Onnagata (女形/女方, lit. 'female role'), also oyama (女形), are male actors who play female roles in kabuki theatre.[1]
The modern all-male kabuki was originally known as yarō kabuki ('male kabuki') to distinguish it from earlier forms. In the early 17th century, shortly after the emergence of the genre, many kabuki theaters had an all-female cast (onna kabuki), with women playing men's roles as necessary. Wakashū kabuki ('adolescent-boy kabuki'), with a cast composed entirely of young men playing both male and female roles, and frequently dealing in erotic themes, originated circa 1612.[2]: 90
Both onnagata and wakashū (orwakashū-gata), actors specializing in adolescent female roles (and usually adolescents themselves), were the subject of much appreciation by both male and female patrons, and were often prostitutes. All-male casts became the norm after 1629, when women were banned from appearing in kabuki due to the prevalent prostitution of actresses and violent quarrels among patrons for the actresses' favors.[2]: 90–91 This ban failed to stop the problems, since the young male (wakashū) actors were also fervently pursued by patrons.[citation needed]
In 1642, onnagata roles were forbidden, resulting in plays that featured only male characters. These plays continued to have erotic content and generally featured many wakashū roles, often dealing in themes of nanshoku (male homosexuality); officials responded by banning wakashū roles as well.[2]: 92 The ban on onnagata was lifted in 1644, and on wakashū in 1652, on the condition that all actors, regardless of role, adopted the adult male hairstyle with shaved pate. Onnagata and wakashū actors soon began wearing a small purple headscarf (murasaki bōshi) to cover the shaved portion, which became iconic signifiers of their roles and eventually became invested with erotic significance as a result.[2]: 132 After authorities rescinded a ban on wig-wearing by onnagata and wakashū actors, the murasaki bōshi was replaced by a wig and now survives in a few older plays and as a ceremonial accessory.[3]
After film was introduced in Japan at the end of the 19th century, the oyama continued to portray females in movies until the early 1920s. At that time, however, using real female actresses was coming into fashion with the introduction of realist shingeki films. The oyama staged a protest at Nikkatsu in 1922 in backlash against the lack of work because of this. Kabuki, however, remains all-male even today.[a]
Oyama continue to appear in kabuki today, though the term onnagata has come to be used much more commonly. Every kabuki actor is expected to have facility with onnagata techniques. These include learning onnagata makeup, which is vastly different from that of a male character's, and adopting traditional feminine mannerisms. Some of the techniques that onnagata actors have to master with years of training and research include being able to move gracefully across the stage when wearing geta, adopting a more feminine posture and physical mannerisms, and speaking at a higher pitch throughout the entire performance. Many actors specialise in onnagata roles, such as Bandō Tamasaburō V.
The influence of onnagata on Japanese culture has also played an important part in the visual kei subculture. The subculture emphasizes gender-nonconforming expression, and self-identified male performers who adopt female clothing within the genre are referred to as onnagata.[4] Japanese music website Barks credits the increase in onnagata band members to the band Malice Mizer, due to the influence of its guitarist and co-founder Mana. Mana himself has said that he wanted to be the ultimate onnagata.[5]
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