This article is missing information about "revival" / "rejuvenation" (复兴) of the Chinese nation.(January 2021) |
Zhonghua minzu (johng-HWA meen-tsoo[4][5][6]) is a political term in modern Chinese nationalism related to the concepts of nation-building, ethnicity, and race in the Chinese nationality.[7][8]
Zhonghua minzu | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Traditional Chinese | 中華民族 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 中华民族 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | Chinese nation[note 1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Zhonghua minzu was established during the early Beiyang (1912–1927) and Nationalist (1928–1949) periods to include Han people and four major non-Han ethnic groups: the Manchus, Mongols, Hui, and Tibetans,[9][10] under the notion of a republic of five races (Wǔzú gònghé) advocated by Sun Yat-sen and the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) party. It is slightly different from the word Hanzu (Chinese: 汉族), a word is only used to refer to the Han Chinese.
Zhonghua minzu was initially rejected in the People's Republic of China (PRC) but resurrected after the death of Mao Zedong to include Han Chinese alongside 55 other ethnic groups as a collective Chinese family.[4][7] Since the late 1980s, the most fundamental change of the PRC's nationalities and minorities policies is the renaming from Zhongguo renmin (中国人民; 'the Chinese people') to Zhonghua minzu (中华民族; 'the Chinese nation'), signalling a shift away from a multinational communist people's statehood of China to one multi-ethnic Chinese nation state with one single Chinese national identity.[8]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Qipao_woman.jpg/220px-Qipao_woman.jpg)
History
edit![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg/220px-Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Liang_qichao.jpg/220px-Liang_qichao.jpg)
Implications
editThe adoption of the Zhonghua minzu concept may give rise to the reinterpretation of Chinese history. For example, the Qing dynasty was originally sometimes characterized as a conquest dynasty or non-Han regime. Following the adoption of the Zhonghua minzu ideology, which regards the Manchus as a member of the Zhonghua minzu, dynasties founded by ethnic minorities are no longer stigmatized.[citation needed]
The concept of Zhonghua minzu nevertheless also leads to the reassessment of the role of many traditional hero figures. Heroes such as Yue Fei and Zheng Chenggong, who were originally often considered to have fought for China against barbarian incursions, have been re-characterized by some as minzu yingxiong ('ethnic heroes') who fought not against barbarians but against other members of the Zhonghua minzu—the Jurchens and Manchus respectively.[31] At the same time, China exemplified heroes such as Genghis Khan, who became a national hero as a member of the Zhonghua minzu.[32]
Ambiguity
editThe concept of the Zhonghua minzu has sometimes resulted in friction with neighboring countries such as Mongolia, North Korea and South Korea, who claim regional historical peoples and states. For instance, the idea of Genghis Khan as a "national hero" is contested by Mongolia, which since the fall of socialism has explicitly positioned Genghis Khan as the father of the Mongolian state. Chinese rejections of that position involve tactics such as pointing out that more ethnic Mongolians live within China than Mongolia and that the modern-day state of Mongolia acquired its independence from the Republic of China which claimed the legal right to inherit all Qing territories, including Mongolia, through the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor.[33][34][35]
See also
editNotes
editReferences
editCitations
edit- ^ State and Society in 21st Century China: Crisis, Contention and Legitimation. Psychology Press. 2004. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-415-33204-0.
... however, the CCP's nationalist claims are increasingly falling on deaf ears. Popular nationalists like Jin Hui now speak regularly of the "Motherland" (zuguo) and the "Chinese race" (Zhonghua minzu) - without reference to the Party. And they care so deeply
- ^ Anderlini, Jamil (21 June 2017). "The dark side of China's national renewal". Financial Times. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
- ^ David Tobin (October 2022). Securing China's Northwest Frontier: Identity and Insecurity in Xinjiang. Cambridge University Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-108-48840-2.
Repeated use of what should now be translated as 'Chinese race, (Zhonghua Minzu 中华民族), alongside omission of ethnic minorities in official narratives ...
- ^ a b Landis, Dan; Albert, Rosita D. (14 February 2012). Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives. Springer. pp. 182–. ISBN 978-1461404477. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
- ^ Zhao, Suisheng (2000). "Chinese Nationalism and Its International Orientations". Political Science Quarterly. 115 (1): 1–33. doi:10.2307/2658031. JSTOR 2658031.
- ^ Zhou, Wenjiu; Zhang (2007). 关于"中华民族是一个"学术论辩的考察 [On the academic argument that "the Chinese nation is one"]. Minzu Yanjiu (in Chinese). 3: 20–29. Archived from the original on 29 October 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2019 – via d.old.wanfangdata.com.cn/Periodical/mzyj200703003.
- ^ a b Lawrance, Alan (2004). China Since 1919: Revolution and Reform: a Sourcebook. Psychology Press. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0-415-25141-9. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
- ^ a b Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (15 April 2010). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press. pp. 150–. ISBN 978-0-19-161361-6. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
- ^ Fitzgerald, John (January 1995). "The Nationaless State: The Search for a Nation in Modern Chinese Nationalism". The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs. 33 (33): 75–104. doi:10.2307/2950089. ISSN 0156-7365. JSTOR 2950089. S2CID 150609586.
- ^ Blum, Susan Debra; Jensen, Lionel M. (2002). China Off Center: Mapping the Margins of the Middle Kingdom. University of Hawaiʻi Press. pp. 170–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2577-5. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
- ^ Chagatai is the predecessor of Uyghur
- ^ Hauer 2007 Archived 4 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 117.
- ^ Dvořák 1895 Archived 23 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 80.
- ^ Wu 1995 Archived 23 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 102.
- ^ Zhao 2006, pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.
- ^ Dunnell 2004 Archived 3 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 77.
- ^ Dunnell 2004 Archived 23 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 83.
- ^ Elliott 2001 Archived 18 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 503.
- ^ Dunnell 2004 Archived 3 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Cassel 2011 Archived 30 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 205.
- ^ Cassel 2012 Archived 23 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 205.
- ^ Cassel 2011 Archived 23 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 44.
- ^ Cassel 2012 Archived 23 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 44.
- ^ Perdue 2009 Archived 21 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 218.
- ^ "nationalism;Identification of state and people". Archived from the original on 15 March 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2010.
- ^ Empire to nation: historical perspectives on the making of the modern world, by Joseph Esherick, Hasan Kayalı, Eric Van Young, p. 232
- ^ French Centre for Research on Contemporary China (CEFC) Archived 21 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine. (cf. by Tongmenghui adherent)
- ^ 修改党章的说明—— 在上海中国国民党本部会议的演说① - 主要著述 - 孙中山故居纪念馆_伟人孙中山. www.sunyat-sen.org (in Chinese). Retrieved 15 April 2022.
- ^ 中共中央印发《中国共产党统一战线工作条例》(Regulations on United Front Work of the Communist Party of China). www gov.cn (in Chinese). 5 January 2021. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
- ^ See, e.g. Ma Ying-jeou, President of Republic of China inauguration speech Archived 2 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine, 20 May 2008: (Section 2, Paragraph 8)
- ^ "What makes a national hero?". Archived from the original on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
- ^ The Chinese Cult of Chinggis Khan: Genealogical Nationalism and Problems of National and Cultural Integrity Archived 28 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine, City University of New York.
- ^ Esherick, Joseph; Kayali, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006). Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-742-57815-9 – via Google Books.
- ^ Zhai, Zhiyong (2017). 憲法何以中國 (in Chinese). City University of HK Press. p. 190. ISBN 978-9-629-37321-4.
- ^ Gao, Quanxi (2016). 政治憲法與未來憲制 (in Chinese). City University of Hong Kong Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-9-629-37291-0 – via Google Books.
Works cited
edit- Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2011). Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199792122. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- ——— (2012). Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199792054. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Dvořák, Rudolf (1895). Chinas religionen ... (in German). Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung). ISBN 978-0199792054.
- Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004). New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134362226. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804746847. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Hauer, Erich (2007). Corff, Oliver (ed.). Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache (in German). Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447055284.
- Perdue, Peter C. (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674042025. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Wu, Shuhui (1995). Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717–1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao (in German). Vol. 2 of Tunguso Sibirica (reprint ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447037563. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Zhao, Gang (January 2006). "Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century". Modern China. 32 (1). Sage Publications: 3–30. doi:10.1177/0097700405282349. JSTOR 20062627. S2CID 144587815.
External links
edit- The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided Zhonghua minzu and the Sino-Korean controversy over the 'ownership' of ancient Koguryo.
- Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule Archived 6 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine