The oppositely arranged leaves are pinnate with 5–9 leaflets (or, rarely, 3 or 11). Each leaf is 5–30 centimetres (2–12 in) long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-colored flowers in late spring; these are followed by clusters of small black, blue-black, or red berries (rarely yellow or white).
Sambucus fruit is rich in anthocyanidins[3] that combine to give elderberry juice an intense blue-purple coloration that turns reddish on dilution with water.[4]
The genus was formerly placed in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae, but was reclassified as Adoxaceae due to genetic and morphological comparisons to plants in the genus Adoxa.
The name comes from the Ancient Greek word σαμβύκη (sambū́kē), an ancient wind instrument, about the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles.[8]
The genus occurs in temperate to subtropical regions of the world. More widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts of Australasia and South America. Many species are widely cultivated for their ornamental leaves, flowers, and fruit.[9]
Elder commonly grows near farms and homesteads. It is a nitrogen-dependent plant and thus is generally found near places of organic waste disposal. Elders are often grown as a hedgerow plant in Britain since they take very fast, can be bent into shape easily, and grow quite profusely, thus having gained the reputation of being 'an instant hedge'. It is not generally affected by soil type or pH level and will virtually grow anywhere sufficient sunlight is available.
S. callicarpa berries are consumed by birds and mammals.[10] In Northern California, elderberries are eaten by migrating band-tailed pigeons. Elders are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including brown-tail, buff ermine, dot moth, emperor moth, engrailed moth, swallow-tailed moth and the V-pug. The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell. Valley elderberry longhorn beetles in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark.[11] Strong-scented flowers in wild populations of European elder (S. nigra) attract numerous, minute flower thrips which may contribute to the transfer of pollen between inflorescences.[12]
Traditional uses of Sambucus involved berries, seeds, leaves, and flowers or component extracts.[13]Ornamental varieties of Sambucus are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage which support habitat for wildlife.[14] Of the many native species, three are used as ornamentals: S. canadensis, S. nigra, and S. racemosa.[15]
The uncooked berries and other parts of plants from this genus are poisonous.[16][10] Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of Sambucus plants produce cyanogenic glycosides, which have toxic properties.[16] Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to cause illness, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and weakness.[17][16][18] In August 1983, a group of 25 people in Monterey County, California, became ill after ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncooked S. mexicana berries, leaves, and stems.[18] The concentration of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries.[16][19]
The seeds of S. callicarpa are reported to be poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea.[10]
Raw elderberries are 80% water, 18% carbohydrates, and less than 1% each of protein and fat. In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2oz) amount, elderberries supply 305 kilojoules (73 kcal) of food energy and are a rich source of vitamin C, providing 43% of the Daily Value (DV). Elderberries also have moderate contents of vitamin B6 (18% DV) and iron (12% DV), with no other nutrients in significant content.
Elderberry fruit or flowers are used as dietary supplements to prevent or provide relief from minor diseases, such as flu, colds, constipation, and other conditions, served as a tea, extract or in a capsule.[17] The use of elderberry supplements increased early in the COVID-19 pandemic.[23] There is insufficient research to establish its effectiveness for such uses, or its safety profile.[17] The raw or unripe fruit of S. nigra or its extracts may contain a cyanogenic glycoside that is potentially toxic.[23]
Although practitioners of traditional medicine have used elderberry over centuries,[14] there is little high-quality clinical evidence that such practices provide benefits, though the US National Institutes of Health have stated that "some preliminary research suggests that elderberry may relieve symptoms of flu or other upper respiratory infections."[17]
The pigments are used as colorants in various products,[3] and "elderberry juice color" is listed by the US Food and Drug Administration as allowable in certified organic food products.[3] In Japan, elderberry juice is listed as an approved "natural color additive" under the Food and Sanitation Law.[24] Fibers can be dyed with elderberry juice (using alum as a mordant) to give a "muted purple" shade.[25][26]
The berry of S. callicarpa can be made into wine.[10] The flowers of S. nigra are used to produce elderflower cordial. St-Germain, a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedish akvavit, is flavoured with elderflowers.
Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used as spiles to tap maple trees for syrup.[27] Additionally, they have been hollowed out and used as flutes, blowguns, and syringes.[28] In addition, the elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep black by soaking them in a wash made from the berry stems of the elderberry.[14]
The pith of elder has been used by watchmakers for cleaning tools before intricate work.[29]
Folklore related to elder trees is extensive and can vary according to region.[30] In some traditions, the elder tree is thought to ward off evil and give protection from witches, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit.[31] If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as the Elder Mother would be released and take her revenge.[32] The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother.[33]Romani people believe burning elder wood brings bad luck.[34]
^Niering, William A.; Olmstead, Nancy C. (1985) [1979]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region. Knopf. p. 448. ISBN0-394-50432-1.
^RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN978-1-4053-3296-5.
^ abcdSenica, M; Stampar, F; Veberic, R; Mikulic-Petkovsek, M (2016). "The higher the better? Differences in phenolics and cyanogenic glycosides in Sambucus nigra leaves, flowers and berries from different altitudes". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 97 (8): 2623–2632. doi:10.1002/jsfa.8085. PMID27734518.
^ abcde"European elder". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. September 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
^National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN978-0-309-48834-1. PMID30844154. Archived from the original on 2024-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
^McVicar, Jekka (2007). "Jekka's Complete Herb Book" p. 214–215. Raincoast Books, Vancouver. ISBN1-55192-882-5
Eriksson, Torsten; Donoghue, Michael J. (1997). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Sambucus and Adoxa (Adoxoideae, Adoxaceae) Based on Nuclear Ribosomal ITS Sequences and Preliminary Morphological Data". Systematic Botany. 22 (3): 555–573. doi:10.2307/2419828. JSTOR2419828.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: National Institutes of Health's National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health entry for European Elder
