Homomorphism

A homomorphism is a map between two algebraic structures of the same type (that is of the same name), that preserves the operations of the structures. This means a map ${\displaystyle f:A\to B}$  between two sets ${\displaystyle A}$ , ${\displaystyle B}$  equipped with the same structure such that, if ${\displaystyle \cdot }$  is an operation of the structure (supposed here, for simplification, to be a binary operation), then

${\displaystyle f(x\cdot y)=f($x)\cdot f(y)}  

for every pair ${\displaystyle x}$ , ${\displaystyle y}$  of elements of ${\displaystyle A}$ .^{[note 1]} One says often that ${\displaystyle f}$  preserves the operation or is compatible with the operation.

Formally, a map ${\displaystyle f:A\to B}$  preserves an operation ${\displaystyle \mu }$ ofarity ${\displaystyle k}$ , defined on both ${\displaystyle A}$  and ${\displaystyle B}$ if

${\displaystyle f(\mu _{A}(a_{1},\ldots ,a_{k}))=\mu _{B}(f(a_{1}),\ldots ,f(a_{k})),}$ 

for all elements ${\displaystyle a_{1},...,a_{k}}$ in${\displaystyle A}$ .

The operations that must be preserved by a homomorphism include 0-ary operations, that is the constants. In particular, when an identity element is required by the type of structure, the identity element of the first structure must be mapped to the corresponding identity element of the second structure.

For example:

• Asemigroup homomorphism is a map between semigroups that preserves the semigroup operation.
• Amonoid homomorphism is a map between monoids that preserves the monoid operation and maps the identity element of the first monoid to that of the second monoid (the identity element is a 0-ary operation).
• Agroup homomorphism is a map between groups that preserves the group operation. This implies that the group homomorphism maps the identity element of the first group to the identity element of the second group, and maps the inverse of an element of the first group to the inverse of the image of this element. Thus a semigroup homomorphism between groups is necessarily a group homomorphism.
• Aring homomorphism is a map between rings that preserves the ring addition, the ring multiplication, and the multiplicative identity. Whether the multiplicative identity is to be preserved depends upon the definition of ring in use. If the multiplicative identity is not preserved, one has a rng homomorphism.
• Alinear map is a homomorphism of vector spaces; that is, a group homomorphism between vector spaces that preserves the abelian group structure and scalar multiplication.
• Amodule homomorphism, also called a linear map between modules, is defined similarly.
• Analgebra homomorphism is a map that preserves the algebra operations.

An algebraic structure may have more than one operation, and a homomorphism is required to preserve each operation. Thus a map that preserves only some of the operations is not a homomorphism of the structure, but only a homomorphism of the substructure obtained by considering only the preserved operations. For example, a map between monoids that preserves the monoid operation and not the identity element, is not a monoid homomorphism, but only a semigroup homomorphism.

The notation for the operations does not need to be the same in the source and the target of a homomorphism. For example, the real numbers form a group for addition, and the positive real numbers form a group for multiplication. The exponential function

${\displaystyle x\mapsto e^{x}}$ 

satisfies

${\displaystyle e^{x+y}=e^{x}e^{y},}$ 

and is thus a homomorphism between these two groups. It is even an isomorphism (see below), as its inverse function, the natural logarithm, satisfies

${\displaystyle \ln($xy)=\ln(x)+\ln(y),}  

and is also a group homomorphism.

The real numbers are a ring, having both addition and multiplication. The set of all 2×2 matrices is also a ring, under matrix addition and matrix multiplication. If we define a function between these rings as follows:

${\displaystyle f($r)={\begin{pmatrix}r&0\\0&r\end{pmatrix}}}  

where r is a real number, then f is a homomorphism of rings, since f preserves both addition:

${\displaystyle f(r+s)={\begin{pmatrix}r+s&0\\0&r+s\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}r&0\\0&r\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}s&0\\0&s\end{pmatrix}}=f($r)+f(s)}  

and multiplication:

${\displaystyle f($rs)={\begin{pmatrix}rs&0\\0&rs\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}r&0\\0&r\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}s&0\\0&s\end{pmatrix}}=f(r)\,f(s).}  

For another example, the nonzero complex numbers form a group under the operation of multiplication, as do the nonzero real numbers. (Zero must be excluded from both groups since it does not have a multiplicative inverse, which is required for elements of a group.) Define a function ${\displaystyle f}$  from the nonzero complex numbers to the nonzero real numbers by

${\displaystyle f($z)=|z|.}  

That is, ${\displaystyle f}$  is the absolute value (or modulus) of the complex number ${\displaystyle z}$ . Then ${\displaystyle f}$  is a homomorphism of groups, since it preserves multiplication:

${\displaystyle f(z_{1}z_{2})=|z_{1}z_{2}|=|z_{1}||z_{2}|=f(z_{1})f(z_{2}).}$ 

Note that f cannot be extended to a homomorphism of rings (from the complex numbers to the real numbers), since it does not preserve addition:

${\displaystyle |z_{1}+z_{2}|\neq |z_{1}|+|z_{2}|.}$ 

As another example, the diagram shows a monoid homomorphism ${\displaystyle f}$  from the monoid ${\displaystyle (\mathbb {N} ,+,0)}$  to the monoid ${\displaystyle (\mathbb {N} ,\times ,1)}$ . Due to the different names of corresponding operations, the structure preservation properties satisfied by ${\displaystyle f}$  amount to ${\displaystyle f(x+y)=f($x)\times f(y)}   and ${\displaystyle f(0)=1}$ .

Acomposition algebra ${\displaystyle A}$  over a field ${\displaystyle F}$  has a quadratic form, called a norm, ${\displaystyle N:A\to F}$ , which is a group homomorphism from the multiplicative groupof${\displaystyle A}$  to the multiplicative group of ${\displaystyle F}$ .

Several kinds of homomorphisms have a specific name, which is also defined for general morphisms.

Anisomorphism between algebraic structures of the same type is commonly defined as a bijective homomorphism.^{[3]: 134  [4]: 28}

In the more general context of category theory, an isomorphism is defined as a morphism that has an inverse that is also a morphism. In the specific case of algebraic structures, the two definitions are equivalent, although they may differ for non-algebraic structures, which have an underlying set.

More precisely, if

${\displaystyle f:A\to B}$ 

is a (homo)morphism, it has an inverse if there exists a homomorphism

${\displaystyle g:B\to A}$ 

such that

${\displaystyle f\circ g=\operatorname {Id} _{B}\qquad {\text{and}}\qquad g\circ f=\operatorname {Id} _{A}.}$ 

If${\displaystyle A}$  and ${\displaystyle B}$  have underlying sets, and ${\displaystyle f:A\to B}$  has an inverse ${\displaystyle g}$ , then ${\displaystyle f}$  is bijective. In fact, ${\displaystyle f}$ isinjective, as ${\displaystyle f($x)=f(y)}   implies ${\displaystyle x=g(f($x))=g(f(y))=y}  , and ${\displaystyle f}$ issurjective, as, for any ${\displaystyle x}$ in${\displaystyle B}$ , one has ${\displaystyle x=f(g($x))}  , and ${\displaystyle x}$  is the image of an element of ${\displaystyle A}$ .

Conversely, if ${\displaystyle f:A\to B}$  is a bijective homomorphism between algebraic structures, let ${\displaystyle g:B\to A}$  be the map such that ${\displaystyle g($y)}   is the unique element ${\displaystyle x}$ of${\displaystyle A}$  such that ${\displaystyle f($x)=y}  . One has ${\displaystyle f\circ g=\operatorname {Id} _{B}{\text{ and }}g\circ f=\operatorname {Id} _{A},}$  and it remains only to show that g is a homomorphism. If ${\displaystyle *}$  is a binary operation of the structure, for every pair ${\displaystyle x}$ , ${\displaystyle y}$  of elements of ${\displaystyle B}$ , one has

${\displaystyle g(x*_{B}y)=g(f(g($x))*_{B}f(g(y)))=g(f(g(x)*_{A}g(y)))=g(x)*_{A}g(y),}  

and ${\displaystyle g}$  is thus compatible with ${\displaystyle *.}$  As the proof is similar for any arity, this shows that ${\displaystyle g}$  is a homomorphism.

This proof does not work for non-algebraic structures. For example, for topological spaces, a morphism is a continuous map, and the inverse of a bijective continuous map is not necessarily continuous. An isomorphism of topological spaces, called homeomorphismorbicontinuous map, is thus a bijective continuous map, whose inverse is also continuous.

Anendomorphism is a homomorphism whose domain equals the codomain, or, more generally, a morphism whose source is equal to its target.^[3]: 135

The endomorphisms of an algebraic structure, or of an object of a category form a monoid under composition.

The endomorphisms of a vector space or of a module form a ring. In the case of a vector space or a free module of finite dimension, the choice of a basis induces a ring isomorphism between the ring of endomorphisms and the ring of square matrices of the same dimension.

Anautomorphism is an endomorphism that is also an isomorphism.^[3]: 135

The automorphisms of an algebraic structure or of an object of a category form a group under composition, which is called the automorphism group of the structure.

Many groups that have received a name are automorphism groups of some algebraic structure. For example, the general linear group ${\displaystyle \operatorname {GL} _{n}($k)}   is the automorphism group of a vector space of dimension ${\displaystyle n}$  over a field ${\displaystyle k}$ .

The automorphism groups of fields were introduced by Évariste Galois for studying the rootsofpolynomials, and are the basis of Galois theory.

For algebraic structures, monomorphisms are commonly defined as injective homomorphisms.^{[3]: 134  [4]: 29}

In the more general context of category theory, a monomorphism is defined as a morphism that is left cancelable.^[5] This means that a (homo)morphism ${\displaystyle f:A\to B}$  is a monomorphism if, for any pair ${\displaystyle g}$ , ${\displaystyle h}$  of morphisms from any other object ${\displaystyle C}$ to${\displaystyle A}$ , then ${\displaystyle f\circ g=f\circ h}$  implies ${\displaystyle g=h}$ .

These two definitions of monomorphism are equivalent for all common algebraic structures. More precisely, they are equivalent for fields, for which every homomorphism is a monomorphism, and for varietiesofuniversal algebra, that is algebraic structures for which operations and axioms (identities) are defined without any restriction (the fields do not form a variety, as the multiplicative inverse is defined either as a unary operation or as a property of the multiplication, which are, in both cases, defined only for nonzero elements).

In particular, the two definitions of a monomorphism are equivalent for sets, magmas, semigroups, monoids, groups, rings, fields, vector spaces and modules.

Asplit monomorphism is a homomorphism that has a left inverse and thus it is itself a right inverse of that other homomorphism. That is, a homomorphism ${\displaystyle f\colon A\to B}$  is a split monomorphism if there exists a homomorphism ${\displaystyle g\colon B\to A}$  such that ${\displaystyle g\circ f=\operatorname {Id} _{A}.}$  A split monomorphism is always a monomorphism, for both meanings of monomorphism. For sets and vector spaces, every monomorphism is a split monomorphism, but this property does not hold for most common algebraic structures.

Inalgebra, epimorphisms are often defined as surjective homomorphisms.^{[3]: 134 [4]: 43} On the other hand, in category theory, epimorphisms are defined as right cancelable morphisms.^[5] This means that a (homo)morphism ${\displaystyle f:A\to B}$  is an epimorphism if, for any pair ${\displaystyle g}$ , ${\displaystyle h}$  of morphisms from ${\displaystyle B}$  to any other object ${\displaystyle C}$ , the equality ${\displaystyle g\circ f=h\circ f}$  implies ${\displaystyle g=h}$ .

A surjective homomorphism is always right cancelable, but the converse is not always true for algebraic structures. However, the two definitions of epimorphism are equivalent for sets, vector spaces, abelian groups, modules (see below for a proof), and groups.^[6] The importance of these structures in all mathematics, especially in linear algebra and homological algebra, may explain the coexistence of two non-equivalent definitions.

Algebraic structures for which there exist non-surjective epimorphisms include semigroups and rings. The most basic example is the inclusion of integers into rational numbers, which is a homomorphism of rings and of multiplicative semigroups. For both structures it is a monomorphism and a non-surjective epimorphism, but not an isomorphism.^[5][7]

A wide generalization of this example is the localization of a ring by a multiplicative set. Every localization is a ring epimorphism, which is not, in general, surjective. As localizations are fundamental in commutative algebra and algebraic geometry, this may explain why in these areas, the definition of epimorphisms as right cancelable homomorphisms is generally preferred.

Asplit epimorphism is a homomorphism that has a right inverse and thus it is itself a left inverse of that other homomorphism. That is, a homomorphism ${\displaystyle f\colon A\to B}$  is a split epimorphism if there exists a homomorphism ${\displaystyle g\colon B\to A}$  such that ${\displaystyle f\circ g=\operatorname {Id} _{B}.}$  A split epimorphism is always an epimorphism, for both meanings of epimorphism. For sets and vector spaces, every epimorphism is a split epimorphism, but this property does not hold for most common algebraic structures.

In summary, one has

${\displaystyle {\text{split epimorphism}}\implies {\text{epimorphism (surjective)}}\implies {\text{epimorphism (right cancelable)}};}$ 

the last implication is an equivalence for sets, vector spaces, modules, abelian groups, and groups; the first implication is an equivalence for sets and vector spaces.

Any homomorphism ${\displaystyle f:X\to Y}$  defines an equivalence relation ${\displaystyle \sim }$ on${\displaystyle X}$ by${\displaystyle a\sim b}$  if and only if ${\displaystyle f($a)=f(b)}  . The relation ${\displaystyle \sim }$  is called the kernelof${\displaystyle f}$ . It is a congruence relationon${\displaystyle X}$ . The quotient set ${\displaystyle X/{\sim }}$  can then be given a structure of the same type as ${\displaystyle X}$ , in a natural way, by defining the operations of the quotient set by ${\displaystyle [$x]\ast [y]=[x\ast y]}  , for each operation ${\displaystyle \ast }$ of${\displaystyle X}$ . In that case the image of ${\displaystyle X}$ in${\displaystyle Y}$  under the homomorphism ${\displaystyle f}$  is necessarily isomorphicto${\displaystyle X/\!\sim }$ ; this fact is one of the isomorphism theorems.

When the algebraic structure is a group for some operation, the equivalence class ${\displaystyle K}$  of the identity element of this operation suffices to characterize the equivalence relation. In this case, the quotient by the equivalence relation is denoted by ${\displaystyle X/K}$  (usually read as "${\displaystyle X}$  mod ${\displaystyle K}$ "). Also in this case, it is ${\displaystyle K}$ , rather than ${\displaystyle \sim }$ , that is called the kernelof${\displaystyle f}$ . The kernels of homomorphisms of a given type of algebraic structure are naturally equipped with some structure. This structure type of the kernels is the same as the considered structure, in the case of abelian groups, vector spaces and modules, but is different and has received a specific name in other cases, such as normal subgroup for kernels of group homomorphisms and ideals for kernels of ring homomorphisms (in the case of non-commutative rings, the kernels are the two-sided ideals).

Inmodel theory, the notion of an algebraic structure is generalized to structures involving both operations and relations. Let L be a signature consisting of function and relation symbols, and A, B be two L-structures. Then a homomorphism from AtoB is a mapping h from the domain of A to the domain of B such that

• h(F^A(a₁,…,a_n)) = F^B(h(a₁),…,h(a_n)) for each n-ary function symbol FinL,
• R^A(a₁,…,a_n) implies R^B(h(a₁),…,h(a_n)) for each n-ary relation symbol RinL.

In the special case with just one binary relation, we obtain the notion of a graph homomorphism.^[8]

Homomorphisms are also used in the study of formal languages^[9] and are often briefly referred to as morphisms.^[10] Given alphabets ${\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}}$  and ${\displaystyle \Sigma _{2}}$ , a function ${\displaystyle h\colon \Sigma _{1}^{*}\to \Sigma _{2}^{*}}$  such that ${\displaystyle h($uv)=h(u)h(v)}   for all ${\displaystyle u,v\in \Sigma _{1}}$  is called a homomorphismon${\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{*}}$ .^{[note 2]}If${\displaystyle h}$  is a homomorphism on ${\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{*}}$  and ${\displaystyle \varepsilon }$  denotes the empty string, then ${\displaystyle h}$  is called an ${\displaystyle \varepsilon }$ -free homomorphism when ${\displaystyle h($x)\neq \varepsilon }   for all ${\displaystyle x\neq \varepsilon }$ in${\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{*}}$ .

A homomorphism ${\displaystyle h\colon \Sigma _{1}^{*}\to \Sigma _{2}^{*}}$ on${\displaystyle \Sigma _{1}^{*}}$  that satisfies ${\displaystyle |h($a)|=k}   for all ${\displaystyle a\in \Sigma _{1}}$  is called a ${\displaystyle k}$ -uniform homomorphism.^[11]If${\displaystyle |h($a)|=1}   for all ${\displaystyle a\in \Sigma _{1}}$  (that is, ${\displaystyle h}$  is 1-uniform), then ${\displaystyle h}$  is also called a coding or a projection.^{[citation needed]}

The set ${\displaystyle \Sigma ^{*}}$  of words formed from the alphabet ${\displaystyle \Sigma }$  may be thought of as the free monoid generated by ${\displaystyle \Sigma }$ . Here the monoid operation is concatenation and the identity element is the empty word. From this perspective, a language homomorphism is precisely a monoid homomorphism.^{[note 3]}

• Diffeomorphism
• Homomorphic encryption
• Homomorphic secret sharing – a simplistic decentralized voting protocol
• Morphism
• Quasimorphism

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• Stanley N. Burris; H.P. Sankappanavar (2012). A Course in Universal Algebra (PDF). S. Burris and H.P. Sankappanavar. ISBN 978-0-9880552-0-9.
• Mac Lane, Saunders (1971), Categories for the Working Mathematician, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 5, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-90036-5, Zbl 0232.18001
• Fraleigh, John B.; Katz, Victor J. (2003), A First Course in Abstract Algebra, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-1-292-02496-7