Contents

Point (geometry)

Fundamental object of geometry

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Geometry
Projectingasphere to a plane
Outline History (Timeline)
Branches Euclidean Non-Euclidean Elliptic Spherical Hyperbolic Non-Archimedean geometry Projective Affine Synthetic Analytic Algebraic Arithmetic Diophantine Differential Riemannian Symplectic Discrete differential Complex Finite Discrete/Combinatorial Digital Convex Computational Fractal Incidence Noncommutative geometry Noncommutative algebraic geometry
Concepts Features Dimension Straightedge and compass constructions Angle Curve Diagonal Orthogonality (Perpendicular) Parallel Vertex Congruence Similarity Symmetry
Zero-dimensional Point
One-dimensional Line segment ray Length
Two-dimensional Plane Area Polygon Triangle Altitude Hypotenuse Pythagorean theorem Parallelogram Square Rectangle Rhombus Rhomboid Quadrilateral Trapezoid Kite Circle Diameter Circumference Area
Three-dimensional Volume Cube cuboid Cylinder Dodecahedron Icosahedron Octahedron Pyramid Platonic Solid Sphere Tetrahedron
Four- / other-dimensional Tesseract Hypersphere
Geometers
by name Aida Aryabhata Ahmes Alhazen Apollonius Archimedes Atiyah Baudhayana Bolyai Brahmagupta Cartan Coxeter Descartes Euclid Euler Gauss Gromov Hilbert Huygens Jyeṣṭhadeva Kātyāyana Khayyám Klein Lobachevsky Manava Minkowski Minggatu Pascal Pythagoras Parameshvara Poincaré Riemann Sakabe Sijzi al-Tusi Veblen Virasena Yang Hui al-Yasamin Zhang List of geometers
by period BCE Ahmes Baudhayana Manava Pythagoras Euclid Archimedes Apollonius 1–1400s Zhang Kātyāyana Aryabhata Brahmagupta Virasena Alhazen Sijzi Khayyám al-Yasamin al-Tusi Yang Hui Parameshvara 1400s–1700s Jyeṣṭhadeva Descartes Pascal Huygens Minggatu Euler Sakabe Aida 1700s–1900s Gauss Lobachevsky Bolyai Riemann Klein Poincaré Hilbert Minkowski Cartan Veblen Coxeter Present day Atiyah Gromov
v t e

Ingeometry, a point is an abstract idealization of an exact position, without size, in physical space,^[1] or its generalization to other kinds of mathematical spaces. As zero-dimensional objects, points are usually taken to be the fundamental indivisible elements comprising the space, of which one-dimensional curves, two-dimensional surfaces, and higher-dimensional objects consist; conversely, a point can be determined by the intersection of two curves or three surfaces, called a vertexorcorner.

In classical Euclidean geometry, a point is a primitive notion, defined as "that which has no part". Points and other primitive notions are not defined in terms of other concepts, but only by certain formal properties, called axioms, that they must satisfy; for example, "there is exactly one straight line that passes through two distinct points". As physical diagrams, geometric figures are made with tools such as a compass, scriber, or pen, whose pointed tip can mark a small dot or prick a small hole representing a point, or can be drawn across a surface to represent a curve.

Since the advent of analytic geometry, points are often defined or represented in terms of numerical coordinates. In modern mathematics, a space of points is typically treated as a set, a point set.

Anisolated point is an element of some subset of points which has some neighborhood containing no other points of the subset.

Points in Euclidean geometry[edit]

Points, considered within the framework of Euclidean geometry, are one of the most fundamental objects. Euclid originally defined the point as "that which has no part".^[2] In the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, a point is represented by an ordered pair (x, y) of numbers, where the first number conventionally represents the horizontal and is often denoted by x, and the second number conventionally represents the vertical and is often denoted by y. This idea is easily generalized to three-dimensional Euclidean space, where a point is represented by an ordered triplet (x, y, z) with the additional third number representing depth and often denoted by z. Further generalizations are represented by an ordered tupletofn terms, (a₁, a₂, … , a_n) where n is the dimension of the space in which the point is located.^[3]

Many constructs within Euclidean geometry consist of an infinite collection of points that conform to certain axioms. This is usually represented by a set of points; As an example, a line is an infinite set of points of the form $${\displaystyle L=\lbrace (a_{1},a_{2},...a_{n})\mid a_{1}c_{1}+a_{2}c_{2}+...a_{n}c_{n}=d\rbrace ,}$$where c₁ through c_n and d are constants and n is the dimension of the space. Similar constructions exist that define the plane, line segment, and other related concepts.^[4] A line segment consisting of only a single point is called a degenerate line segment.^{[citation needed]}

In addition to defining points and constructs related to points, Euclid also postulated a key idea about points, that any two points can be connected by a straight line.^[5] This is easily confirmed under modern extensions of Euclidean geometry, and had lasting consequences at its introduction, allowing the construction of almost all the geometric concepts known at the time. However, Euclid's postulation of points was neither complete nor definitive, and he occasionally assumed facts about points that did not follow directly from his axioms, such as the ordering of points on the line or the existence of specific points. In spite of this, modern expansions of the system serve to remove these assumptions.^{[citation needed]}

Dimension of a point[edit]

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There are several inequivalent definitions of dimension in mathematics. In all of the common definitions, a point is 0-dimensional.

Vector space dimension[edit]

The dimension of a vector space is the maximum size of a linearly independent subset. In a vector space consisting of a single point (which must be the zero vector 0), there is no linearly independent subset. The zero vector is not itself linearly independent, because there is a non-trivial linear combination making it zero: ${\displaystyle 1\cdot \mathbf {0} =\mathbf {0} }$.

Topological dimension[edit]

The topological dimension of a topological space ${\displaystyle X}$ is defined to be the minimum value of n, such that every finite open cover ${\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}}$of${\displaystyle X}$ admits a finite open cover ${\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}}$of${\displaystyle X}$ which refines ${\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}}$ in which no point is included in more than n+1 elements. If no such minimal n exists, the space is said to be of infinite covering dimension.

A point is zero-dimensional with respect to the covering dimension because every open cover of the space has a refinement consisting of a single open set.

Hausdorff dimension[edit]

Let X be a metric space. If S ⊂ X and d ∈ [0, ∞), the d-dimensional Hausdorff contentofS is the infimum of the set of numbers δ ≥ 0 such that there is some (indexed) collection of balls ${\displaystyle \{B(x_{i},r_{i}):i\in I\}}$ covering S with r_i > 0 for each i ∈ I that satisfies $${\displaystyle \sum _{i\in I}r_{i}^{d}<\delta .}$$

The Hausdorff dimensionofX is defined by $${\displaystyle \operatorname {dim} _{\operatorname {H} }($$X):=\inf\{d\geq 0:C_{H}^{d}(X)=0\}.}

A point has Hausdorff dimension 0 because it can be covered by a single ball of arbitrarily small radius.

Geometry without points[edit]

Although the notion of a point is generally considered fundamental in mainstream geometry and topology, there are some systems that forgo it, e.g. noncommutative geometry and pointless topology. A "pointless" or "pointfree" space is defined not as a set, but via some structure (algebraicorlogical respectively) which looks like a well-known function space on the set: an algebra of continuous functions or an algebra of sets respectively. More precisely, such structures generalize well-known spaces of functions in a way that the operation "take a value at this point" may not be defined.^[6] A further tradition starts from some books of A. N. Whitehead in which the notion of region is assumed as a primitive together with the one of inclusionorconnection.^[7]

Point masses and the Dirac delta function[edit]

Often in physics and mathematics, it is useful to think of a point as having non-zero mass or charge (this is especially common in classical electromagnetism, where electrons are idealized as points with non-zero charge). The Dirac delta function, or δ function, is (informally) a generalized function on the real number line that is zero everywhere except at zero, with an integral of one over the entire real line.^[8] The delta function is sometimes thought of as an infinitely high, infinitely thin spike at the origin, with total area one under the spike, and physically represents an idealized point massorpoint charge.^[9] It was introduced by theoretical physicist Paul Dirac. In the context of signal processing it is often referred to as the unit impulse symbol (or function).^[10] Its discrete analog is the Kronecker delta function which is usually defined on a finite domain and takes values 0 and 1.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Points (mathematics).

• "Point". PlanetMath.
• Weisstein, Eric W. "Point". MathWorld.

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