| Shilluk | |
|---|---|
| Dhøg Cøllø | |
| Pronunciation | [d̪ɔɡ cɔllɔ] |
| Native to | South Sudan |
| Region | Upper Nile State |
| Ethnicity | Shilluk |
Native speakers | 570,000 (2017)[1] |
| Dialects |
|
| Latin | |
| Official status | |
Official language in | Shilluk Kingdom |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | shk |
| Glottolog | shil1265 |
Shilluk (natively Dhøg Cøllø, [d̪ɔ́(ɡ) cɔ̀llɔ̀])[2] is a language spoken by the Shilluk peopleofSouth Sudan. It is closely related to other Luo languages. The term Shilluk is a pronunciation of Arabic origin.[3]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i[i] i̠ [i̠] ɪ [ɪ] ɪ̠ [ɪ̠] |
u[u] u̠ [u̠] ʊ [ʊ] ʊ̠ [ʊ̠] | |
| Mid | e[e] e̠ [e̠] ɛ [ɛ] ɛ̠ [ɛ̠] |
o[o] o̠ [o̠] ɔ [ɔ] ɔ̠ [ɔ̠] | |
| Open | ʌ [ʌ] ʌ̠ [ʌ̠] a[a] a̠ [a̠] |
Each of these vowels also exists in a long form and an overlong form which are phonemic.[4][5]
Shilluk, like most Nilotic languages, differentiates vowels according to their place of articulation. They are either pronounced with advancement of the root of the tongue or with retraction of the root of the tongue. Gilley uses the terms "extended larynx" or "blown vowel".
The vowels with advancement of the root of the tongue are [i], [e], [o], [ɔ], [a] and their corresponding long variants. The vowels with retraction of the root of the language are denoted by a macron below the letter: [i̠], [e̠], [o̠], [ɔ̠], [u̠] and [a̠] and their corresponding long variants.
| Labial | Coronal | Dorsal | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |||
| Nasal | m[m] | n̪ [n̪] | n[n] | ɲ [ɲ] | ŋ [ŋ] | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p[p] | t̪ [t̪] | t[t] | c[c] | k[k] |
| voiced | b[b] | d̪ [d̪] | d[d] | j[ɟ] | g[ɡ] | |
| Fricative | s[s] | |||||
| Liquid | rhotic | r[r] | ||||
| lateral | l[l] | |||||
| Glide | w[w] | y[j] | ||||
Shilluk has a rich inventory of tones, with at least seven distinctive tone patterns or tonemes.[5]
There are three level tonemes: Low, Mid and High. In addition, there are four contours – the Rise and three falling configurations: Fall, High Fall and Late Fall. These are denoted by the following diacritics:
| Tone description | Diacritic | Tone bars | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Level | Low | cv̀c (grave accent) | ꜖ |
| Mid | cv̄c (macron) | ꜔ | |
| High | cv́c (acute accent) | ꜒ | |
| Contoured | Rising | cv̌c (caron) | ꜖꜔ |
| Falling | cv̂c (circumflex) | ꜔꜖ | |
| High Falling | cv̂́c (circumflex with acute accent) | ꜒꜖ | |
| Late Falling | cv́c̀ (acute accent followed by grave accent) | ꜒꜒꜖ |
Uninflected native stem syllables are overwhelmingly monosyllabic. With few exceptions, these monosyllabic stems typically consist of an onset, a vowel (nucleus), and a coda. Their structure is: C(Cj/w)V(V)(V)C.[5]
Monosyllabic stems give rise to polysyllabic words through processes of derivationorinflection. For verbs and nouns alike, the most common prefixes are /a- ʊ-/, and the most common suffixes are /-Cɪ -ɪ -a (-ɔ)/.[5] Further, alternations of vowel length and tone play an important part in inflectional morphology.[6]
Shilluk transitive verbs have a phonological root that consists of a single closed syllable of the form /C(j/w)V(V)C/. "That is, the root vowel is either short or long, and clustering of consonants is restricted to the onset, where either of the semivowels /w,j/ may follow another consonant."[6] There are seven classes distinguished by alternations in terms of vowel length and tone. These differences are illustrated by subject-voice past, past second-person singular, and object-voice imperfective in the table below.
| Verb
classes |
Fixed short | Short with grade | Long | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low | Low fall | Low | Low fall | Low | Low fall | High fall | |
| Example | {ŋɔ̀l} ‘cut’ | {lɛ̂ŋ} ‘drum’ | {càm} ‘eat’ | {mʌ̂l} ‘roast’ | {lɛ̀ɛŋ} ‘throw’ | {mâat̪} ‘drink’ | {mấal} ‘praise’ |
| SV past | á-ŋɔ̀l | á-lɛ̂ŋ | á-càm | á-mʌ̂l | á-lɛ̀ɛŋ | á-mâat̪ | á-mấal |
| Past 2SG | á-ŋɔ̀l | á-lɛ̂ŋ | á-càaam | á-mʌ̂ʌʌl | á-lɛ̀ɛɛŋ | á-mâaat̪ | á-mấaal |
| OV IMPF | ʊ̀-ŋɔ̀l-ɔ̀ | ʊ̀-lɛ̂ŋ-ɔ̀ | ʊ̀-càaam-ɔ̀ | ʊ̀-mʌ̂ʌʌl-ɔ̀ | ʊ̀-lɛ̀ɛɛŋ-ɔ̀ | ʊ̀-mâaat̪-ɔ̀ | ʊ̀-mấaal-ɔ̀ |
Noun inflection is characterized by head marking: pretensive and construct-state are both inflections that mark the head, not the dependent. For example, English has a person's rodent, where the head is rodent, and the possessive marking is on the dependent person's. In contrast, Shilluk has a pretensive affix on the head (e.g., dúup = "rodent", dû́uup = "rodent belonging to").[7]
Number is marked, but no predictable system has been identified. Instead, there are over 140 different patterns of number marking on nouns.[7]
Numerals in Shilluk are nouns.[7]
ALatin alphabet was developed for Shilluk by Christian missionaries in the early 20th century.[8] There are 29 characters in Shilluk orthography; 10 vowels and 19 consonants.[9]
| a | á | à | ä | aa | b | c | d | dh | e | é | è | ë | ee | f | g |
| i | í | ì | ï | ii | j | k | l | lg | lh | ly | m | ng | nh | ny | o |
| ó | ò | ö | oo | p | q | r | t | th | u | ú | ù | ü | uu | v | w |
| x | y | ø |
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Part of the proposed Nilo-Saharan language family | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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