Shajing culture
Map of the Shajing culture ( ). The City of Xiutu ( ![]() ![]() ![]() | |
Geographical range | Gansu |
---|---|
Dates | 800/700–100 BCE.[1] |
Type site | Shajing 沙井村 (Minqin County) 39°05′43″N 100°16′00″E / 39.095264°N 100.266670°E [2] |
Major sites | Liuhudong (Minqin County) Hamadun (Yongchang County)[3] |
Preceded by | Machang culture (2200-2000 BCE)[1] Xichengyi culture (2000-1600 BCE)[1] |
Followed by | Xiongnu (King Xiutu, 150-121 BCE) Western Han dynasty (121 BCE-) |
The Shajing culture (Ch: 沙井文化, 800/700–100 BCE),[1][7] is an ancient Iron Age culture in the area of Gansu, to the northwest of the Central Plains of China. The village of Shajing is about 250 km northwest of Wuwei, while the village of Yushugou, another important Shajing site, is about 140 km to its southeast. The Shajing culture is closely associated to the Saka culture of the Xinjiang, the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and the Upper Xiajiadian culture of Liaoning.[8] It was a culture essentially based on pastoral nomadism.[8] As of 2017, seven sites had been excavated and almost as many fortified settlements built with walls of compacted loess.[9]
Characteritics[edit]
The ecological context of the Shajing culture was one of general aridification, following the warm and humid climatic conditions from the Late Glacial to the Middle Holocene from which the Majiayao culture and the Qijia culture had benefited. Usually, such arid conditions lead to material and cultural decline, but the Shajing Culture was able to flourish along the lower Shiyang River as the Zhuye Lake was retreating, and the Xiongnu were able to establish the city of Xiutu along the Hongshui River, leading to a flourishing of nomadic culture within a context of drought.[10] Archaeological remains suggest that the people of the Shajing culture engaged in pastoralism but also in extensive agricultural production.[11]
The bronze objects of this culture follow the Animal style of the northern steppes, with motifs of eagle, deer or dog. Remains of chariots have been found, as well as iron spades.[12] Archaeological finds of iron knives and spades suggest that the Shajing culture may have been instrumental in the transmission of iron technology to China.[13]
Overall, Scythian-like artifacts form the core of this culture, but the ethnic affiliation of the Shajing people remains uncertain: they could have been Yuezhi, proto-Tibetean Qiang or Rong, or even Iranian Wusun, or a composition of these ethnic and cultural elements.[9] The Shajing culture may well have belonged to the Yuezhi, although the zone between the Tian Shan and Dunhuang is now sometimes thought to be a better candidate.[11][14]
The Shajing culture had walled settlements, probably for defensive purposes, inside which portable yurts were set up.[11] The Sanjiaocheng walled settlement (三角城 38°59′N 103°19′E / 38.99°N 103.32°E) in Jinchang belongs to the Shajing culture as confirmed by its ceramic types, and was constructed circa 800 BCE (in the period 855–797 cal BCE), making it the oldest known walled settlement in the Hexi Corridor.[11] It may have been one of the bases from which nomadic culture diffused into China 600–400 BCE.[11] The site was still inhabited in the period 384–116 cal BCE, until the Chinese conquest by Huo Qubing.[11]
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Fortifications of Sanjiaocheng (top view), built c.800 BCE, Shajing culture.[11]
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Sanjiaocheng wall remains, built c.800 BCE, Shajing culture.[11]
Artifacts[edit]
The bronze objects of the Shajing culture follow the Animal style of the northern steppes, with motifs of eagle, deer or dog. Remains of chariots have been found, as well as iron spades.[12]
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Shajing Culture Bronze Deer Ornament
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Shajing Culture Bronze Comb
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Shajing Culture Bronze Ornament
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Shajing Culture Turquoise Inlaid Gold Ring
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Shajing Culture Bronze Ornamental Plates
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Shajing Culture Pottery
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Shajing Culture Pottery
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Shajing Culture Bronze Eagle Head Ornaments
Final period[edit]
In the final centuries, the Shajing culture was bordered to the south by the first Great Wall built by King Zhao of Qin in 271 BCE, and by the Xirong Majiayuan culture which had been incorporated within it.[21][22]
The Shajing culture was overrun by the Xiongnu circa 150 BCE, as they expanded westward following their victory over the Donghu. The Xiongu installed a king named Xiutu (休屠) for the south and another named Hunye (浑邪) for the northern area. Alternatively, Xiutu himself may not have been a Xiongnu, and may have already ruled when the Xiongnu invaded, since it is reported that his territory was occupied by the Xiongnu when they were pushed westward by the Han dynasty.[23]
Xiutu was known for worshipping a golden statue, as reported in the Shiji which mentions "golden (or gilded) men used by the King of Xiutu to worship Heaven".[24][25] According to Christoph Baumer and others, "it is conceivable that this 'Golden man' was a statue of the Buddha".[26][27]
The area of the Shajing culture and the Hexi Corridor were conquered by general Huo Qubing of Han dynasty in 121 BCE, as part of the Han–Xiongnu War. The Xiongnu were defeated, and the Han captured king Xiutu's golden statue, transferring it to the Ganquan Temple near the Imperial Palace of Han Wudi.[24][25] Chinese authorities incorporated the new territories into prefectures and counties, such as the Wuwei Prefecture. Numerous people were transferred from the Central Plains, to repopulate the Hexi Corridor.[28][29]
References[edit]
The Sak
a culture in Xinjiang, the Shaj
ing culture in Gansu, the Ordos
complex in Inner Mongolia, and
the Upper Xiajiadian culture o
f Liaoning, all point to a tran
sition from mixed agropastoral
to predominantly or exclusively
pastoral nomadic cultures. Fro
m the seventh century onwards,
objects related to improved hor
se management and horse riding,
such as the bit, cheekpieces,
horse masks, and bell ornaments,
became ever more widespread an
d sophisticated.(九)^ abKomissarov, S.A (2017). "Shajing Culture (Gansu, China): Main Sites and Problems of Chronology". Paeas.ru.
The Shajing c
ulture of the Early Iron Age. T
he sites of this culture have b
een discovered in the central p
art of Gansu Province (China).
Seven big burial grounds and al
most the same amount of fortifi
ed settlements (with walls made
of compacted loess) have been
excavated. Painted pottery, ass
ociated with the local traditio
n of Neolithic-Early Bronze Age,
has been found at the early si
tes, but the Scythian-like arti
facts constitute the core of th
is culture. This makes it possi
ble to clarify the chronologica
l limits of the culture as 900-
400 BC, but probably with the l
ater specific dates. Different
suggestions have been made conc
erning the ethnic origins of th
e "Shajing people," who may hav
e some connections with the Toc
harian-speaking Yuezhi, the pro
to-Tibetean Qiang and Rong, or
even with the Iranian Wusuns. T
he Shajing culture might have e
merged from the interaction of
all these (or close) ethnic and
cultural components.(十)^ Li, Yu; Zhang, Zhansen; Zhou, Xueru; Gao, Mingjun; Li, Haiye; Xue, Yaxin; Duan, Junjie (1 May 2023). "Paleo-environmental changes and human activities in Shiyang River Basin since the Late Glacial". Chinese Science Bulletin: 3884. doi:10.1360/TB-2022-0965. S2CID 257736583.
The
long period of warm and humid
climatic conditions from the La
te Glacial to the Middle Holoce
ne favoured the development and
expansion of the Majiayao and
Qijia cultures. This stable and
agriculturally suitable climat
e was conducive to increased fo
od production, which contribute
d to rapid population growth. H
owever, the continuous aridific
ation that began in the Late Ho
locene led to a decline in agri
cultural production and insuffi
cient food and water supply, wh
ich hampered population growth
and cultural development. In co
ntrast, the Shajing Culture flo
urished along the lower Shiyang
River with the retreat of the
Zhuye Lake, the Xiongnu Empire
established the city of Xiutu a
long the Hongshui River, which
experienced downcutting linked
to the arid environment, and a
nomadic culture emerged against
the backdrop of drought in the
Shiyang River Basin. These fin
dings suggest that the impact o
f arid environments on the deve
lopment of ancient civilization
s was not always negative, and
that humans responded to enviro
nmental changes by changing the
ir production methods, thus pro
moting continued social develop
ment.(11)^ abcdefghLiu, Fengwen; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Yang, Yishi; Lee, Harry F.; Ding, Detian; Hou, Yunguang; Dong, Guanghui (August 2019). "Chronology and Plant Utilization from the Earliest Walled Settlement in the Hexi Corridor, Northwestern China". Radiocarbon. 61(4): 971–989. Bibcode:2019Radcb..61..971L. doi:10.1017/RDC.2019.57. ISSN 0033-8222.
The notable exception is the
Sanjiao walled settlement in J
inchang, which has been dated b
etween 1110–430 cal BC. Sanjiao
is generally considered as "th
e earliest walled settlement" i
n the Hexi Corridor (Pu and Pan
g Reference Pu and Pang1990; Li
Reference Li1997). (...) Sanji
ao is classified as part of the
Late Bronze Age Shajing Cultur
e (1000–400 BC) based on the un
ique ceramics unearthed there (
Pu and Pang Reference Pu and Pa
ng1990). (...) The settlement a
t Sanjiao was primarily compose
d of portable yurts (Pu and Pan
g Reference Pu and Pang1990). T
hose portable yurts together wi
th the piled-earth walls at San
jiao may further evidence the d
ominance of the agro-pastoral e
conomy during the time (Pu and
Pang Reference Pu and Pang1990).
Our AMS dates from charcoal an
d the previous LSC dates suppor
t the hypothesis that settlemen
t was built during the Shajing
Period (1000–400 BC), as indica
ted by our phase modeling sugge
sting that the walls of Sanjiao
were built in the period of 85
5–797 cal BC, with the median a
ge of 828 ± 92 cal BC. (...) Du
ring 600–400 BC, the nomadic cu
lture diffused to northwestern
China, including Qinghai, Gansu,
and Ningxia (Watson Reference
Watson1971; Di Cosmo Reference
Di Cosmo2010). Some studies arg
ue that Shajing Culture has its
origins in Rouzhi, a typical n
omadic people (Pu and Pang Refe
rence Pu and Pang1990). (...) T
he presence and ubiquity of bar
ley and broomcorn millet indica
tes the Shajing Culture at Sanj
iao engaged not only in agro-pa
storalism but also agricultural
production. (...)Sanjiao is af
firmed by AMS 14C dates as the
first walled settlement in the
Hexi Corridor. (...) It was sti
ll inhabited in 384–116 cal BC.(12)^ abCosmo, Nicola Di (1999). Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China (Cambridge History of Ancient China). Cambridge University Press. p. 937.
The bronze o
bjects include mainly ornaments
in the animal style (eagle, de
er, and dog), but also a chario
t axle end. The iron production
is limited to tools, such as a
n object in the shape of a spad
e, a spearhead, and a drill.(13)^ MEI, JIANJUN (2003). "Cultural Interaction between China and Central Asia during the Bronze Age" (PDF). Proceedings of the British Academy: 28.
The eastw
ard transmission of iron techno
logy appears to have taken a ro
ute from southern Xinjiang to e
astern Xinjiang and then on int
o the Hexi Corridor. This view
seems to be supported by finds
of iron knives of the Yanbulake
culture in eastern Xinjiang, a
s well as iron knives and spade
s of the Shajing culture (c.900
–600 BC), which are distributed
in the middle part of the Hexi
Corridor (Li 1994: 501–5; Zhao
1996: 293–4).(14)^ Lan-Hai Wei, Ryan; Li, Hui; Xu, Wenkan (26–28 June 2013). "The separate origins of the Tocharians and the Yuezhi: Results from recent advances in archaeology and genetics". Conference: International Conference on Tocharian Manuscripts and Silk Road Culture at: University of Vienna, Vienna: 284.
In the Bronz
e Age, the Siba (四坝) culture an
d the Shajing (沙井) culture are
supposedly archaeological remai
ns of the Yuezhi people (Guo an
d Chen 1989, Yang 1986). In act
uality, in the Western Han Dyna
sty, the original name of moder
n Qilian Mountain in the Gansu
Province was Nanshan Mountain (
meaning 'South Mountain' in Chi
nese, 南山). Many historians have
argued, however, that the "Qil
ian Mountain" in the Western Ha
n Dynasty historical records is
today called East Tianshan Mou
ntain (Lin 1998). This is also
supported by detailed records i
n the "Shiji" and the "Han Shu"
(Wang 2004).(15)^ "The revival of the Prehistoric Silk Road". The Institute of Archaeology CASS. (16)^ "ШАЦЗИН • Большая российская энциклопедия - электронная версия". old.bigenc.ru. (17)^ Coatsworth, John; Cole, Juan; Hanagan, Michael P.; Perdue, Peter C.; Tilly, Charles; Tilly, Louise (16 March 2015). Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-316-29777-3. (18)^ Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. 2002. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-19-521921-0. (19)^ Fauve, Jeroen (2021). The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 403. ISBN 978-3-8382-1518-1. (20)^ Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (19 November 2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. 245, Fig 12.3. ISBN 978-1-139-78938-7. (21)^ Qingbo, Duan (2022). "Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis". Journal of Chinese History 中國歷史學刊. 7: 56. doi:10.1017/jch.2022.25. ISSN 2059-1632. S2CID 251690411. (22)^ Wu, Xiaolong (2013). "Cultural hybridity and social status: elite tombs on China's Northern Frontier during the third century BC". Antiquity. 87(335): 121–136. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00048663. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 155615456. (23)^ The Hanshu yin yi (漢書音義) says: "The place where the Xiongnus worshipped Heaven was originally at the foot of Mt. Ganquan (Ganquan xia 甘泉下), in Yunyang district (雲陽). After the Qin (秦) took their land, they moved westward to King Xiutu. Xiutu possessed the anthropomorphic golden statue for worshipping Heaven." (匈奴祭天处本在雲陽甘泉山下、秦奪其地、後徙之休屠王右地、故休屠有祭天金人、象. 祭天人也。) (24)^ abDubs, Homer H. (1937). "The "Golden Man" of Former Han Times". T'oung Pao. 33(1): 4–6. ISSN 0082-5433. JSTOR 4527117. (25)^ ab︽史记︾︿匈奴列传﹀‥“其明年春,汉使骠骑将军去病将万骑出陇西,过焉支山千馀里,击匈奴,得胡首虏︵骑︶万八千馀级,破得休屠王祭天金人。” (26)^ Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2. (27)^ Barbieri-Low, Anthony J.; Yates, Robin D. S. (2 November 2015). Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China (2 vols): A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb no. 247. BRILL. p. 1006, note 90. ISBN 978-90-04-30053-8.
The Golde
n Man (possibly an image of the
Buddha)(28)^ Xie, Yaowen; Bie, Qiang; He, Chansheng (2 November 2017). "Human settlement and changes in the distribution of river systems in the Minqin Basin over the past 2000 years in Northwest China". Ecosystem Health and Sustainability. 3(11). doi:10.1080/20964129.2017.1401011. ISSN 2096-4129. S2CID 133989567. (29)^ In the early Western Han Dynasty (121–128 BC), the Emperor Hanwu launched three battles against Hun People and achieved a decisive victory. Since then the Minqin Basin was incorporated into the territory of the central plains dynasty. Large numbers of people in Central China were moved to the Hexi Corridor, and the system of prefectures and counties was set up. The Han Dynasty established the Wuwei Prefecture in the SRB, which contained 10 counties. Two of them, Wuwei and Xuanwei, were in the Minqin Basin. Later, the population of the two counties reached about 20,000, and during the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220), Xuanwei along had 10,000 residents (Liang Citation1997).