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Typically, Greek letter organizations are [[Sex segregation|gender-based]] [[Initiation|initiatory]] organizations. ''Fraternity'' refers to a male membership, whereas ''sorority'' refers to a female membership. Membership is typically considered active during the undergraduate years only, although a notable exception to this rule are [[National Pan-Hellenic Council|historically black]] organizations and [[National Multicultural Greek Council]] organizations, in which active membership continues, and into which members are often initiated long after the completion of their undergraduate degrees. As with [[Freemasonry]], Greek letter organizations may sometimes be considered [[Benefit society|mutual aid societies]], providing academic and social activities. Most groups also maintain a [[North American fraternity and sorority housing|chapter house]], providing residential and dining facilities for members. |
Typically, Greek letter organizations are [[Sex segregation|gender-based]] [[Initiation|initiatory]] organizations. ''Fraternity'' refers to a male membership, whereas ''sorority'' refers to a female membership. Membership is typically considered active during the undergraduate years only, although a notable exception to this rule are [[National Pan-Hellenic Council|historically black]] organizations and [[National Multicultural Greek Council]] organizations, in which active membership continues, and into which members are often initiated long after the completion of their undergraduate degrees. As with [[Freemasonry]], Greek letter organizations may sometimes be considered [[Benefit society|mutual aid societies]], providing academic and social activities. Most groups also maintain a [[North American fraternity and sorority housing|chapter house]], providing residential and dining facilities for members. |
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==Terminology== |
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{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2013}} |
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In modern usage, the term "Greek letter organization" has become synonymous with the North American fraternity and sorority. The term ''fraternity'', often [[Colloquialism|colloquially]] shortened to "frat" (though use of such term may be derogatory in some contexts), typically refers to an all-male group, while the term "sorority", created for [[Gamma Phi Beta]] by Dr. Frank Smalley, typically refers to an all-female group. Additionally, some groups that define themselves as "fraternities" or "sororities" may be mixed-sex. Due to the ambiguous nature of the terms "fraternity" and "sorority" with respect to gender, and due to the inaccuracy and potentially sexist nature of the use "fraternity" to describe aforementioned organizations, it has become commonplace to use the synonym "Greek letter organization", since the vast majority of fraternities and sororities identify themselves using Greek letters. A recent example of this is the usage of the terms "(historically) Black Greek letter organizations" (BGLOs) and "Latino Greek letter organizations" (LGOs) within the literature. However, since most of those organizations that do ''not'' identify themselves using Greek letters are structured similarly to and share other several common characteristics with those that do identify themselves using Greek letters, all of these organizations are still considered to be "Greek letter organizations". All this said, the public at large and most members of fraternities and sororities still use the traditional terms ("fraternity" and "sorority"), to refer to all-male and all-female groups, respectively. Coeducational service fraternities and academic honors organizations (despite sharing a common history, as well as a common naming scheme, with modern fraternities and sororities) tend to be referred to more specifically. "Greek letter organization" tends to be used in "formal" contexts, but rarely in popular discourse. |
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The term social fraternity is used to differentiate four-year, undergraduate, and frequently residential groups from other organizations, many of which also have Greek-letter names, such as [[Honor society|honor societies]], academic societies, or [[service fraternities and sororities]]. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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Fraternities and sororities (from the Latin words frater and soror, meaning "brother" and "sister" respectively) are social organizations for mostly[1] undergraduate students. The term refers mainly to such organizations at colleges and universities in the United States, although it is also applied to analogous European groups also known as corporations. There are also many fraternities and sororities in the Philippines due to its close association with the United States since 1898. Similar, but less common, organizations also exist for secondary school students. In modern usage, the term "Greek letter organization" is often synonymous in the United States, with the terms "fraternity" and "sorority".
Typically, Greek letter organizations are gender-based initiatory organizations. Fraternity refers to a male membership, whereas sorority refers to a female membership. Membership is typically considered active during the undergraduate years only, although a notable exception to this rule are historically black organizations and National Multicultural Greek Council organizations, in which active membership continues, and into which members are often initiated long after the completion of their undergraduate degrees. As with Freemasonry, Greek letter organizations may sometimes be considered mutual aid societies, providing academic and social activities. Most groups also maintain a chapter house, providing residential and dining facilities for members.
The first fraternity in North America to incorporate most of the elements of modern fraternities was Phi Beta Kappa, founded at the College of William and Mary in 1775. The founding of Phi Beta Kappa followed the earlier establishment of two other secret student societies that had existed at that campus as early as 1750. In 1779 Phi Beta Kappa expanded to include chapters at Harvard and Yale, however, by the early 19th century the organization transformed itself into a scholastic honor society and abandoned secrecy. In 1827 Kappa Alpha Society, the oldest extant fraternity to retain its social characteristic, was established at Union College. The following year Sigma Phi and Delta Phi were also founded at the same institution.[2]
Fraternities represented the intersection between dining clubs, literary societies, and secret initiatory orders such as Freemasonry. Their early growth was widely opposed by university administrators, though the increasing influence of fraternity alumni, as well as several high-profile court cases, succeeded in largely muting opposition by the 1880s. [2] The first fraternity house seems to have been that of the Alpha Epsilon chapter of Chi Psi at the University of Michigan in 1845. As fraternity membership was punishable by expulsion at many colleges at this time, the house was located deep in the woods.[3] Alpha Tau Omega became the first fraternity to own a house in the South when, in 1880, its chapter at the University of the South acquired one.[4]
Sororities (usually officially termed "women's fraternities") began to develop in 1851 with the formation of the Adelphean Society, though fraternity-like organizations for women didn't take their current form until the establishment of Pi Beta Phi in 1867, which was followed closely by Kappa Alpha Theta in 1870. The term "sorority" was invented by a professor of Latin who felt the word "fraternity" was inappropriate for a group of ladies.[5]
In 1867 the Chi Phi fraternity established its Theta chapter at the University of EdinburghinScotland, marking the first foray of the American social fraternity outside the borders of the United States. At the time, many students from the American south were moving to Europe to study, due to the disrepair into which southern universities had fallen as a result of the American Civil War. One such group of Americans organized Chi Phi at Edinburgh, however, in the course of the Theta chapter's existence, it initiated no non-American members. With declining American enrollment at European universities, Chi Phi at Edinburgh shuttered in 1870.[5]
Nine years following Chi Phi's abortive colonization of the University of Edinburgh, a second attempt was made to transplant the fraternity system outside the United States. In 1879 Zeta Psi established a chapter at the University of Toronto. Zeta Psi's success at Toronto prompted it to open a second Canadian chapter at McGill University, which it chartered in 1883. Other early foundations were Kappa Alpha Society at Toronto in 1892 and at McGill in 1899, and Alpha Delta Phi at Toronto in 1893 and at McGill in 1897. The first sorority, Kappa Alpha Theta, was established at Toronto in 1887. By 1927 there were 42 fraternity and sorority chapters at the University of Toronto and of 23 at McGill University. A few chapters were also reported at the University of British Columbia, Carleton University, Dalhousie University, University of Manitoba, Queen's University, University of Western Ontario Wilfrid Laurier University, University of Waterloo and Brock University.[6]
The variety of Greek letter organizations are distinguished from more informal clubs and from each other by their function. They can be specifically organized for service to the community, for professional advancement, or for scholastic achievement.
Most Greek letter organizations are social organizations, presenting themselves as societies that help their members better themselves in a social setting. The most visible of these are the often residential "Academic and Social" fraternities and sororities, which are almost exclusively populated by undergraduates. "Professional" fraternities and sororities align to a specific major field of study (for example, Chemical Engineering), group of major fields (like Performance and Fine Arts, broadly), or to a specific career. Professional societies admit members at the undergraduate or graduate level, and vary in their class requirements. They can be residential, but are often not, but will include social programming within their meeting schedule. "Honor Societies" are similarly grouped with the other forms of fraternities and sororities because of historic ties (well over a century of such listing in Baird's), because of their adherence to a national and chapter hierarchy, and their adoption of Greek letter names. Some are among the oldest of all Greek letter societies. Honor societies have much higher criteria for entrance, which are publicized and promoted. Typically they may admit only the top 10% of a class, or GPA rankings at 3.5 or higher on a 4-point scale, though this varies by society. Honor societies award past achievement and meet less often than other societies, perhaps only annually. Many Professional and Honor societies publish journals of their activities and member achievements. Similar to Honor societies, "Recognition Societies" award membership upon completion of a training course or entrance into a select rank; today, Recognition societies and Honor societies are closely aligned in purpose, and the definition between the two is blurred. Finally, "Service Fraternities", such as Alpha Phi Omega are a small but viable contingent of the broad family of Greek letter organizations, and exist to effect campus or community service projects.[7]
Certain organizations were established for specific religious or ethnic groups, while others focus on numerous qualifications. For example, Phi Sigma Pi, a national honor fraternity, stresses both academic achievement and leadership in the community. Some social organizations are expressly Christian, such as Alpha Chi Rho (founded as Christian, presently non-exclusive). Jewish fraternities, such as Alpha Epsilon Pi, Zeta Beta Tau, and Sigma Alpha Mu (historically Jewish, but has been non-sectarian since the 1950s) were established, in part, in response to restrictive clauses that existed in many social fraternities' laws barring Jewish membership, which were removed in the mid-20th century.[8][9] A controversy remains between the idea of creating supportive communities for distinct groups on the one hand and the intent to create non-discriminatory communities on the other.[citation needed]
There are also organizations with a cultural or multicultural emphasis. For example, Alpha Phi Alpha and Kappa Alpha Psi, both African American Fraternities, were established at Cornell University in 1906 and Indiana University – Bloomington in 1911, respectively, the first Chinese fraternity, established at Cornell in 1916, and Sigma Iota, the first Hispanic fraternity, established at Louisiana State University in 1904.[9] The latter later merged with other Hispanic fraternities and organizations around the nation to form Phi Iota Alpha, the oldest Latino fraternity in existence, in 1931.[10] The Phi Sigma Alpha fraternity in Puerto Rico can also trace its roots back to Sigma Iota. There are now 20 Latino fraternities in the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations. A distinct set of black fraternities and sororities also exists, although black students are not barred from non-black organizations and there are black members of non-black organizations. Non African-American students are also not barred from predominately African American fraternities and sororities.
Organizations designed for particular class years do exist, but are usually categorized separately from other types of Greek letter organizations.[citation needed] While these were once common in older institutions in the Northeast, the only surviving underclass society is Theta Nu Epsilon, which is specifically for sophomores. Many senior class societies also survive, and they are often simply referred to as Secret Societies.
Early fraternal societies were very competitive for members, for academic honors, and for any other benefit or gain. Some of this competition was seen as divisive on college campuses. Today there is still competition, but that competition is intended to be within limits, and for nobler purposes, such as charitable fundraising.[11] Often, organizations compete in various sporting events. There is also a greater emphasis on interfraternity cooperation. The single greatest effort along these lines was the creation of the National Interfraternity Council, now the North American Interfraternity Conference, a century ago, which was intended to minimize conflicts, destructive competition, and encourage student members to recognize members of other fraternities and sororities as people who share common interests. The National Panhellenic Conference regulations has similar goals to unite national sororities.
Most Greek letter organizations were originally organized on one campus.[12] An organization that has only one established chapter is a "local." A local can authorize chapters of the same name at other campuses. After the first authorized chapter, a local is considered a "national," even if it only has two chapters.[12] Over the past 180 years, North America has accrued several large national organizations with hundreds of chapters.[12] Two or more nationals can also merge, and some of the larger nationals were created this way. Several national fraternities are international, which usually means they have chapters in Canada.[12]
A local organization can petition one of the existing national organizations and be absorbed into their organization dropping all ties to the former local organization. Through the 20th Century this has been the preferred method for expansion within national organizations because the members have already formed a bond and presence on campus but choose to change their name, ritual, and structure for (almost always) an older, more elaborate set.[12]
The central business offices of the organizations are also commonly referred to as "Nationals". Nationals may place certain requirements on individual chapters to standardize rituals and policies regarding membership, housing, finances, or behavior. These policies are generally codified in a constitution and bylaws. Greek letter organizations may once have been governed by the original chapter, but virtually all have adopted some version of governance with executive officers who report to a board of trustees, and 'legislative' body consisting of periodic conventions of delegates from all the chapters.[12]
All Greek letter organizations maintain traditions, sometimes accompanied by secret rituals, which are generally symbolic in nature.[12] They include an initiation ceremony, and may also include passwords, songs, and handshakes. For example, writer Julian Hawthorne, the son of Nathaniel Hawthorne, wrote (in his posthumously published Memoirs[13]) of an ironic coincidence surrounding his fraternal initiation:[14]
I was initiated into a college secret society—a couple of hours of grotesque and good-humored rodomontade and horseplay, in which I cooperated as in a kind of pleasant nightmare, confident, even when branded with a red-hot iron or doused head-over heels in boiling oil,[15] that it would come out all right. The neophyte is effectively blindfolded during the proceedings, and at last, still sightless, I was led down flights of steps into a silent crypt, and helped into a coffin, where I was to stay until the Resurrection...Thus it was that just as my father passed from this earth, I was lying in a coffin during my initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon.
Meetings of active members are generally kept private and not discussed without formal approval of the chapter as a whole.[citation needed]
For organizations with Greek letters composing their name, these letters are the initials of a motto (such as Delta Upsilon), a set of virtues (such as Alpha Kappa Lambda), or the history of its organization (such as Phi Tau).
Greek letter organizations often have a number of distinctive emblems, such as colors, flags, flowers, in addition to a badge (or pin), coat of arms, and/or seal. An open motto (indicating that the organization has a "secret motto" as well) is used to express the unique ideals of a fraternity or sorority.
Pins have become increasingly popular to collect, even by individuals who never were members. Groups such as the Fraternity Pin Collector Society have collected thousands of pins worth tens of thousands of dollars in individual collections while organizations such as Kappa Kappa Gamma's "Keepers of the Key" work to reunite lost or stolen badges with their original owners.[16]
According to Martin (1918) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFMartin1918 (help), the primary fraternal jewelers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were D. L. Auld Co. of Columbus, L.G. Balfour Company of Attleboro, Mass., Burr, Patterson and Co. of Detroit, Upmeyer Company of Milwaukee, A. H. Fetting Co. of Baltimore, Hoover and Smith Co. of Philadelphia, O. C. Lanphear of Galesburg, Ill., Miller Jewelry Co. of Cincinnati, J. F. Newman of New York, Edward Roehm of Detroit, and Wright, Kay and Co. of Detroit. Currently the most widely used jewelers are Herff Jones and Jostens. Jewelers' initials and stampings are typically found on the back of pins along with the member name and/or chapter information. The history of fraternal jewelers is important when determining age of non-dated jewelry pieces.
Since fraternity and sorority pins are used as the primary symbols for societies, licensing and marketing concerns have developed. As a result, many of the larger organizations have had to put a legal team on retainer as consultants.[citation needed]
Fraternities and Sororities have coat of arms that represent the familial aspect of brotherhood and sisterhood. The greatest representation of fraternal coat of arms is found in yearbooks and chapter publications from 1890 to 1925. Engravings were made of coat of arms and tipped into the yearbooks, often later removed and framed. Sizes range from a square inch to a full page layout. Many of these engravings were signed, creating a period art form.
Fraternal coat of arms engravings were typically made by cutting lines in metal or wood for the purpose of printing reproduction. The earliest known engravings printed on paper in this fashion date back to the 16th century. Much of the engravings done in the 19th century were metal engravings where the image was carved into a piece of steel or iron. In the early 20th century, it became more common to use photo-engraving, or photogravure to print the coat of arms.
Believing in their beginnings in Greek tradition, Alpha Omicron Pi is the only Greek organization that does not have a coat of arms, and instead uses a Jacqueminot rose as their symbol. A coat of arms is a medieval or masonic tradition, and therefore has no roots in the Greek tradition.
Apparel such as shirts, pants, bags, canteens, jewelry and key chains are often worn by members with their Greek letters on them. These shirts and other articles may later be used for a pass-down ceremony between seniors and fellow members. Seniors may choose to pass down some or all of the clothing they own that is associated with the sorority. Some of the shirts are ten or more years old and in some chapters, girls will compete for them. In those chapters, generally members feel it is an honor to have older artifacts. At some institutions, it is considered inappropriate and may be prohibited to wear apparel with the society's name when the member is consuming alcohol. It is considered disrespectful to have their letters on when drinking, regardless of their age. Also, it is generally taboo for non-members to wear any apparel with a group's letters.
Membership pins are not worn at all times. Some organizations limit pin-wearing to times of professional or business dress, also known as "Pin Attire".[citation needed]
Unique among most campus organizations, members of social Greek letter organizations often live together in a large house or distinct part of the university dormitories. This can help emphasize the "bonds of brotherhood or sisterhood" and provide a place of meeting for the members of the organization as well as alumni. For reasons of cost, liability, and stability, housing is usually owned or overseen by an alumni corporation or the organization's national headquarters. As a result, some houses have visitor restrictions, and some national organizations restrict or prohibit alcohol on the premises.[17] At some colleges where chapters do not have residential houses for the general membership, they may still have chapter houses where meals are served for their membership and guests.[18]
The process of joining a Greek letter organization varies from organization to organization. Organizations governed by the National Panhellenic Conference or the North-American Interfraternity Conference commonly begin their process with a formal recruitment period, often called "rush week," or formal recruitment, which usually consists of events and activities designed for members and potential members to learn about each other and the organization. Rush week can be very stressful for the many girls who are interested in checking out the different sororities. Some sororities even require special clothes to wear. At the end of the formal recruitment period, organizations give "bids", or invitations to membership. Most organizations have a period of "pledgeship" before extending full membership. Some organizations have changed the name of pledgeship due to negative connotations to the process (such as calling pledges "Zobes" or "new members").[citation needed] Some organizations, such as Sigma Alpha Epsilon, have given up the process in favor of other joining requirements.[19] Upon completion of the pledgeship and all its requirements, the active members will invite the pledges to be initiated and become full members. Initiation often includes secret ceremonies and rituals. Organizations governed by the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC), the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations (NALFO), or the National Multicultural Greek Council (NMGC) have very different recruitment processes. The fraternities and sororities associated with these councils often do not participate in a typical recruitment process nor do they host a rush week. Instead interested students must formally express their interest to a member, or more often than not, members of the particular organization they are interested in.
Requirements may be imposed on those wishing to pledge either by the school or the organization itself, often including a minimum grade point average, wearing a pledge pin, learning about the history and structure of the organization, and performing public service. When a school places an age or tenure requirement on joining, this is called "deferred recruitment", as joining is deferred for a semester or year. The pledgeship period also serves as a probationary period in which both the organization and the pledge decide if they are compatible and will have a fulfilling experience.[citation needed]
A 1994 study examined the cognitive effects of fraternity/sorority affiliation during the first year of college. Statistical controls were made for individual pre-college ability and academic motivation as well as gender, ethnicity, age, credit hours taken, work responsibilities, and other factors. Data showed that men who were members of fraternities had lower end-of-first-year reading comprehension, mathematics, critical thinking, and composite achievement than their peers who were not affiliated with a Greek organization. Sorority membership also had a negative effect on cognitive development. However, only the effects for reading comprehension and composite achievement were significant and the magnitude of the negative influence tended to be smaller for women than for men.[20]
A follow-up study in 2006 by the same researchers and using similar sampling techniques and controls showed that negative effects of fraternity/sorority affiliation were much less pronounced during the second and third year of college than during the first year of college. On objective, standardized measures of cognitive skills, the effects of Greek affiliation continued to be negative for both men and women, but they were substantially smaller in magnitude and only one could be considered statistically significant (a negative effect for fraternity membership on end-of-third-year reading comprehension). The study also included self-reported measures of students' cognitive growth. For men, fraternity membership continued to exert small negative effects in the second and third years of college, but only one[clarification needed] was statistically significant. For women the impacts of sorority membership on self-reported gains were just the opposite. In both the second and third years of college, sorority membership exerted small positive effects on all self-reported gains measures, several of which reached statistical significance.[21]
George D. Kuh, Ernest T. Pascarella, and Henry Wechsler used research from the National Study of Student Learning (NSSL) and concluded that "fraternities are indifferent to academic values and seem to short-change the education of many members."[22]
A 2006 study which was published in the American Journal of Economics and Sociology found that fraternity and sorority members suffered from 1 to 10 percent lower cumulative GPAs (Grade Point Average) than non-affiliated students. This negative effect was most pronounced for small fraternities and weakest for sororities.[23] Further impact was demonstrated by a study in the Journal of College Student Development, which surveyed college men, both fraternity/sorority-affiliated and non-affiliated, from freshman year to senior year and tested their scores on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The study shows that affiliated men have significantly higher self-esteem than their non-affiliated counterparts.[24]
According to the The National Collaborative for Hazing Research and Prevention at the University of Maine, hazing is defined as "any activity expected of someone joining or participating in a group that humiliates, degrades, abuses or endangers them, regardless of a person's willingness to participate."[25] Traditionally, hazing has been prevalent in fraternities and sororities as well as numerous other organizations, such as military units, high school and college bands, gangs, and other clubs, as well as class hazing of incoming freshmen, however, in recent years, many universities and collegiate fraternities and sororities have made progressive changes to eliminate hazing on college campuses.[26] To prevent the practice, some organizations have stopped the process of pledging as a means of entry into the chapter.[27][28] The University of Florida changed its policies following numerous hazing allegations on their campus. Limits were set on the pledging time and it is now required that alumni or chapter advisers be present for initiation rituals.[26]
Some colleges and universities have banned Greek letter organizations with the justification that they are, by their very structure, set up to be elitist and exclusionary. The most famous, and oldest ban was at Princeton (Leitch 1978) harv error: no target: CITEREFLeitch1978 (help), though Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s.[29] Oberlin College banned "secret societies" (fraternities and sororities) in 1847,[30] and the prohibition continues to the present.[31] Quaker universities such as Guilford College and Earlham College often ban fraternities and sororities because they are seen as a violation of the Quaker principle of equality.[32][33] Brandeis University has never permitted fraternities or sororities as it maintains a policy that all student organizations have membership open to all.[34]
Fraternities have been banned in recent times from Williams College, Bowdoin College, Middlebury College, and Amherst College.[35] Stanford University banned sororities in 1944, but not fraternities, even though sororities were restored in 1977 under Title IX.[36] The Yeshiva University administration enforce a strict ban, and non-recognition of fraternities citing their exclusionary nature. The University of Victoria also held a ban until a controversial repeal in 2010, which has paved the way for the university's first fraternity (Delta Kappa Epsilon) and sorority (Kappa Beta Gamma).[37] Fraternities do not require recognition by a university. For instance, the University of Mary Washington does not recognize fraternities or sororities, but several national Greek organizations have unrecognized chapters of Mary Washington students.[38]
North American Greek letter organizations (NAGLO) are present almost exclusively in the United States and the English-speaking universities of Canada, with a minority of organizations having chapters elsewhere, such as the Caribbean, Africa, and some in France there have also been temporary accommodations. Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, a prominent historically African-American Sorority, currently has chapters in the Virgin Islands and Bermuda. There was a brief chapter of Chi Phi at Edinburgh, Scotland during the American Civil War to accommodate Southern students studying abroad, and another for American servicemen who were still college students during World War II, but there has been no real export of the system to Europe. Zeta Psi has been present at Oxford in England, St. Andrews in Scotland and Trinity College Dublin, Ireland, since beginning its European expansion in 2008.[39]
Greek organizations pride themselves in participating in a variety of philanthropic events. Philanthropy and volunteer work hold a very high importance within every Greek chapter, and can oftentimes be forgotten as a large part of many people's decisions to join a chapter. Social fraternities and sororities emphasize their community involvement during stages of formal/informal recruitment to potential members, in hopes of standing out from other chapters. There are numerous ways fraternities and sororities go about raising money for charities and organizations. Many fraternities host competitive athletic events. Pi Kappa Alpha, a men's fraternity, has a nationally known philanthropy called the Fireman's Challenge.[40] This philanthropy raises over $25,000 a year for local firefighter foundations. Sororities also partake in entertaining ways to fundraise and volunteer for their philanthropies. Hosting pageant-like events where other fraternity members compete in dance competitions in order to raise money is a common trend amongst many sorority chapters at universities. Tri Delta, a women's sorority, has a nationally distinguished philanthropy, which supports Children's Cancer Charities since the 1970s.[41] These two sororities and fraternities are just two examples out of the hundreds of Greek organizations that support philanthropic causes and charities.
There have been an increasing number of professional fraternities on college campuses within the past 10 years. Many of these fraternities have also adapted a section for philanthropy in their responsibilities as a chapter. Business fraternities, specifically, have become popular and been established longer than most other professional fraternities. This longer duration led to a more organized and structured system in terms of roles and responsibilities within the fraternity. There are specific positions assigned for philanthropy/community service within the five business fraternities, PGN, PCT, PSE, AKPsi, and DSP. Although the charity may differ across chapters and throughout the nation, the level of importance for the role remains the same. Many people may be under the assumption that professional fraternities solely focus on business or medical components, however, surprisingly, almost a majority of them operate like a social fraternity or sorority in terms of service and events.
There is normally a fee to participate for many of the events put on by Greek chapters. By charging a small entrance fee to participate in most of the events, the Greek organizations are able to raise tremendous amount of money each year to support their charity. Additionally, some philanthropy efforts raise even more money by selling food, clothing, or accessories during the events. According to The Fraternity Advisor [42] Greeks raise over $7 million a year. In addition, the Greek system is the largest network of volunteers in the US, with members donating over 10 million hours of volunteer service each year.
The Independent Order of Odd Fellows, also known as the three link fraternity, was the first organization to form a woman's auxiliary when it formed the Daughters of Rebekah in 1851 but the term sorority was not yet coined during that time. However, many of the first societies for women were not modeled as fraternities, but were woman's versions of the common Latin literary societies. The Adelphean Society (now Alpha Delta Pi) was established in 1851 at Wesleyan CollegeinMacon, Georgia.[43] The Philomathean Society (now Phi Mu)[44] was founded at Wesleyan College a year later in 1852. The Adelphean Society and the Philomathean Society did not take on their modern Greek names (Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu, respectively) until 1904 when they expanded beyond the Wesleyan campus.[citation needed]They are now often referred to as the Macon Magnolias. Many aspects of Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu (such as the stars and hands on their badges and the mascot of the lion) are similar due to the fact that while at Wesleyan a founder of Alpha Delta Pi, Eugenia Tucker Fitzgerald, and Phi Mu's Mary Ann DuPont (Lines) were roommates.[citation needed]
On April 28, 1867, I.C. Sorosis (later known by its original Greek motto Pi Beta Phi) was founded at Monmouth College, in Monmouth, Illinois.This was the first all female, secret society patterned after the men's organizations.[45] A year later it established a second chapter at Iowa Wesleyan College. Three years later on October 13, 1870, Kappa Kappa Gamma was founded. These two fraternities were later known as the Monmouth Duo.
On January 27, 1870, Kappa Alpha Theta was formed at Indiana Asbury University (now DePauw University) as the first Greek-lettered fraternity known among women. The Adelphean society and I.C. Sorosis were already in existence, but Kappa Alpha Theta is notable for being originally founded with Greek letters (as many male fraternities were at the time), whereas Phi Mu and Pi Beta Phi changed their names to Greek names later.[46]
In the mid-19th century, previously all-male universities began to admit women, and many women students felt it was in their best interest to band together. The first collegiate women formed woman's fraternities in an effort to counteract the widespread opposition to their presence (Turk 2004) harv error: no target: CITEREFTurk2004 (help). Others[who?] disagree with this agonistic historical view.[citation needed]
The earliest organizations were founded as "women's fraternities" or "fraternities for women;" the term sorority was coined by professor Frank Smalley in 1874, in reference to the Greek organization, Gamma Phi Beta being established at Syracuse University. In 1872, Alpha Phi was founded at Syracuse University. In 1873, Delta Gamma was founded at the Lewis School for Girls in Oxford, Mississippi. In 1874, Sigma Kappa was also founded in Waterville, Maine at Colby College. Also founded at DePauw University, was Alpha Chi Omega in 1885. Delta Delta Delta was founded at Boston University in 1888.[47] Like Pi Beta Phi, Tri Delta was modeled after the men's fraternity.[47] In 1893, Alpha Xi Delta was founded at Lombard College in Galesburg, Illinois.[48] Just a few years later, Chi Omega Fraternity was founded April 5, 1895 at the University of Arkansas. January 2, 1897, Alpha Omicron Pi was founded at Barnard College of Columbia University. Later in 1897 Kappa Delta was founded in Farmville, Virginia at Longwood University. A year later, Sigma Sigma Sigma, Zeta Tau Alpha followed by Alpha Sigma Alpha were founded, also at Longwood and are called the Farmville Four. After, Alpha Sigma Tau was founded in 1899. After that in 1902 Delta Zeta was founded at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio.
Local sororities that eschewed the National Panhellenic Council began to flourish in the early twentieth century. The oldest continually-active local sorority is Theta Alpha Pi, which was founded at Grove City College in 1921.[49] The chapter remains active today with 63 sisters in 2014. Another social sorority founded at Grove City College in 1917, Sigma Sigma Sigma, might have otherwise held this status. In the 1980s, the local sorority faced claims of trademark infringement from the national sorority Sigma Sigma Sigma.[50] The local chapter at Grove City College changed its name to Zeta Zeta Zeta in 1989.[51]
The national sororities with the largest number of initiated members are ranked as follows[citation needed]:
Largest to smallest: 1. Chi Omega 310,000 2. Alpha Delta Pi 280,000 3. Delta Zeta 244,400 4. Kappa Kappa Gamma 240,000 5. Kappa Delta 230,500 6. Pi Beta Phi 230,000 7. Zeta Tau Alpha 228,000 8. Alpha Chi Omega 200,000 9. Delta Delta Delta 200,000 10. Delta Gamma 200,000
Alpha Kappa Alpha, Lambda Theta Alpha, Alpha Pi Omega were founded as the first sororities by and for African-American, Latina-American, and Native American members respectively. Alpha Epsilon Phi was established at Barnard College in October, 1909 as the first Jewish sorority in response to women at Barnard not being able to join other sororities because of their Jewish faith. Alpha Epsilon Phi is home to women of all religions who respect and honor the Jewish culture and heritage the sorority was founded upon. Theta Phi Alpha fraternity was founded in 1912 at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor for women of the Catholic faith. Theta Phi is now open to members of all race and religion. In 1913, at Hunter College, New York, Phi Sigma Sigma became the first non-denominational sorority, allowing any woman, regardless of race, religion, or economic background into membership.[citation needed]
A number of sororities have been founded at the graduate school level. In 1917, at New York University School of Law five female law students founded Delta Phi Epsilon Sorority.[52] Currently active collegiate membership is only open to undergraduates. Although, this year a colony was started by the name of Alpha Sigma Alpha. This year's members and new recruits will be named founding members when the colony becomes initiated into a "Chapter" later this year.
High school fraternities and sororities (or secondary school fraternities and sororities), are social organizations for high school-aged students.
Torch and Dagger (later Omega Eta Tau) was the first such organization and was established in Council Bluffs, Iowa in 1859. The movement more generally developed in the 1870s with Gamma Sigma, Alpha Zeta and Alpha Phi, all closely modeled on college fraternities in their areas. Some of these early groups were discussed in the early editions of Baird's Manual of American College Fraternities under the heading "Academic Societies". In 1913, American Secondary School Fraternities by J. Ward Brown, provided a detailed history of these organizations. By that time there were at least 57 national fraternities and 21 national sororities. Some like Gamma Delta Psi, Gamma Eta Kappa, Delta Sigma, Delta Sigma Nu, Lambda Sigma, Sigma Phi Upsilon and Phi Sigma Chi were spread broadly across the entire country, but most were regional in nature given the difficulty for high school students to travel. Typical of those that survive are Phi Kappa, limited to around 50 chapters in the deep south (with five still active) and Omega Gamma Delta with more than 100 chapters in the northeast (two still active) and a couple of chapters further afield. In addition there were an enormous number of local fraternities scattered around the country.
Another 15 nationals were founded after this period including several that still exist. But starting around 1910, a strong anti-fraternity movement among high school administrators took a heavy toll on such organizations in many parts of the country. A reduced level of interest by high school students themselves since 1970, has brought the number down even further.
The largest such organizations are Aleph Zadik Aleph with around 250 chapters and Sigma Alpha Rho (SAR) with more than 100. Both of these have the advantage of being sponsored by Jewish community groups and are more than simple fraternities. Beyond that, Gamma Eta Kappa, Delta Sigma, Phi Lambda Epsilon and Theta Phi all had more than 75 chapters over the years, with Omega Gamma Delta and Phi Sigma Kappa having more than 100 each.
Several nationals also had chapters in Canada and, in recent years, a whole class of similar fraternities has emerged in the Philippines, many of them outgrowths of sponsoring college organizations.
The fraternity tradition still has pockets of interest. Beyond Aleph Zadik Aleph, Sigma Alpha Rho, Omega Gamma Delta and Phi Kappa, there are similar groups such as the Order of DeMolay sponsored by the Masons. Alpha Omega Theta of New York still exists, though not in high schools, ΕΣAΔΕ is in Barcelona, The Lounge operates in Saginaw, Michigan; Phi Eta Sigma and Zeta Mu Gamma are located in Puerto Rico; Sigma Nu Xi is on the mainland United States. Sigma Delta Chi is an active sorority that was established in Alabama and continues today with several different chapters throughout Alabama, Tennessee and Florida. Although these are analogous societies, they are considered wholly different and unrelated societies. Deb Clubs or local chapters can be found in neighboring towns such as Decatur, Hunstville, Florence, Sheffield, Russellville, and Pulaski, Tennessee. Theta Phi Delta was the second high school sorority founded in Durham, North Carolina in 1996 and was incorporated in 2004. Fox Theta Delta, is a Philippines fraternity, founded in Butuan City in 1977, and claiming a somewhat tenuous connection with an American organization in Michigan.
Other countries have similar institutions; in German-speaking countries (including the non-German linguistic regions of Switzerland) these are significantly older, and fall under the umbrella termofStudentenverbindung, including the Burschenschaften, Landsmannschaften, Corps, Turnerschaften, Sängerschaften, Catholic Corporations (such as the German CV), Wingolf, Christian Corporations (such as the Schweizerischer Studentenverein) and Ferialverbindungen.[53]
In Belgium and The Netherlands there are student corporations similar to the German Studentenverbindungen, however they are not the same. The main differences being that some clubs do not own a clubhouse with dorms but rather have a bar where they regularly meet and fencing has mostly been replaced with academic wrestling after fencing duels were banned by the common burghers during the 18th and 19th century. The largest corporations are based around a specific university which might be divided into clubs centered on a specific academic course or a collection of them, others usually are based on regional origins of the students and the others are simply a group of friends or patrons of the same bar.
In the United Kingdom, there are a limited number of student dining clubs, which are similar to American eating clubs which were later eclipsed by Greek societies. Some, such as the well-known Bullingdon Club at Oxford University, are socially exclusive due to being prohibitively expensive. Several secret societies exist, the most famous being the Cambridge Apostles, also known as the Cambridge Conversazione Society.
In Portugal, there are also fraternities, especially in Coimbra, the city with the oldest university in the country and one of the oldest in Europe. These houses, called "Repúblicas", are independent, protected by law, and run by students. They first appeared in 1309 when King D. Dinis first ordered to build student housing for the recently founded University of Coimbra, in 1290. The name, translating to "Republic", represents the house spirit: every member of the house participates in the household tasks and decisions are made unanimously. There are 27 Republics in Coimbra, 3 in Lisbon and 1 in Oporto. Republicas are also found in Brazil, like at the Federal University of Ouro PretoinOuro Preto, in the state of Minas Gerais, and at the Federal University of Lavras (UFLA) in Lavras' City, also in the state of Minas Gerais.
In Sweden and Finland, there are similar student institutions called Nations. At the oldest Nordic universities, the Nations have existed since the late 16th and early 17th centuries, inspired by the German Landsmannschaften. The universities in Uppsala, Lund, and Helsinki have the oldest Nations. Since the beginning, the Nations have been social gatherings for students that came from the same parts of the country, and they are also named after parts of Sweden and Finland. Their main purpose has always been to provide support to out-of-town students in various ways, even financial help. Nations have also been founded at younger universities like the ones in Umeå and Linköping. It has been mandatory for students attending the universities of Uppsala and Lund to be members of nations until the autumn of 2010. After the mandatory membership was abolished by the parliament the Nations of Sweden are now contemplating founding a League of Nations to help further connections between Nations and universities.
In France there are no such exclusive student organizations. In most schools and universities there is a Student office (BDE, Bureau des Élèves) that is elected each year by students to organize student life and activities. It often organizes bonding activities for the newcomers of the school called integration. A few fraternities mimicking the US ones have been created in recent years, but all have very small membership.
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Academic fraternities originating from North America | |
| General |
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| History |
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| Historically African-American |
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| Historically Asian/Pacific Islander-American |
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| Christian fraternities and sororities |
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| Historically Jewish |
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| Multicultural |
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| Historically Scout-affiliated |
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| LGBTQ |
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| Native American |
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| Latino and Puerto Rican |
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| Major specific |
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| Social sororities |
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| Social fraternities |
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| See also |
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