǎngpáo; lit. 'python robe'), huayi (Chinese: 花衣; pinyin: Huāyī; lit. 'flower clothing'), and python robe, sometimes referred as dragon robe although they are different garments, in English, is a type of paofu, a robe, in hanfu. The mangfu falls under the broad category of mangyi (Chinese: 蟒衣; pinyin: mǎngyī; lit. 'python clothes'), where the mangfu is considered as being the classic form of mangyi.[1] The mangfu was characterized by the use of a python embroidery called mang (Chinese: 蟒; pinyin: mǎng; lit. 'python') although the python embroidery is not a python snake as defined in the English dictionary but a four-clawed Chinese dragon-like creature.[2] The mangfu was derived from the longpao (simplified Chinese: 龙袍; traditional Chinese: 龍袍; pinyin: lóngpáo; lit. 'dragon robe') in order to differentiate monarchs and subjects; i.e. only the Emperor is allowed to wear the long, five-clawed dragon, while his subjects wears mang.[3][4]: 18, 20 The mangfu was worn in the Ming and Qing dynasties.[2][5] They had special status among the Chinese court clothing as they were only second to the longpao.[1][6]: 204 Moreover, their use were restricted, and they were part of a special category of clothing known as cifu (simplified Chinese: 赐服; traditional Chinese: 賜服; pinyin: cìfú; lit. 'bestowed clothing'), which could only be awarded by the Chinese Emperor (or by the Empress Dowager on the behalf of the Emperor) in the Ming and Qing dynasties, becoming "a sign of imperial favour".[1][4]: 18, 20 People who were bestowed with mangfu could not exchange it with or gifted it to other people.[1] They were worn by members of the imperial family below of crown prince, by military and civil officials, and by Official wives.[2][4]: 18, 20 As an official clothing, the mangfu were worn by officials during celebration occasions and ceremonial events.[2][4]: 18, 20 They could also be bestowed by the Emperor to people who performed extraordinary services to the empire as rewards, to the members of the Grand Secretariat and to prominent Daoist patriarchs, imperial physicians, tributary countries and local chiefs whose loyalty were considered crucial to secure the borders.[1] The mangfu is also used as a form of xifu, theatrical costume, in Chinese opera, where it is typically found in the form of a round-necked robe, known as yuanlingpao.[7]: 300 In Beijing opera, the mangfu used as xifu is known as Mang.[8]
In ancient China, there is a clear difference between monarchs and subjects; therefore, the Emperor wears the long, Chinese dragon patterns, on their clothing called longpao (龙袍; 龍袍; lóngpáo; 'dragon robe') while the officials, being the subjects of the Emperor, wear the mang (蟒; mǎng; 'python').[2] The mang embroidery is actually an imaginary creature in the form of a four-clawed Chinese dragon,[2] which was derived from the design of the long, the imperial 5-clawed Chinese dragon pattern.[1][6]: 204
In the Ming dynasty, Bian Yong, the Chief Censor of the Emperor Hongzhi, described the mang as having "no horns and legs"; however, during his time:[9]
the mang robe worn by internal officials (eunuchs) is very similar to the image of the dragon", therefore not fitting the regulations
Shen Defu also described the mang as being similar to the long in appearance with the number of their claws as the main difference:[9]
The mang robe is a garment with an image close to a dragon, similar to the dragon robe of the top authority (the emperor), except for the deduction of one claw.
After the Ming dynasty, it was expressed that a long (lit. 'Chinese dragon') would be demoted to a mang (lit. 'python') if it lost one of its claw.[2]
Shen Defu also explained that the most valued form of mang pattern was the zuomang (Chinese: 坐蟒; lit. 'seated python') which a frontal view mang on the back and front region of the robe; there were other form of mang pattern such as the danmang (Chinese: 單蟒), which faces on the right side.[1]
In the Ming dynasty, the mangfu was a form of cifu along with feiyufu and douniufu;[1] therefore, the right to bestow mangfu was only reserved to the Emperor who would bestow the robes to those he favoured.[5] According to the Ming Shi《明史》, the mangfu was prescribed for certain officials on specific occasions.[1]
When Emperor Yongle became emperor, he relaxed the clothing regulations for the eunuchs; therefore, the eunuchs around the emperor wore Yesa-style robes which were decorated with mang patterns and were tied with a luandai (lit. 'Luan belt'), and even the eunuchs who were of high ranks were often found wearing mangfu. However, the wearing of mangfu by the eunuchs were improper.[9]
According to Shen Defu, during the early reign of Zhengtong, the mangpao was bestowed to foreign rulers.[9] In 1447, there was an imperial edict by Emperor Zhengtong which prohibited the production of mang patterns along with feiyu and douniu patterns by unauthorized people; it was therefore a capital offence for artisans:[5]
There are clothing regulations for both officials and commoners. Now some people have custom-made robes embroidered with the prohibited patterns of four-clawed dragon [i.e. mang], five-clawed dragon [i.e. long], flying fish [i.e. feiyu], and “Big Dipper bull” [i.e. douniu]. Put the artisans to death and send their families to frontier garrisons as soldiers. People who wear them are to be punished without pardon
— Shen Dufu, Wanli yehuo bian [Unofficial Gleanings of the Wanli Era], translated version from the 2019 article "Wearing The Hat Of Loyalty: Imperial Power And Dress Reform In Ming Dynasty China" by Chen Buyun, p. 422
According to the Wanli yehuo bian《萬厲野獲編 – lit. 'Miscellaneous notes of Wanli'》by Shen Defu, during this period, eunuchs were parading in the streets of the capital wearing mangfu and douniufu while women (especially wives of the elite class) were wearing embroidered robes with designs, such as the qilin, feiyu and zuomang (坐蟒; 'seated python') in front of the senior officials.[5][9] According to Shen Dufu, the sumptuary laws were being trespassed and the fault was that of the Emperor who was failing at regulating the possession robes adorned with imperial insignia.[5][9]
During the 16th year of Emperor Hongzhi (1504), the customs of bestowing mangfu to the Grand Secretariat began.[1]
The Jiajing emperor also bestowed mangfu to prominent Daoist patriarchs several times during his reign.[1] According to the Ming shi, in 1530, it was decreed that the Head of the jinyiwei had to wear a red-coloured mangfuorfeiyufu with a wushamao (lit. 'black gauze hat') and a phoenix belt on sacrificial and ceremonial occasions.[1]
In 1538, still under the rule of Emperor Jiajing, gradations of cifu also stipulated that only ministers from the first to third rank were allowed to wear mangyi, which consisted of the mangfu, the feiyu mangyi, and the douniu mangyi.[1] The mang patterns on the clothing insignia were also gradated based on a particular rank; according to Shen Defu, the most valued form of mang pattern was the zuomang; other form of mang pattern which existed in his period also included the danmang (單蟒).[1]
In 1578, Great Empress Dowager Li bestowed mangfutoZhang Juzhen on behalf of the Emperor.[1]
During the reign under Emperor Wanli, many mangfu were bestowed.[2] According to Xie Zhaozhe in the Wu Zazu《五雜俎 – lit. 'Five assorted offerings'》, more than 10,000 eunuchs were wearing mangfu and jade belts in the Forbidden City.[9] However, the mangfu did not become a common form of clothing.[2]
The mangfu continued to be worn in the Qing dynasty as part of the Qing dynasty official uniform (either as part of the jifu or as part of the chaofu) and continued to be worn by only those who were awarded by the Emperor.[1][4]: 18, 20
The structure of the Manchu mangfu worn in the Qing dynasty differed from those worn in the Ming dynasty as the mangfu worn in the Qing dynasty was modified based on the early male clothing of the Manchu, thus retaining the original features while making new changes to the robes; for example, the Manchu mangfu had horse hoof-shaped cuff.[10]
There is also strict regulations on the robes' colour and the numbers of mang that were allowed to decorate the mangfu:[2][4]: 18
| Rank | Number of mang | Stipulated colour | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Crown prince | 9 | Apricot yellow | |
| Princes | Golden | ||
| Civil and military officials | 1st rank | Blue and azurite | |
| 2nd rank | |||
| 3rd rank | |||
| 4th rank | 8 | ||
| 5th rank | |||
| 6th rank | |||
| 7th rank | 5 | ||
| 8th rank | |||
| 9th rank | |||
The xifu, Chinese opera costumes, were made based on the clothing style of the Ming dynasty while also absorbing clothing features of the Song, Yuan, and Qing dynasties.[3] On stage, the theatrical mangfu is typically in the appearance of a yuanlingpao.[11]: 300
InChinese opera, the theatrical mangfu is the highest of formal, ceremonial robe worn by performers in the roles of emperors, princes, officials (ministers for specific occasions, such as court audience), and generals.[7][11]: 300
The theatrical mangfu has a male and female version; the mangfu patterns on the robes vary and can be found in: mang medallions, front-viewed mang and flying dragon.[7]
When decorated with flying dragon patterns, the robe is typically also decorated with patterns of waves and mountain peaks.[7] There is also strict regulations on the colours used in the theatrical mangfu; the colours are divided into "upper five colours" and "lower five colours", minghuang (bright yellow) colour is exclusively reserved for imperial usage.[7] Other colours included: red.
InBeijing opera, the mangfu xifu is known as Mang.[8] The Mang is used to represent the emperor have a dragon with an open mouth, while the dragon used on the Mang of the ministers and generals have their mouth closed.[8] The dragons looked bold and mighty when used on the Mang of martial officials but gentle and quiet when used in the Mang of civil officials.[8] There is also other kind of Mang which are specially made for female actresses, laodan, and palace eunuchs.[8]
The colours used in the Mang also have clear symbolism: red means majestic and noble; green means mighty and bold; white represents handsome young people; black is used to represent people who are upright and unconstrained.[8]
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