Jump to content

Main menu Navigation ●Main page ●Contents ●Current events ●Random article ●About Wikipedia ●Contact us ●Donate Contribute ●Help ●Learn to edit ●Community portal ●Recent changes ●Upload file

●Create account ●Log in ●Create account ● Log in Pages for logged out editors learn more ●Contributions ●Talk

(Top) 1 Paradigm summaries 2 Language overview 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Citations 6 References

Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

●Français ●Українська Edit links ●Article ●Talk ●Read ●Edit ●View history Tools Actions ●Read ●Edit ●View history General ●What links here ●Related changes ●Upload file ●Special pages ●Permanent link ●Page information ●Cite this page ●Get shortened URL ●Download QR code ●Wikidata item Print/export ●Download as PDF ●Printable version In other projects ●Wikimedia Commons Appearance From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Multi-paradigm)

This article possibly contains original research. Please improve itbyverifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries[edit]

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
- Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
- Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
- Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
- Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
- Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming^[1]

Language overview[edit]

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language	Paradigm count	Concurrent	Constraints	Dataflow	Declarative	Distributed	Functional	Metaprogramming	Generic	Imperative	Logic	Reflection	Object-oriented	Pipelines	Visual	Rule-based	Other
Ada^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]	5	Yes^{[a 1]}	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
ALF	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
AmigaE ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
APL	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
C++	7 (15)	Yes^[7]^[8]^[9]	Library^[10]	Library^[11]^[12]	Library^[13]^[14]	Library^[15]^[16]	Yes	Yes^[17]	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	Library^[18]^[19]	Library^[20]	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^[21]	—	Library^[22]	Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C#	6 (7)	Yes	—	Library^{[a 4]}	—	—	Yes^{[a 5]}	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
ChucK ^{[citation needed]}	3	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Claire	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Clojure	5	Yes^[23]^[24]	—	—	Yes	—	Yes^[25]	Yes^[26]	—	—	Library^[27]	—	—	Yes^[28]	Editor^[29]	—	Multiple dispatch,^[30] Agents^[31]
Common Lisp	7 (14)	Library^[32]	Library^[33]	Library^[34]	Yes^[35]	Library^[36]	Yes	Yes	Yes^[37]	Yes	Library^[38]	Yes	Yes^{[a 7]}^{[a 2]}^[39]	Library^[40]	Library^[41]	Library^[42]	Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,^[43] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl	5	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Curry	4	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
D (version 2.0)^[44]^[45]	7	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^[46]^{[a 3]}	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Delphi	3	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Dylan ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
E	3	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
ECMAScript^[47]^[48] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript)	4 (5)	Partial^{[a 9]}^{[a 10]}	—	—	Library^[49]^[50]	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 11]}	Library^[51]^[52]	Editor^[53]	—	Reactive,^{[a 12]}^[54] event driven^{[a 13]}^{[a 14]}
Erlang	3	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—
Elixir	4	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—
Elm	6	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes (pure)^{[a 15]}	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Reactive
F#	7 (8)	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	Library^{[a 4]}	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
Fortran	4 (5)	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 15]}	—	Yes^{[a 16]}	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Go	4	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	—
Haskell	8 (15)	Yes	Library^[55]	Library^[56]	Yes	Library^[57]	Yes (lazy) (pure)^{[a 15]}	Yes^[58]	Yes	Yes	Library^[59]	—	Partial^{[a 17]}	Yes	Yes	Library^[60]	Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io	4	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}	—	—	—	—
J ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Java	6	Yes	Library^[61]	Library^[62]	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Julia	9 (17)	Yes	Library^[63]	Library^[64]^[65]	Library^[66]	Yes	Yes (eager)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Library^[67]	Yes	Yes^{[a 18]}	Yes	—	Library^[68]^[69]	Multiple dispatch, Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy^[70] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin	8	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—
LabVIEW	4	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	—
Lava	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	Yes	—	—
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA)	9	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	Yes	—
Lua ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}	—	—	—	—
MATLAB	6 (10)	Toolbox^[71]	Toolbox^[72]	Yes^[73]	—	Toolbox^[74]	—	Yes^[75]	Yes^[76]	—	—	Yes^[77]	Yes^[78]	—	Yes^[79]	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle	7	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Object Pascal	4	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
OCaml	4	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Oz	11	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	Yes	—
Perl ^{[citation needed]}	8 (9)	Yes^[80]	—	Yes^[81]	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	—	—
PHP^[82]^[83]^[84]	4	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Poplog	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
Prograph	3	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	Yes	—	—
Python	5 (10)	Library^[85]^[86]	Library^[87]	—	—	Library^[88]	Yes	Yes^[89]^[90]	Yes^[91]^[92]	Yes	Library^[93]	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	Editor^[94]	—	Structured
R	4 (6)	Library^[95]	—	—	—	Library^[96]	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes^[97]	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket	10	Yes^[98]	Yes^[99]	Yes^[100]	—	Yes^[101]	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	Lazy^[102]
Raku	10	Yes^[103]	Library^[104]	Yes^[105]	—	Library^[106]	Yes	Yes^[107]	Yes^[108]	Yes	—	Yes^[109]	Yes^[110]	Yes	—	—	Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP	3	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—
Ruby	5	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha)	6	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^[111]^[112]	Yes^[113]	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Scala^[114]^[115]	9	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	Yes^{[a 19]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Simula ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
SISAL	3	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Spreadsheets	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—
Swift	7	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^[116]	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}^[117]	—	—	—	—
Visual Basic .NET	6 (7)	Yes	—	Library^{[a 4]}	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
Windows PowerShell	6	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	—	—
Wolfram Language & Mathematica	13^[118] (14)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^[119]	—	Yes	Knowledge Based

Notes[edit]

^ rendezvous and monitor-like based

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai class-based

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e template metaprogramming

^ ^a ^b ^c using TPL Dataflow

^ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)

^ ^a ^b ^c using Reactive Extensions (Rx)

^ multiple dispatch, method combinations

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e actor programming

^ promises, native extensions

^ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Prototype-based

^ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)

^ in Node.js via their events module

^ in browsers via their native EventTarget API

^ ^a ^b ^c purely functional

^ parameterized classes

^ immutable

^ multiple dispatch, not traditional single

^ Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

Citations[edit]

^ Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (IEEEXplore). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. S2CID 62509261.

^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization

^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems

^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units

^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms

^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions

^ Thread support

^ Atomics support

^ Memory model

^ Gecode

^ SystemC

^ Boost.Iostreams

^ Boolinq

^ "AraRat" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2019-09-15.

^ OpenMPI

^ Boost.MPI

^ Boost.MPL

^ LC++

^ Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine

^ Reflect Library

^ N3534

^ Boost.Spirit

^ Clojure - Concurrent Programming

^ Clojure - core.async

^ Clojure - Functional Programming

^ Clojure - Macros

^ Clojure - core.logic

^ Clojure - Threading Macros Guide

^ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.

^ Multimethods and Hierarchies

^ Agents and Asynchronous Actions

^ [1] many concurrency paradigms implemented as language extensions

^ [2] constraint programming inside CL through extensions

^ [3] dataflow extension

^ [4] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative

^ [5] MPI, etc via language extensions

^ template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)

^ [6] [7] [8] Prolog implemented as a language extension

^ Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.

^ implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation

^ - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp

^ [9] rule-based programming extension

^ [10] Archived 2018-04-26 at the Wayback Machine through the Meta Object Protocol

^ D Language Feature Table

^ Phobos std.algorithm

^ D language String Mixins

^ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.

^ Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.

^ "React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08.

^ "TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.

^ "Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08.

^ "mori". 2019-04-08.

^ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.

^ "TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.

^ "Prolog embedding". Haskell.org.

^ "Functional Reactive Programming". HaskellWiki.

^ Cloud Haskell

^ "Template Haskell". HaskellWiki.

^ "Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad". Haskell.org.

^ Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006). "Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell" (PDF). Oregon State University.

^ https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API

^ https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK

^ "JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". GitHub. JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.

^ "GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". GitHub. 2019-01-15.

^ "GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-28.

^ https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia

^ https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia

^ "GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-03.

^ "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". GitHub. 2017-08-03.

^ Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl

^ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ interpreter based threads

^ Higher Order Perl

^ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions

^ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)

^ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions

^ "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". Python Wiki. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "DistributedProgramming". Python Wiki. Retrieved 21 October 2016.

^ "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

^ "Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

^ "PEP 443 – Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

^ "PEP 484 – Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

^ "PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.

^ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.

^ "Futureverse".

^ "future batchtools".

^ "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". cran.r-project.org\access-date=13 July 2017. 17 November 2020.

^ Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization

^ The Rosette Guide

^ FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs

^ Racket Guide: Distributed Places

^ Lazy Racket

^ Channels and other mechanisms

^ "Problem Solver module".

^ Feed operator

^ https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module

^ "Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14.

^ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles

^ "Meta-object protocol (MOP)".

^ https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles

^ "The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.

^ "The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.

^ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1

^ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language

^ Scala Language Specification

^ "Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

^ "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.

^ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.

^ External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References[edit]

Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.

Programming paradigms (Comparison by language)

Imperative

Structured

Object-oriented
(comparison, list)

Declarative

Functional (comparison)	Recursive Anonymous function (Partial application) Higher-order Purely functional Total Strict GADTs Dependent types Functional logic Point-free style Expression-oriented Applicative, Concatenative Function-level, Value-level
Dataflow	Flow-based Reactive (Functional reactive) Signals Streams Synchronous
Logic	Abductive logic Answer set Constraint (Constraint logic) Inductive logic Nondeterministic Ontology Probabilistic logic Query
DSL	Algebraic modeling Array Automata-based (Action) Command (Spacecraft) Differentiable End-user Grammar-oriented Interface description Language-oriented List comprehension Low-code Modeling Natural language Non-English-based Page description Pipes and filters Probabilistic Quantum Scientific Scripting Set-theoretic Simulation Stack-based System Tactile Templating Transformation (Graph rewriting, Production, Pattern) Visual

Concurrent,
distributed,
parallel

Metaprogramming

Attribute-oriented
Automatic (Inductive)
Dynamic
Extensible
Generic
Homoiconicity
Interactive
Macro (Hygienic)
Metalinguistic abstraction
Multi-stage
Program synthesis (Bayesian, Inferential, by demonstration, by example)
Reflective
Self-modifying code
Symbolic
Template

Separation
of concerns

Types of programming languages

Level

Generation

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comparison_of_multi-paradigm_programming_languages&oldid=1225572978" Categories: ●Programming paradigms ●Programming language comparisons Hidden categories: ●Webarchive template wayback links ●Articles with short description ●Short description is different from Wikidata ●Articles that may contain original research from August 2009 ●All articles that may contain original research ●All articles with unsourced statements ●Articles with unsourced statements from March 2007 ●This page was last edited on 25 May 2024, at 09:47 (UTC). ●Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. ●Privacy policy ●About Wikipedia ●Disclaimers ●Contact Wikipedia ●Code of Conduct ●Developers ●Statistics ●Cookie statement ●Mobile view