Kangchenjunga, also spelled Kanchenjunga, Kanchanjanghā and Khangchendzonga, is the third-highest mountain in the world. Its summit lies at 8,586 m (28,169 ft) in a section of the Himalayas, the Kangchenjunga Himal, which is bounded in the west by the Tamur River, in the north by the Lhonak River and Jongsang La, and in the east by the Teesta River. It lies in the border region between Koshi ProvinceofNepal and Sikkim state of India, with three of the five peaks, namely Main, Central and South, directly on the border, and the peaks West and Kangbachen in Nepal's Taplejung District.
Until 1852, Kangchenjunga was assumed to be the highest mountain in the world, but calculations and measurements by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in 1849 showed that Mount Everest, known as Peak XV at the time, is actually higher. After allowing for further verification of all calculations, it was officially announced in 1856 that Kangchenjunga is the third-highest mountain of the world.
Kangchenjunga is the official spelling adopted by Douglas Freshfield, Alexander Mitchell Kellas and the Royal Geographical Society that gives the best indication of the Tibetan pronunciation. Freshfield referred to the spelling used by the Indian Government since the late 19th century.[5] Alternative spellings include Kanchenjunga, Khangchendzonga and Kangchendzönga.[6][7][8]
The brothers Hermann, Adolf and Robert Schlagintweit explained the local name 'Kanchinjínga' meaning "The five treasures of the high snow" as originating from the Tibetan word "gangs" pronounced[kaŋ] meaning snow, ice; "chen" pronounced[tɕen] meaning great; "mdzod" meaning treasure; "lnga" meaning five.[9]
Local Lhopo people believe that the treasures are hidden but reveal themselves to the devout when the world is in peril; the treasures comprise salt, gold, turquoise and precious stones, sacred scriptures, invincible armor or ammunition, grain and medicine.[10]
Panorama of the Kangchenjunga massif from Tiger Hill, Darjeeling
The Kangchenjunga Himal section of the Himalayas lies both in Nepal and India and encompasses 16 peaks over 7,000 m (23,000 ft). In the north, it is limited by the Lhonak Chu, Goma Chu and Jongsang La, and in the east by the Teesta River. The western limit runs from the Jongsang La down the Gingsang and Kangchenjunga glaciers and the rivers of Ghunsa and Tamur.[5][1] It lies in the border region between Koshi ProvinceofNepal and Sikkim state of India, with the peaks West and Kangbachen in Nepal's Taplejung District,[11] and three of the five peaks, namely Main, Central and South, directly on the border.[12]
Kanchenjunga rises about 20 km (12 mi) south of the general alignment of the Great Himalayan range about 125 km (78 mi) east-southeast of Mount Everest as the crow flies. South of the southern face of Kanchenjunga runs the 3,000–3,500 m (9,800–11,500 ft) high Singalila Ridge that separates Sikkim from Nepal and northern West Bengal.[13]
Until 1852, Kangchenjunga was assumed to be the highest mountain in the world, but calculations and measurements by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in 1849 showed that Mount Everest, known as Peak XV at the time, is actually higher. After allowing for further verification of all calculations, it was officially announced in 1856 that Kangchenjunga was the third-highest mountain[14] after Everest and K2 of Karakoram.[15]
Kangchenjunga and its satellite peaks form a huge mountain massif.[16] The massif's five highest peaks are listed in the following table.
Kangchenjunga map by Garwood, 1903[5]Southwest (Yalung) face of Kangchenjunga seen from Nepal
The main ridge of the massif runs from north-northeast to south-southwest and forms a watershed to several rivers.[16] Together with ridges running roughly from east to west they form a giant cross.[5] These ridges contain a host of peaks between 6,000 and 8,586 m (19,685 and 28,169 ft). The northern section includes Yalung Kang, Kangchenjunga Central and South, Kangbachen, Kirat Chuli and Gimmigela Chuli, and runs up to the Jongsang La. The eastern ridge in Sikkim includes Siniolchu. The southern section runs along the Nepal–Sikkim border and includes Kabru I to III.[1] This ridge extends southwards to the Singalila Ridge.[21] The western ridge culminates in the Kumbhakarna, also known as Jannu.[1]
Four main glaciers radiate from the peak, pointing roughly to the northeast, southeast, northwest and southwest. The Zemu glacier in the northeast and the Talung glacier in the southeast drain to the Teesta River; the Yalung glacier in the southwest and the Kangchen glacier in the northwest drain to the Arun and Kosi rivers.[22]
The glaciers spread over the area above approximately 5,000 m (16,000 ft), and the glacialized area covers about 314 km2 (121 sq mi) in total.[23] There are 120 glaciers in the Kanchenjunga Himal, of which 17 are debris-covered. Between 1958 and 1992, more than half of 57 examined glaciers had retreated, possibly due to rising of air temperature.[24]
Kangchenjunga Main is the highest elevation of the Brahmaputra River basin, which forms part of the southeast Asian monsoon regime and is among the globally largest river basins.[25]
Kangchenjunga is one of six peaks above 8,000 m (26,000 ft) located in the basin of the Kosi River, which is among the largest tributaries of the Ganges.[26]
The Kangchenjunga massif forms also part of the Ganges Basin.[27]
Although it is the third highest peak in the world, Kangchenjunga is only ranked 29thbytopographic prominence, a measure of a mountain's independent stature. The key col for Kangchenjunga lies at a height of 4,664 metres (15,302 ft), along the watershed boundary between Arun and Brahmaputra rivers in Tibet.[28] It is, however, the fourth-most-prominent peak in the Himalayas, after Everest, and the western and eastern anchors of the Himalaya, Nanga Parbat and Namcha Barwa, respectively.[29]
There are four climbing routes to reach the summit of Kangchenjunga, three of which are in Nepal from the southwest, northwest, and northeast, and one from northeastern Sikkim in India. To date, the northeastern route from Sikkim has been successfully used only three times. The Indian government has banned expeditions to Kanchenjunga; therefore, this route has been closed since 2000.[32]
Painting of Kanchinjínga as seen from the Singalila RidgebyHermann Schlagintweit, 1855[33]Sunset on Kangchenjunga, 1905[34]South face of Kangchenjunga seen from Goecha La, Sikkim at 4,940 m (16,210 ft)Kangchenjunga seen from Darjeeling War MemorialKangchenjunga and surrounding peaks at sunset from ISS, December 2019
Between April 1848 and February 1849, Joseph Dalton Hooker explored parts of northern Sikkim and eastern Nepal, mainly to collect plants and study the distribution of Himalayan flora. He was based in Darjeeling, and made repeated excursions in the river valleys and into the foothills of Kangchenjunga up to an altitude of 15,620 ft (4,760 m).[35]
In 1879, Sarat Chandra Das and Lama Ugyen-gyatso crossed into Tibet west of "Kanchanjinga" via eastern Nepal and the Tashilhunpo Monastery en route to Lhasa. They returned along the same route in 1881.[36]
In 1883, a party of William Woodman Graham together with two Swiss mountaineers climbed in the area of Kangchenjunga. They were the first who ascended Kabru within 30–40 ft (9.1–12.2 m) below the summit. They crossed the Kang La pass and climbed a peak of nearly 19,000 ft (5,800 m) from which they examined Jannu. They concluded it was too late in the year for an attempt and returned once again to Darjeeling.[37]
Between October 1885 and January 1886, Rinzin Namgyal surveyed the unexplored north and west sides of Kangchenjunga. He was the first native surveyor to map the circuit of Kangchenjunga and provided sketches of each side of the peak and the adjoining valleys. He also defined the frontiers of Nepal, Tibet and Sikkim in this area.[38]
In 1899, British mountaineer Douglas Freshfield set out with his party comprising the Italian photographer Vittorio Sella. They were the first mountaineers to examine the lower and upper ramparts, and the great western face of Kangchenjunga, rising from the Kangchenjunga Glacier.[5]
In 1905, a party headed by Aleister Crowley made the first attempt at climbing the mountain. Aleister Crowley had been part of the team attempting the 1902 ascent of K2. The team reached an estimated altitude of 6,500 m (21,300 ft) on the southwest side of the mountain before turning back. The exact height reached is somewhat unclear; Crowley stated that on 31 August, "We were certainly over 21,000 ft (6,400 m) and possibly over 22,000 ft (6,700 m)", when the team was forced to retreat to Camp 5 by the risk of avalanche. On 1 September, they evidently went further; some members of the team, Reymond, Pache and Salama, "got over the bad patch" that had forced them to return to Camp 5 the day before, and progressed "out of sight and hearing" before returning to Crowley and the men with packs, who could not cross the dangerous section unassisted with their burdens. It is not clear how far Reymond, Pache and Salama had ascended—but in summarizing, Crowley ventured "We had reached a height of approximately 25,000 ft (7,600 m)." Attempting a "mutinous" late-in-the-day descent from Camp 5 to Camp 3, climber Alexis Pache (who earlier that day had been one of three to ascend possibly higher than any before), and three local porters, were killed in an avalanche.[39] Despite the insistence of one of the men that "the demon of Kangchenjunga was propitiated with the sacrifice", Crowley decided the accident and its ramifications made it impossible to continue the expedition.[34]
In 1907, two Norwegians set about climbing Jongri via the Kabru glacier to the south, an approach apparently rejected by Graham's party. Progress was very slow, partly because of problems with supplies and porters, and presumably also lack of fitness and acclimatisation. However, from a high camp at about 22,600 ft (6,900 m) they were eventually able to reach a point 50 or 60 ft (15 or 18 m) below the summit before they were turned back by strong winds.[37]
In 1929, German Paul Bauer led an expedition team that reached 7,400 m (24,300 ft) on the northeast spur before being turned back by a five-day storm.[40]
In May 1929, the American E. F. Farmer left Darjeeling with native porters, crossed the Kang La into Nepal and climbed up towards the Talung Saddle. When his porters refused to go any further, he climbed alone further upwards through drifting mists but did not return.[16]
In 1930, Günter Dyhrenfurth led an international expedition comprising the German Uli Wieland, Austrian Erwin Schneider and EnglishmanFrank Smythe who attempted to climb Kangchenjunga. They failed because of poor weather and snow conditions.[16]
In 1931, Paul Bauer led a second German expedition team who attempted the northeast spur before being turned back by bad weather, illnesses and deaths. The team, including Peter Aufschnaiter, retreated after climbing 300 m higher than the 1929 attempt.[40]
In 1954, John Kempe led a party comprising J. W. Tucker, S. R. Jackson, G. C. Lewis, T. H. Braham and medical officer D. S. Mathews. They explored the upper Yalung glacier with the intention to discover a practicable route to the great ice-shelf that runs across the southwest face of Kangchenjunga.[41] This reconnaissance led to the route used by the successful 1955 expedition.[42]
A sign board on the last traversable road to KangchenjungaFirst ascent reunion of 1990– front (left to right): Neil Mather, John Angelo Jackson, Charles Evans and Joe Brown, and rear (left to right): Tony Streather, Norman Hardie, George Band and Professor John Clegg
In 1955, Joe Brown and George Band made the first ascent on 25 May, followed by Norman Hardie and Tony Streather on 26 May.[43] The full team also included John Clegg (team doctor), Charles Evans (team leader), John Angelo Jackson, Neil Mather and Tom Mackinnon.[6]
The ascent proved that Aleister Crowley's 1905 route (also investigated by the 1954 reconnaissance) was viable. The route starts on the Yalung Glacier to the southwest of the peak, and climbs the Yalung Face, which is 3,000 metres (10,000 ft) high. The main feature of this face is the "Great Shelf", a large sloping plateau at around 7,500 metres (24,600 ft), covered by a hanging glacier. The route is almost entirely on snow, glacier and one icefall; the summit ridge itself can involve a small amount of travel on rock. The first ascent expedition made six camps above their base camp, two below the Shelf, two on it, and two above it. They started on 18 April, and everyone was back to base camp by 28 May.[44] Other members of this expedition included John Angelo Jackson and Tom Mackinnon.[45]
1973 Yutaka Ageta and Takeo Matsuda of the Japanese expedition summited Kangchenjunga West by climbing the southwestern ridge. Matsuda never returned to camp and his body was never found. The expedition concluded that he had fallen during descent when he was separated from Ageta.[46]
1977 The second ascent of Kangchenjunga, by an Indian Army team led by Colonel Narendra Kumar. They completed the northeast spur, the difficult ridge that defeated German expeditions in 1929 and 1931.[47]
1979 The third ascent, on 16 May, and the first without oxygen, by Doug Scott, Peter Boardman and Joe Tasker, establishing a new route on the North Ridge.[49]
1985 The first winter attempt, by a team of three led by the American Chris Chandler, from the north side. Chandler died on the unsuccessful attempt.[50][51]
1986 The first ascent in winter, by Jerzy Kukuczka and Krzysztof Wielicki on 11 January 1986, they followed the route from the SW which was pioneered during the original first ascent.[4][3]
1992 Carlos Carsolio made the only summit that year. It was in a solo climb without supplementary oxygen.[citation needed]
1998 Ginette Harrison was the first woman to climb Kangchenjunga's North Face.[53]
2009 Edurne Pasaban, a Spanish mountaineer, reached the summit, becoming the first woman to summit twelve eight-thousanders.[54]
In May 2009, Kinga Baranowska was the first Polish woman to reach the summit of Kangchenjunga.[55]
In 2011, Tunç Fındık became the first Turkish man to reach the peak of Kangchenjunga, his seventh eight thousander, with Swiss partner Guntis Brandts via the British 1955 SW Face route.[56][57]
In May 2011, Indian mountaineers Basanta Singha Roy and Debasish Biswas successfully scaled Kangchenjunga Main.[58]
In May 2013, five climbers including Hungarian Zsolt Erőss and Péter Kiss reached the summit, but disappeared during the descent.[59]
In May 2014, Bulgarian Boyan Petrov reached the peak without the use of supplemental oxygen.[60]
In May 2014, Chhanda Gayen was the first Indian woman to summit. She was killed by an avalanche on the descent.[61]
In May 2022, Indian Narayanan Iyer died during a summit push on the mountain.[62]
Despite improved climbing gear the fatality rate of climbers attempting to summit Kanchenjunga is high. Since the 1990s, more than 20% of people died while climbing Kanchenjunga's main peak.[63]
Because of its remote location in Nepal and the difficulty involved in accessing it from India, the Kangchenjunga region is not much explored by trekkers. It has, therefore, retained much of its pristine beauty. In Sikkim too, trekking into the Kangchenjunga region has just recently been permitted. The Goecha La trek is gaining popularity amongst tourists. It goes to the Goecha La Pass, located right in front of the huge southeast face of Kangchenjunga. Another trek to Green Lake Basin has recently[when?] been opened for trekking. This trek goes to the Northeast side of Kangchenjunga along the famous Zemu Glacier. The film Singalila in the Himalaya is a journey around Kangchenjunga.[citation needed]
The area around Kangchenjunga is said to be home to a mountain deity, called Dzö-nga[64] or "Kangchenjunga Demon", a type of yetiorrakshasa. A British geological expedition in 1925 spotted a bipedal creature which they asked the locals about, who referred to it as the "Kangchenjunga Demon".[65]
For generations, there have been legends recounted by the inhabitants of the areas surrounding Kanchenjunga, both in Sikkim and in Nepal, that there is a valley of immortality hidden on its slopes. These stories are well known to both the original inhabitants of the area, the Lepcha people and Limbu people, and those of the Tibetan Buddhist cultural tradition. In Tibetan, this valley is known as Beyul Demoshong. In 1962, a TibetanLama by the name of Tulshuk Lingpa led over 300 followers into the high snow slopes of Kanchenjunga, to ‘open the way’ to Beyul Demoshong. The story of this expedition is recounted in the 2011 book A Step Away from Paradise.[66]
Kangchenjunga seen from Tetulia, Panchagarh, Northern Bangladesh
East face of Kangchenjunga, from near the Zemu Glacier, Sikkim
InThe Epic of Mount Everest, first published in 1926, Sir Francis Younghusband: " For natural beauty Darjiling (Darjeeling) is surely unsurpassed in the world. From all countries travellers come there to see the famous view of Kangchenjunga, 28,150 feet (8,580 m) in height, and only 40 miles (64 km) distant. Darjiling (Darjeeling) itself is 7,000 feet (2,100 m) above sea-level and is set in a forest of oaks, magnolia, rhododendrons, laurels and sycamores. And through these forests, the observer looks down the steep mountain-sides to the Rangeet River only 1,000 feet (300 m) above sea-level, and then up and up through tier after tier of forest-clad ranges, each bathed in a haze of deeper and deeper purple, till the line of snow is reached; and then still up to the summit of Kangchenjunga, now so pure and ethereal we can scarcely believe it is part of the solid earth on which we stand; and so high it seems part of the very sky itself."
In 1999, official James Bond author Raymond Benson published High Time to Kill. In this story, a microdot containing a secret formula for aviation technology is stolen by a society called the Union. During their escape, their plane crashes on the slopes of Kangchenjunga. James Bond becomes part of a climbing expedition in order to retrieve the formula.
Michelle Paver's 2016 ghost story Thin Air concerns a fictional expedition to climb Kangchenjunga in 1935, and an earlier (also fictional) expedition in 1906.
The book Round Kangchenjunga – A Narrative of Mountain Travel and ExplorationbyDouglas Freshfield gives a complete account of his travel around Kangchenjunga.
Susan Jagannath's book Chasing Himalayan Dreams: A trek in the shadow of Kanchenjunga and Everest details her 61km, 6-day trek up and around Kangchenjunga.
Kate Bush's song "Wild Man"-"Well, the first verse of the song is just quickly going through some of the terms that the Yeti is known by and one of those names is the Kangchenjunga Demon. He’s also known as Wild Man and Abominable Snowman. (...) I don’t refer to the Yeti as a man in the song. But it is meant to be an empathetic view of a creature of great mystery really. And I suppose it’s the idea really that mankind wants to grab hold of something [like the Yeti] and stick it in a cage or a box and make money out of it. And to go back to your question, I think we’re very arrogant in our separation from the animal kingdom and generally as a species we are enormously arrogant and aggressive. Look at the way we treat the planet and animals and it’s pretty terrible isn’t it? (John Doran, 'A Demon In The Drift: Kate Bush Interviewed'. The Quietus, 2011)"
View of Kangchenjunga as seen from DarjeelingNorth face of Kangchenjunga from Pang Pema, Nepal
Joseph Dalton Hooker 1855. Himalayan Journals. Assistant-director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Laurence Waddell 1899. Among The Himalayas. Travels in Sikkim. Book includes the exploration of the south of Kangchenjunga.
Paul Bauer 1937. Himalayan Campaign. Blackwell is the story of Bauer's two attempts in 1929 and 1931, republished as Kangchenjunga Challenge (William Kimber, 1955).
Paul Bauer "The German Attack on Kangchenjunga", The Himalayan Journal, 1930 Vol. II.
Lieut. Col. H.W. Tobin "Exploration and Climbing in The Sikkim Himalaya", The Himalayan Journal, April 1930 Vol. II. Provides the early exploration and climbing attempts on Kangchenjunga.
Prof. G. O. Dyhrenfurth "The International Himalayan Expedition, 1930", The Himalayan Journal, April 1931, Vol. III. Details their attempt on Kangchenjunga.
H.W. TilmanThe ascent of Nanda Devi, 7 June 1937, Cambridge University Press. Relates the story of their intention to climb Kangchenjunga.
Irving, R. L. G. 1940. Ten Great Mountains. London, J. M. Dent & Sons
John Angelo Jackson 1955. More than Mountains Book containing data on the 1954 Kangchenjunga reconnaissance. Jackson was also a team member of the first ascent of Kangchenjunga in 1955, also relates the Daily Mail "Abominable Snowman" or Yeti Expedition, when the first trek from Everest to Kangchenjunga was accomplished * [1]. Relevant pages 97 onwards with two detailed maps.
Charles EvansKangchenjunga The Untrodden Peak, Hodder & Stoughton, Leader of the 1955 expedition. Principal of the University College of North Wales, Bangor. Foreword by His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, K.G.
Joe Brown, The Hard Years, tells his version of the first ascent of Kangchenjunga in 1955.
Colonel Narinder Kumar 1978. Kangchenjunga: First ascent from the north-east spur. Vision books. Includes the second ever ascent of Kangchenjunga and the first from the northeast spur on the Indian side of the mountain. See also Himalayan Journal Vol. 36 and 50th Anniversary Edition
Peter Boardman 1982. Sacred Summits: A Climber's Year. Includes the 1979 ascent of Kangchenjunga with Joe Tasker and Doug Scott. Also in The Himalayan Journal Vol 36.
John Angelo Jackson 2005. Adventure Travels in the Himalaya. Indus Publishing. Recounts in more detail the first ascent of Kangchenjunga.
Simon Pierse 2005. Kangchenjunga: Imaging a Himalayan Mountain. University of Wales, School of Art Press, ISBN978-1-899095-22-3. An anthology of word and image published to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the first ascents of Kangchenjunga. Well illustrated with reproductions of paintings, prints and photographs describing the climbing history and cultural significance of the mountain. Preface by George Band.
The above Himalayan Journal references were all also reproduced in the "50th Anniversary of the First Ascent of Kangchenjunga" The Himalayan Club, Kolkata Section 2005.
Pema Wangchuk and Mita Zulca Khangchendzonga: Sacred Summit. The book details the stories and legends celebrated by the communities living in the Kangchenjunga's shadow, goes over the exploits of the early explorers and mountaineers. Chapters cover what Khangchendzonga means to Buddhism, mapping, early explorers, Alexander Kellas, early expeditions, the first ascent in 1955, the Indian Army ascent (1977), the second British ascent (1979), women climbers, the Tiger climbers, the yeti and more. Profusely illustrated with many period photos.
The Geographer at High Altitudes, Climbing on the Himalaya and other Mountain Ranges, By J. Norman Collie, F.R.S. Edinburgh: David Douglas. 1902.
The Glaciers of Kangchenjunga Douglas FreshfieldThe Geographical Journal, Vol. 19, No. 4 Apr 1902, pp. 453–472
C. K. Howard-Bury. 1922. "The Mount Everest Expedition". The Geographical Journal 59 (2): 81–99.
"General Bruce's Illness a Serious handicap" The Times, (British) World Copyright, Lt. R.F.Norton, 19 April 1924. Expedition in the Kangchenjunga area.
Account of a Photographic Expedition to the Southern Glaciers of Kangchenjunga in the Sikkim Himalaya, N. A. Tombazi, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 67, No. 1 Jan 1926, pp. 74–76
An Adventure to Kangchenjunga, Hugh Boustead, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Apr. 1927), pp. 344–350
^De Schlagintweit, H.; de Schlagintweit, A.; de Schlagintweit, R. (1863). "IV. Names explained". Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia, undertaken between the years MDCCCLIV and MDCCCLVIII by order of the court of Directors of the Honourable East India Company. Volume III. London: Brockhaus, Leipzig and Trübner & Co. p. 207.
^Scheid, C. S. (2014). "Hidden land and changing landscape: Narratives about Mount Khangchendzonga among the Lepcha and the Lhopo". Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions. 1 (1): 66–89.
^Gillman, P. (1993). Everest: The Best Writing and Pictures from Seventy Years of Human Endeavour. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 208. ISBN978-0316904896.
^Asahi, K. (1999). Data on inventoried glaciers and its distribution in eastern part of Nepal Himalaya. Data Report 2, Basic studies for assessing the impacts of the global warming on the Himalayan cryosphere, 1994–1998. Institute for Hydrospheric-Atmospheric Sciences, Nagoya University and Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, HMG/Nepal.
^Ashahi, K., Watanabe, T. (2000). Past and recent glacier fluctuations in Kanchenjunga Himal, Nepal. Journal of Nepal Geological Society (22): 481–490.
^Bajracharya, S. R., Palash, W., Shrestha, M. S., Khadgi, V. R., Duo, C., Das, P. J., & Dorji, C. (2015). Systematic Evaluation of Satellite-Based Rainfall Products over the Brahmaputra Basin for Hydrological Applications. Advances in Meteorology: 398687.
^Shijin, W., & Tao, Z. (2014). Spatial change detection of glacial lakes in the Koshi River Basin, the Central Himalayas. Environmental Earth Sciences 72(11): 4381–4391.
^Wikramanayake, E. D., ed. (2001). Ecoregion-based Conservation in the Eastern Himalaya: Identifying Important Areas for Biodiversity Conservation. Kathmandu: World Wildlife Fund and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. ISBN978-9993394006.
^ abSchlagintweit, H. v. (1871). "Die Singhalila Kette zwischen Sikkim und Nepal". Reisen in Indien und Hochasien. Eine Darstellung der Landschaft, der Kultur und Sitten der Bewohner, in Verbindung mit klimatischen und geologischen Verhältnissen. Zweiter Band. Jena: Hermann Costenoble.
^Isserman, M. & Weaver, S. (2008). Fallen Giants: a history of Himalayan mountaineering from the age of empire to the age of extremes. Devon: Duke & Company. pp. 61–63. ISBN978-0-300-11501-7.
^ abBauer, P. (1955). Kangchenjunga Challenge. William Kimber, London.
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