There are several theories for the origin of the pre-Ottoman version of the dish. In modern times, it is a common dessert among cuisines of countries in West Asia, Southeast Europe, Central Asia, and North Africa.
Etymology
The word baklava is first attested in English in 1650,[4] a borrowing from Ottoman Turkish: باقلاوه/bɑːklɑvɑː/.[5][6] The name baklava is used in many languages with minor phonetic and spelling variations. The earliest known reference to baklava is in a poem by the 15th century mystic Kaygusuz Abdal.[7]
The historian Paul D. Buell argues that the word baklava may come from the Mongolian root baγla- 'to tie, wrap up, pile up' composed with the Turkic verbal ending -v;[8] baγla- itself in Mongolian is a Turkic loanword.[9] The lexicographer Sevan Nişanyan considers its oldest known forms (pre-1500) to be baklağı and baklağu, and labels it as being of Proto-Turkic origin.[10] Another form of the word is also recorded in Persian, باقلبا (bāqlabā).[11] Though the suffix -vā might suggest a Persian origin,[12][13] the baqla- part does not appear to be Persian and remains of unknown origin.[14] The linguist Tuncer Gülensoy states that the origin of baklava is bakl-ı (feed) in proto-Turkish and suffixes -la-ğı are added. The word changes as bakılağı > bakılavı > baklava.[15]
The Arabic name بقلاوةbaqlāwa originates from Turkish.[16]
History
The three main proposals for the roots of baklava are the Greek placenta cake,[17] the Medieval Persian (Iranian) lauzinaj,[18] and the Central Asian Turkic tradition of layered breads.[19] There are also claims attributing baklava to the Assyrians, according to which baklava was prepared by them in the 8th century BC.[20]
There are also some similarities between baklava and the Ancient Greek desserts gastris (γάστρις),[21]kopte sesamis (κοπτὴ σησαμίς), and kopton (κοπτόν) found in book XIV of the Deipnosophistae.[22][23] However, the recipe there is for a filling of nuts and honey, with a top and bottom layer of honey and ground sesame similar to modern pasteliorhalva, and no dough, certainly not a flaky dough.[24]
Another recipe for a similar dessert is güllaç, a dessert found in Turkish cuisine and considered by some as the origin of baklava.[25] It consists of layers of filo dough that are put one by one in warmed up milk with sugar. It is served with walnut and fresh pomegranate and generally eaten during Ramadan. The first known documentation of güllaç is attested in a food and health manual, written in 1330 that documents Mongol foods called Yinshan Zhengyao (飮膳正要, Important Principles of Food and Drink), written by Hu Sihui, an ethnic Mongol court dietitian of the Yuan dynasty.[8]
Although the history of baklava is not well documented, its Turkish version was probably developed in the imperial kitchens of the Topkapı PalaceinConstantinople (modern Istanbul).[19][26] The Sultan presented trays of baklava to the Janissaries every 15th of the month of Ramadan in a ceremonial procession called the Baklava Alayı.[18][27][28]
Placenta cake theory
Many claim that the placenta, and therefore likely baklava derived from a recipe from Ancient Greece.[29] Homer's Odyssey, written around 800 BC, mentions thin breads sweetened with walnuts and honey.[29] In the fifth century BC, Philoxenos states in his poem "Dinner" that, in the final drinking course of a meal, hosts would prepare and serve cheesecake made with milk and honey that was baked into a pie.[30]
The word "placenta" originally comes from the Greek language plakous (πλακοῦς), which means something "flat and broad".[31][32] An early Greek language mention of plakous as a dessert (or second table delicacy) comes from the poems of Archestratos. He describes plakous as served with nuts or dried fruits and commends the honey-drenched Athenian version of plakous.[33]Antiphanes, a contemporary of Archestratos, provided an ornate description of plakous:[33][34]
The streams of the tawny bee, mixed with the curdled river of bleating she-goats, placed upon a flat receptacle of the virgin daughter of Demeter [honey, cheese, flour], delighting in ten thousand delicate toppings – or shall I simply say plakous?
In the Byzantine Empire, the traditional placenta cake (known as "koptoplakous", κοπτοπλακοῦς), a dish similar to baklava, was consumed.[36][37][38] The earliest known detailed recipe for placenta, from the 2nd century BC, is a honey-covered baked layered-dough dessert which food historian Patrick Faas identifies as the origin of baklava.[17][39]
Historian Andrew Dalby speculates as to why Cato's section on bread and cakes, which he describes as "recipes in a Greek tradition", are included in De Agricultura: "Possibly Cato included them so that the owner and guests might be entertained when visiting the farm; possibly so that proper offerings might be made to the gods; more likely, I believe, so that profitable sales might be made at a neighbouring market."[40]
Cato's original recipe for placenta follows:
Shape the placenta as follows: place a single row of tracta along the whole length of the base dough. This is then covered with the mixture [cheese and honey] from the mortar. Place another row of tracta on top and go on doing so until all the cheese and honey have been used up. Finish with a layer of tracta. ... place the placenta in the oven and put a preheated lid on top of it ... When ready, honey is poured over the placenta.
According to a number of scholars, koptoplakous (κοπτοπλακοῦς) was a precursor to the modern baklava.[17][41][42] Historian Speros Vryonis describes koptoplakous as a "Byzantine favorite" and "the same as the Turkish baklava",[43] as do other writers.[31] The name (Greek: πλατσέντα) is used today on the island of Lesbos for thin layered pastry leaves with crushed nuts, baked, and covered in syrup.[44][45]
Baklava is a common dessert in modern Arab cuisines, but the Arabic language cookbookKitab al-Tabikh, compiled by Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq in the 10th-century, does not contain any recipe for baklava.[46] Its recipe for lauzinaj refers to small pieces of almond paste wrapped in very thin pastry ("as thin as grasshoppers' wings") and drenched in syrup.[47] Some writers say this is dessert that most closely resembles the modern baklava.[48]Charles Perry, however, has written that "it was not much like baklava".[49]
There are similar recipes for lauzinaj in the 13th-century Kitab al-TabikhbyMuhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi. Written in 1226 in today's Iraq, the cookbook was based on an earlier collection of 9th century Persian-inspired recipes.[18] According to Gil Marks, Middle Eastern pastry makers later developed the process of layering the ingredients.[18]
Preparation
Large baking sheets are used for preparing baklava.Baklava cut in a lozenge shape
Baklava is normally prepared in large pans. Many layers of filo dough,[50] separated with melted butter and vegetable oil, are laid in the pan. A layer of chopped nuts—typically walnutsorpistachios, but hazelnuts and almonds are also sometimes used—is placed on top, then more layers of filo. Most recipes have multiple layers of filo and nuts, though some have only top and bottom pastry.
Before baking, the dough is cut into regular pieces, often parallelograms (lozenge-shaped), triangles, diamonds or rectangles. After baking, a syrup, which may include honey, rosewater, or orange flower water is poured over the cooked baklava and allowed to soak.
Baklava is usually served at room temperature, and is often garnished with ground nuts.
Baklava in Algeria is called Baklawa (Arabic: بقلاوة, Tifinagh: ⴱⴰⴽⵍⴰⴹⴰ). In most Algerian regions, Baklava is the centerpiece of any sweets table. This type of Baklava originates in the Algerian city of Constantine. The Algerian Baklava is distinct in that filo dough is not used. Instead, they use another type of thin dough called malsouka or warqa and instead of walnuts or pistachios they use almonds.[51][52][53][54]
Like other forms of baklava, the layered pastry is cut into diamond-shaped pieces and has one almond placed on top of each piece before being baked. It is then soaked in a syrup of honey, sugar, and lemon juice.[55][56][57]
Syria
Syrian baklawa
InSyrian cuisine, baklava (Arabic: البقلاوة, Syriac: ܒܩܠܘܐ) is a dessert mostly served on special occasions like Eid al-Fitr, or Syrian Christmas.[58] It is made of 24 layers of buttered phyllo dough, a filling of either chopped pistachios or chopped walnuts (walnuts are preferred) and a syrup consisting of sugar, orange blossom water, and lemon juice.[59] Syrian baklava comes in many shapes, but the diamond shape is the most common one.[60] A Syrian baklava recipe was introduced to the Turkish city of Gaziantep in 1871 by Çelebi Güllü, who had learned the recipe from a chef in the city of Damascus which transformed into the Gaziantep baklava we know today.[61]
Armenia
Armenian pakhlava
Armenian baklava, known in Armenian as pakhlava (Armenian: Փախլավա) is made of layers of phyllo dough, a filling of cinnamon-spiced chopped walnuts, and a syrup made from cloves, cinnamon, lemon juice, sugar and water.[62][63] It is diamond-shaped and often has either one hazelnut, almond, or half a walnut placed on each piece.[64] It is often served at special occasions like Armenian ChristmasorArmenian Easter.[65][66]
Armenian baklava has some variations on how many phyllo layers are supposed to be used. One variation uses 40 sheets of dough to align with the 40 days of Lent Jesus spent in the desert where he fasted.[67][68][69] Another variation is similar to the Greek style of baklava, which is supposed to be made with 33 dough layers, referring to the years of Jesus's life.[70]
The city of Gavar makes Its own version of baklava. It is made with 25 dough layers, has a filling of cleaned and dried chopped walnuts, sugar and a syrup that is poured over the finished baklava consisting of honey and flowers.[71][72] This type of baklava used to be prepared in the then-Armenian city of Bayazet, but the people living there immigrated to Gavar and surrounding regions in 1830.[73]
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani paxlava
Azerbaijani baklava (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan paxlavası) is made mostly for special occasions (like Nowruz).[74][75][76] Pastry, cardamom, and saffron are used for the preparation. Nuts (mostly hazelnuts, almonds or walnuts) and sugar are used as the filling, and syrup is used as a sweetener.[77] Ethnic groups native to different regions (like Lezgins and Tat people) have contributed to some regional variations.[78][79][80]
Tenbel pakhlava is filled with almonds or walnuts and consists of 8-10 layers. Its top layer is coated with yolk.[81][82] Half a walnut is placed on each diamond-shaped piece.[83]
Ganja pakhlava has a filling of almond, sugar and cardamom. 18 layers of dough are used.[83]Rose petals are added to the dough.[84][85]
Guba pakhlava has a top layer that is coated with saffron. It uses 50 rishta layers.[86][87]
InBosnian cuisine, Ružice is the name of the regional variant of baklava.[88]
Baklava also exists in Romanian cuisine, being known as baclava in Romanian. It is one of the most preferred desserts among Romanians together with the Kanafeh (cataif) and the sarailia. In Romania, some Turkish pastry shops that sell baklava have notable popularity. They are common in the south and southeast of the country, but some also exist in its east.[89] In Bulgaria, baklava is very popular during the winter holiday season, when people have it for dessert after dinner.
Greece
Greek baklava with walnuts
InGreek cuisine, walnuts are more common than pistachios, and the dessert is flavored with cinnamon. Greek baklava (Greek: Μπακλαβάς) comes in many regional guises, with different names such as samousades, zournadakia, and masourakia. Generally speaking, in southern Greece baklava is mostly made with chopped almonds and in the north with walnuts. Some recipes use hazelnuts, sesame or raisins.[90] The syrup is made of sugar, honey, water, cinnamon and orange or lemon zest.[91][92] Greek baklava is supposed to be made with 33 filo dough layers, referring to the years of Jesus's life.[70]
On the island of Lesbos in Greece a type of baklava is still known as placenta (Greek: πλατσέντα), which is the name of an Ancient Greek pastry that is often seen as the predecessor of baklava. The latter is a baked dessert with very thinly made pastry layers and chopped nuts. The base for this modern placenta is made with leaves of filo dough, and nuts stacked upon each other. After baking, it is soaked in a simple syrup and sprinkled with cinnamon.[93][94][95]
Iranian baklava (Persian: باقلوا) is less crisp and uses less syrup than other baklava variations.[96] The cities of Yazd, Tabriz, Qazvin, Kashan and the Gilan province are famous for their baklava variations, which are widely distributed in Iran.[97][98][99][100] Iranian baklava uses a combination of chopped almonds, hazelnuts or walnuts and pistachios spiced with saffron, cardamomorjasmine. For the syrup, rose water, lemon juice, sugar, honey, and water are used.[101][102] Iranian baklava may be cut into diamonds or squares.[103] When it is finished it is often garnished with chopped pistachios, rose petals, jasmine or coconut powder depending on the region.[104]
Şöbiyet is a variation that includes kaymak[107] as the filling, in addition to the traditional nuts.[108] The city of Gaziantep in south-central Turkey is famous for its baklava made from locally grown pistachios,[109] often served with kaymak cream. The dessert was introduced to Gaziantep in 1871 by Çelebi Güllü, who had learned the recipe from a chef in Damascus.[110] In 2008, the Turkish patent office registered a geographical indication for Antep Baklava,[111] and in 2013, Antep BaklavasıorGaziantep Baklavası was registered as a Protected Geographical Indication by the European Commission.[112] Gaziantep baklava is the first Turkish product to receive a protected designation from the European Commission.[113]
^Nişanyan, Sevan (2009) (in Turkish). Sözlerin Soyağacı - Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimolojik Sözlüğü [Words' Family Tree - An Etymological Dictionary of Contemporary Turkish]. İstanbul. http://nisanyansozluk.com/?k=baklavaArchived 2011-07-14 at the Wayback Machine
^"a derivation from balg, a common dialect form of barg "leaf", or from Ar. baql "herb" is unlikely", W. Eilers, Encyclopædia Iranica, s.v.'bāqlavā'Archived 2011-12-28 at the Wayback Machine
^Gülensoy, Tuncer (2007). Türkiye Türkcesindeki Türkçe Sözcüklerin Köken Bilgisi Sözlüğü - I. Turkey: Türk Dil Kurumu. p. 106. ISBN978-9751619709.
^ abAkın and Lambraki, Turkish and Greek Cuisine / Türk ve Yunan Mutfağı p. 248-249, ISBN975-458-484-2
^ abPerry, Charles. "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", in A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed. Sami Zubaida, Richard Tapper), 1994. ISBN1-86064-603-4, page 87
^Akkaya, Ayşenur; Koc, Banu (2017). "Past, present and tomorrow of baklava". International Rural Tourism and Development Journal. 1 (1): 47–50. Archived from the original on 2022-04-30. Retrieved 2021-05-01.
^κοπτόςArchived 2021-02-24 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus
^Deipnosophists14:647, discussed by Charles Perry, "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", in A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed. Sami Zubaida, Richard Tapper), 1994. ISBN1-86064-603-4. p. 88.
^Charles Perry, "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", in A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed. Sami Zubaida, Richard Tapper), 1994. ISBN1-86064-603-4.
^Husihui; Paul D. Buell; Eugene N. Anderson; Charles Perry (2010). A soup for the Qan: Chinese dietary medicine of the Mongol era as seen in Hu Szu-Hui's Yin-shan cheng-yao (2nd rev. and expanded ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN978-90-04-18020-8.
^ abGoldstein 2015, "ancient world": "The next cake of note, first mentioned about 350 B.C.E. by two Greek poets, is plakous. [...] At last, we have recipes and a context to go with the name. Plakous is listed as a delicacy for second tables, alongside dried fruits and nuts, by the gastronomic poet Archestratos. He praises the plakous made in Athens because it was soaked in Attic honey from the thyme-covered slopes of Mount Hymettos. His contemporary, the comic poet Antiphanes, tells us the other main ingredients, goat’s cheese and wheat flour. Two centuries later, in Italy, Cato gives an elaborate recipe for placenta (the same name transcribed into Latin), redolent of honey and cheese. The modern Romanian plăcintă and the Viennese Palatschinke, though now quite different from their ancient Greek and Roman ancestor, still bear the same name."
^Dalby 1998, p. 155: "Placenta is a Greek word (plakounta, accusative form of plakous 'cake').
^Dalby, Andrew (1998). Cato on farming-De Agricultura-A modern translation with commentary. p. 155.
^Perry, Charles. "What to Order in Ninth Century Baghdad," in Rodinson, Maxime, and Arthur John Arberry. "Medieval Arab Cookery." (2001). p. 223
^Salloum, Habeeb; Salloum, Muna; Elias, Leila Salloum (2013). Sweet Delights from A Thousand and One Nights: the Story of Tradition Arab Sweets. Bloomsbury. pp. 45–48.
^Perry, Charles. "What to Order in Ninth Century Baghdad," in Rodinson, Maxime, and Arthur John Arberry. "Medieval Arab Cookery." (2001). p. 222 "As for lauzinaj, it was not much like baklava."
^Bodic, Slavka (11 September 2020). The Ultimate Syrian Cookbook: A Journey Through Syrian Cuisine With 111 Traditional Recipes. Independently Published. ISBN9798685380357.
^Λούβαρη-Γιαννέτσου, Βασιλεία (2014). "Πλατσέντα ή γλυκόπιτα". Τα Σαρακοστιανά 50 συνταγές για τη Σαρακοστή και τις γιορτές [Lent foods: 50 recipes for Lent and the holidays].
^Batmanglij, Najmieh (2020). Cooking in Iran: Regional Recipes and Kitchen Secrets. Mage Publishers. ISBN978-1949445077.
^Food and Booze: A Tin House Literary Feast, Michelle Wildgen, Nicole J. Georges, Tin House Books, 2007, ISBN0-9773127-7-1, ISBN978-0-9773127-7-1; page 200.
Buell, Paul D. (1999). "Mongol Empire and Turkicization: The Evidence of Food and Foodways". In Amitai-Preiss, Reuven; Morgan, David O. (eds.). The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy. Brill. ISBN90-04-11946-9.
Perry, Charles (1994). "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava". In Zubaida, Sami; Tapper, Richard (eds.). A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Bloomsbury USA. ISBN1-86064-603-4.
Perry, Charles (2001). "Studies in Arabic Manuscripts". In Rodinson, Maxime; Arberry, Arthur John (eds.). Medieval Arab Cookery. Totnes: Prospect Books. pp. 91–163. ISBN0907325912.
Roden, Claudia (1986). A New Book of Middle Eastern Food. Penguin. ISBN0-14-046588-X.
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